Short chronology
The short chronology is one of the chronologies of the Near Eastern Bronze and Early Iron Age, which fixes the reign of Hammurabi to 1728–1686 BC and the sack of Babylon to 1531 BC.
The absolute 2nd millennium BC dates resulting from these reference points have very little academic support, and have essentially been disproved by recent dendrochronology research.[1][2] The middle chronology (reign of Hammurabi 1792–1750 BC) is more commonly accepted in academic literature. For much of the period in question, middle chronology dates can be calculated by adding 64 years to the corresponding short chronology date (e.g. 1728 BC in short chronology corresponds to 1792 in middle chronology).
After the so-called "dark age" between the fall of Babylon and the rise of the Kassite dynasty in Babylonia, absolute dating becomes less uncertain.[3] While exact dates are still not agreed upon, the 64-year middle/short chronology gap ceases from the beginning of the Third Babylon Dynasty onward.
Early Bronze Age
Estimation of absolute dates becomes possible for the second half of the 3rd millennium BC. For the first half of the 3rd millennium, only very rough chronological matching of archaeological dates with written records is possible.
Kings of Ebla
The city-states of Ebla and Mari (in modern Syria) competed for power at this time. Eventually, under Irkab-Damu, Ebla defeated Mari for control of the region just in time to face the rise of Uruk and Akkad. After years of back and forth, Ebla was destroyed by the Akkadian Empire. Pottery seals of the Egyptian pharaoh Pepi I have been found in the wreckage of the city. [4]
Ruler | Proposed reign | Notes |
---|---|---|
Igrish-Halam | c. 2300 BC | |
Irkab-Damu | Contemporary of Iblul-Il of Mari | |
Ar-Ennum or Reshi-Ennum | ||
Ibrium or Ebrium | Contemporary of Tudiya of Assyria (treaty) | |
Ibbi-Sipish or Ibbi-Zikir | Son of Ibrium | |
Dubuhu-Ada | Ebla destroyed by Naram-Sin of Akkad or Sargon of Akkad |
Sumer
- Third Dynasty of Uruk
Lugal-zage-si of Umma rules from Uruk after defeating Lagash, eventually falling to the emerging Akkadian Empire.[5]
Ruler | Proposed reign | Notes |
---|---|---|
Lugal-zage-si | 2295–2271 BC | Defeats Urukagina of Lagash and is in turn defeated by Sargon of Akkad |
- Dynasty of Akkad
Since Akkad (or Agade), the capital of the Akkadian Empire, has not yet been found, available chronological data comes from outlying locations like Ebla, Tell Brak, Nippur, Susa and Tell Leilan. Clearly, the expansion of Akkad came under the rules of Sargon and Naram-sin. Its last king, Shar-kali-sharri barely held the empire together, but upon his death, it fragmented. Finally, the city of Akkad itself was destroyed by the Guti.[6][7][8]
Ruler | Proposed reign | Notes |
---|---|---|
Sargon | 2270–2215 BC | |
Rimush | 2214–2206 BC | Son of Sargon |
Man-ishtishu | 2205–2191 BC | Son of Sargon |
Naram-sin | 2190–2154 BC | Grandson of Sargon |
Shar-kali-sharri | 2153–2129 BC | Son of Naram-sin |
Irgigi | ||
Nanum | ||
Imi | ||
Ilulu | ||
Dudu | 2125–2104 BC | |
Shu-Durul | 2104–2083 BC | City of Akkad falls to the Guti |
- Gutian Kings
First appearing in the area during the reign of Sargon of Akkad, the Guti became a regional power after the decline of the Akkadian Empire following Shar-kali-sharri. The dynasty ends with the defeat of the last king, Tirigan, by Uruk.
Only a handful of the Guti kings are attested to by inscriptions, aside from the Sumerian king list.[9]
Ruler | Proposed reign | Notes |
---|---|---|
Erridupizir | 2141–2138 BC | Royal inscription at Nippur |
Imta or Nibia (There is no king for 3 or 5 years) | 2138–2135 BC | |
Inkishush | 2135–2129 BC | First Gutian ruler on the Sumerian king list |
Sarlagab | 2129–2126 BC | |
Shulme | 2126–2120 BC | |
Elulmesh or Silulumesh | 2120–2114 BC | |
Inimabakesh | 2114–2109 BC | |
Igeshaush or Igeaus | 2109–2103 BC | |
Yarlagab or Yarlaqaba | 2103–2088 BC | |
Ibate | 2088–2085 BC | |
Yarlangab or Yarla | 2085–2082 BC | |
Kurum | 2082–2081 BC | |
Apilkin or Habil-kin or Apil-kin | 2081–2078 BC | |
La-erabum | 2078–2076 BC | Mace head inscription |
Irarum | 2076–2074 BC | |
Ibranum | 2074–2073 BC | |
Hablum | 2073–2071 BC | |
Puzur-Suen | 2071–2064 BC | Son of Hablum |
Yarlaganda | 2064–2057 BC | Foundation inscription at Umma |
Si-um or Si-u | 2057–2050 BC | Foundation inscription at Umma |
Tirigan | 2050–2050 BC | Contemporary of Utu-hengal of Uruk |
- Second Dynasty of Lagash
Following the collapse of the Akkadian Empire after Shar-kali-sharri of Akkad under pressure from the invading Gutians, Lagash gradually regained prominence. As a client state to the Gutian Kings, Lagash was extremely successful, peaking under the rule of Gudea. After the last Gutian king, Tirigan, was defeated, by Utu-hengal, Lagash came under the control of Ur under Ur-Namma.[10] Note that there is some indication that the order of the last two rulers of Lagash should be reversed. [11]
Ruler | Proposed reign | Notes |
---|---|---|
Lugalushumgal | ca. 2140 | ruled under Gutian kings |
Puzer-Mama | ||
Ur-Utu | ||
Ur-Mama | ||
Lu-Baba | ||
Lugula | ||
Kaku or Kakug | ended 2093 | |
Ur-Bau or Ur-baba | 2093–2080 BC | |
Gudea | 2080–2060 BC | Son-in-law of Ur-baba |
Ur-Ningirsu | 2060–2055 BC | Son of Gudea |
Pirigme or Ugme | 2055–2053 BC | Grandson of Gudea |
Ur-gar | 2053–2049 BC | |
Nammahani | 2049–2046 BC | Grandson of Kaku, defeated by Ur-Namma |
- Fifth Dynasty of Uruk
Uniting various Sumerian city-states, Utu-hengal frees the region from the Gutians. Note that the Sumerian king list records a preceding 4th Dynasty of Uruk which is as yet unattested. [12]
Ruler | Proposed reign | Notes |
---|---|---|
Utu-hengal | 2055–2048 BC | Appoints Ur-Namma as governor of Ur |
- Third Dynasty of Ur (Sumerian Renaissance)
In an apparently peaceful transition, Ur came to power after the end of the reign of Utu-hengal of Uruk, with the first king, Ur-Namma, solidifying his power with the defeat of Lagash. By the dynasty's end with the destruction of Ur by Elamites and Shimashki, the dynasty included little more than the area around Ur.[13] [14] [15]
Ruler | Proposed reign | Notes |
---|---|---|
Ur-Namma or Ur-Engur | 2047–2030 BC | Defeated Nammahani of Lagash; Contemporary of Utu-hengal of Uruk |
Shulgi | 2029–1982 BC | Possible lunar/solar eclipse 2005 BC[16] |
Amar-Suena | 1981–1973 BC | Son of Shulgi |
Shu-Suen | 1972–1964 BC | |
Ibbi-Suen | 1963–1940 BC | Son of Shu-Suen |
Middle Bronze Age
The Old Assyrian / Old Babylonian period (20th to 15th centuries)
- First Dynasty of Isin
After Ishbi-Erra of Isin breaks away from the declining Third Dynasty of Ur under Ibbi-Suen, Isin reaches its peak under Ishme-Dagan. Weakened by attacks from the upstart Babylonians, Isin eventually falls to its rival Larsa under Rim-Sin I.[17][18]
Ruler | Proposed reign | Notes |
---|---|---|
Ishbi-Erra | 1953–1921 BC | Contemporary of Ibbi-Suen of Ur III |
Šu-ilišu | 1920–1911 BC | Son of Ishbi-Erra |
Iddin-Dagan | 1910–1890 BC | Son of Shu-ilishu |
Ishme-Dagan | 1889–1871 BC | Son of Iddin-Dagan |
Lipit-Eshtar | 1870–1860 BC | Contemporary of Gungunum of Larsa |
Ur-Ninurta | 1859–1832 BC | Contemporary of Abisare of Larsa |
Bur-Suen | 1831–1811 BC | Son of Ur-Ninurta |
Lipit-Enlil | 1810–1806 BC | Son of Bur-Suen |
Erra-Imittī or Ura-imitti | 1805–1799 BC | |
Enlil-bāni | 1798–1775 BC | Contemporary of Sumu-la-El of Babylon |
Zambīia | 1774–1772 BC | Contemporary of Sin-Iqisham of Larsa |
Iter-piša | 1771–1768 BC | |
Ur-du-kuga | 1767–1764 BC | |
Suen-magir | 1763–1753 BC | |
Damiq-ilishu | 1752–1730 BC | Son of Suen-magir |
- Kings of Larsa
The chronology of the Kingdom of Larsa is based mainly on the Larsa King List (Larsa Dynastic List), the Larsa Date Lists, and a number of royal inscriptions and commercial records. The Larsa King List was compiled in Babylon during the reign of Hammurabi, conqueror of Larsa. It is suspected that the list elevated the first several Amorite Isinite governors of Larsa to kingship so as to legitimize the rule of the Amorite Babylonians over Larsa. After a period of Babylonian occupation, Larsa briefly breaks free in a revolt ended by the death of the last king, Rim-Sin II.[19] [20] [21]
Ruler | Proposed reign | Notes |
---|---|---|
Naplanum | 1961–1940 BC | Contemporary of Ibbi-Suen of Ur III |
Emisum | 1940–1912 BC | |
Samium | 1912–1877 BC | |
Zabaia | 1877–1868 BC | Son of Samium, First royal inscription |
Gungunum | 1868–1841 BC | Gained independence from Lipit-Eshtar of Isin |
Abisare | 1841–1830 BC | |
Sumuel | 1830–1801 BC | |
Nur-Adad | 1801–1785 BC | Contemporary of Sumu-la-El of Babylon |
Sin-Iddinam | 1785–1778 BC | Son of Nur-Adad |
Sin-Eribam | 1778–1776 BC | |
Sin-Iqisham | 1776–1771 BC | Contemporary of Zambiya of Isin, Son of Sin-Eribam |
Silli-Adad | 1771–1770 BC | |
Warad-Sin | 1770–1758 BC | Possible co-regency with Kudur-Mabuk his father |
Rim-Sin I | 1758–1699 BC | Contemporary of Irdanene of Uruk, Defeated by Hammurabi of Babylon, Brother of Warad-Sin |
Hammurabi of Babylon | 1699–1686 BC | Official Babylonian rule |
Samsu-iluna of Babylon | 1686–1678 BC | Official Babylonian rule |
Rim-Sin II | 1678–1674 BC | Killed in revolt against Babylon |
- First Babylonian dynasty (Dynasty I)
Following the fall of the Ur III Dynasty, the resultant power vacuum was contested by Isin and Larsa, with Babylon and Assyria later joining the fray. In the second half of the reign of Hammurabi, Babylon became the preeminent power, a position it largely maintained until the sack by Mursili I in 1531 BC. Note that there are no contemporary accounts of the sack of Babylon. It is inferred from much later documents.[22][23]
Ruler | Proposed reign | Notes |
---|---|---|
Sumu-abum or Su-abu | 1830–1817 BC | Contemporary of Ilushuma of Assyria |
Sumu-la-El | 1817–1781 BC | Contemporary of Erishum I of Assyria |
Sabium or Sabum | 1781–1767 BC | Son of Sumu-la-El |
Apil-Sin | 1767–1749 BC | Son of Sabium |
Sin-muballit | 1748–1729 BC | Son of Apil-Sin |
Hammurabi | 1728–1686 BC | Contemporary of Zimri-Lim of Mari, Siwe-palar-huppak of Elam and Shamshi-Adad I |
Samsu-iluna | 1686–1648 BC | Son of Hammurabi |
Abi-eshuh or Abieshu | 1648–1620 BC | Son of Samsu-iluna |
Ammi-ditana | 1620–1583 BC | Son of Abi-eshuh |
Ammi-saduqa or Ammisaduqa | 1582–1562 BC | Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa |
Samsu-Ditana | 1562–1531 BC | Sack of Babylon |
- 1st Sealand Dynasty (2nd Dynasty of Babylon)
When the names of Sealand Dynasty kings were found on cuneiform records like the Babylonian Kings Lists, Chronicle 20, Chronicle of the Early Kings, and the Synchronistic King List, it was assumed that the dynasty slotted in between the First Dynasty of Babylon and the Kassites.[24] Later discoveries changed this to the assumption that the dynasty ran entirely in parallel to the others. Modern scholarship has made it clear that the Sealand Dynasty did in fact control Babylon and the remnants of its empire for a time after its sack by the Hittites in 1531 BC.[25][26]
Ruler | Proposed reign | Notes |
---|---|---|
Ilumael or Ilum-ma-ilī | c. 1700 BC | Contemporary of Samsu-iluna and Abi-eshuh of the First Dynasty of Babylon |
Itti-ili-nībī | ||
Damqi-ilišu II | ||
Iškibal | ||
Šušši | ||
Gulkišar | ||
mDIŠ+U-EN (reading unknown) | ||
Pešgaldarameš | Son of Gulkishar | |
Ayadaragalama | Son (=descendant) of Gulkishar | |
Akurduana | ||
Melamkurkurra | ||
Ea-gâmil | ca. 1460 BC | Contemporary of Ulamburiash of the Kassite dynasty of Babylon |
- Hittite Old Kingdom
The absolute chronology of the Hittite Old Kingdom hinges entirely on the date of the sack of Babylon. In 1531 BC, for reasons that are still extremely unclear, Mursili I marched roughly 500 miles from Aleppo to Babylon, sacked it, and then promptly returned home, never to return. Other than that event, all the available chronological synchronisms are local to the region in and near Anatolia.
Ruler | Proposed reign | Notes |
---|---|---|
Pusarruma | ||
Labarna I | ||
Hattusili I or Labarna II | 1586–1556 BC | Grandfather of Mursili I |
Mursili I | 1556–1526 BC | Sacked Babylon in reign of Samsu-Ditana of Babylon |
Hantili I | 1526–1496 BC | |
Zidanta I | 1496–1486 BC | |
Ammuna | 1486–1466 BC | Son of Hantili I |
Huzziya I | 1466–1461 BC | Son of Ammuna |
Late Bronze Age
The Middle Assyrian period (14th to 12th centuries)
- Third Babylon Dynasty (Kassite)
The Kassites first appeared during the reign of Samsu-iluna of the First Babylonian dynasty and after being defeated by Babylon, moved to control the city-state of Mari. Some undetermined amount of time after the fall of Babylon, the Kassites established a new Babylonian dynasty. The Babylonian king list identifies 36 kings reigning 576 years, however, only about 18 names are legible. A few more were identified by inscriptions. There is some confusion in the middle part of the dynasty because of conflicts between the Synchronistic Chronicle and Chronicle P. The later kings are well attested from kudurru steles. Relative dating is from sychronisms with Egypt, Assyria and the Hittites. The dynasty ends with the defeat of Enlil-nadin-ahi by Elam.[27][28][29][30]
Ruler | Proposed reign | Notes |
---|---|---|
Agum II or Agum-Kakrime | ||
Burnaburiash I | Treaty with Puzur-Ashur III of Assyria | |
Kashtiliash III | ||
Ulamburiash | Conquers the first Sealand dynasty | |
Agum III | ||
Karaindash | Treaty with Ashur-bel-nisheshu of Assyria | |
Kadashman-harbe I | Campaign against the Sutû | |
Kurigalzu I | Founder of Dur-Kurigalzu and contemporary of Thutmose IV | |
Kadashman-Enlil I | 1374–1360 BC | Contemporary of Amenophis III of the Egyptian Amarna letters |
Burnaburiash II | 1359–1333 BC | Contemporary of Akhenaten and Ashur-uballit I |
Kara-hardash | 1333 BC | Grandson of Ashur-uballit I of Assyria |
Nazi-Bugash or Shuzigash | 1333 BC | Usurper "son of a nobody" |
Kurigalzu II | 1332–1308 BC | Son of Burnaburiash II, Fought Battle of Sugagi with Enlil-nirari of Assyria |
Nazi-Maruttash | 1307–1282 BC | Contemporary of Adad-nirari I of Assyria |
Kadashman-Turgu | 1281–1264 BC | Contemporary of Hattusili III of the Hittites |
Kadashman-Enlil II | 1263–1255 BC | Contemporary of Hattusili III of the Hittites |
Kudur-Enlil | 1254–1246 BC | Time of Nippur renaissance |
Shagarakti-Shuriash | 1245–1233 BC | "Non-son of Kudur-Enlil" according to Tukulti-Ninurta I of Assyria |
Kashtiliashu IV | 1232–1225 BC | Contemporary of Tukulti-Ninurta I of Assyria |
Enlil-nadin-shumi | 1224 BC | Assyria installed vassal king |
Kadashman-Harbe II | 1223 BC | Assyria installed vassal king |
Adad-shuma-iddina | 1222–1217 BC | Assyria installed vassal king |
Adad-shuma-usur | 1216–1187 BC | Contemporary of Ashur-nirari III of Assyria |
Meli-Shipak II | 1186–1172 BC | Correspondence with Ninurta-apal-Ekur confirming foundation of Near East chronology |
Marduk-apla-iddina I | 1171–1159 BC | |
Zababa-shuma-iddin | 1158 BC | Defeated by Shutruk-Nahhunte of Elam |
Enlil-nadin-ahi | 1157–1155 BC | Defeated by Kutir-Nahhunte of Elam |
- Mitanni
Perhaps because the capital of Mitanni, Washukanni, has not yet been found, there are no available king lists, year lists, or royal inscriptions. Fortunately, a fair amount of diplomatic, Hittite, and Assyrian sources exist to firm up the chronology. Having become powerful under Shaushtatar, Mitanni eventually falls into the traditional trap of dynasties, the contest for succession. Tushratta and Artatama II both claim the kingship and the Hittites and Assyrians take advantage of the situation. After that, Mitanni was no longer a factor in the region.[31][32]
Ruler | Proposed reign | Notes |
---|---|---|
Kirta | ca. 1500 BC | |
Parshatatar or Parrattarna | Son of Kirta | |
Shaushtatar | Contemporary of Idrimi of Alalakh, Sacks Ashur | |
Artatama I | Treaty with Pharaoh Thutmose IV of Egypt, Contemporary of Pharaoh Amenhotep II of Egypt | |
Shuttarna II | Daughter marries Pharaoh Amenhotep III of Egypt in his year 10 | |
Artashumara | Son of Shutarna II, brief reign | |
Tushratta | ca. 1350 BC | Contemporary of Suppiluliuma I of the Hittites and Pharaohs Amenhotep III and Amenhotep IV of Egypt, Amarna letters |
Artatama II | Treaty with Suppiluliuma I of the Hittites, ruled same time as Tushratta | |
Shuttarna III | Contemporary of Suppiluliuma I of the Hittites | |
Shattiwaza | Mitanni becomes vassal of the Hittite Empire | |
Shattuara I | Mittani becomes vassal of Assyria under Adad-nirari I | |
Wasashatta | Son of Shattuara I |
- Assyrian Middle Kingdom
Long a minor player, after the defeat of its neighbor Mitanni by the Hittites, Assyria rises to the ranks of a major power under Ashur-uballit I. The period is marked by conflict with rivals Babylon and the Hittites as well as diplomatic exchanges with Egypt, in the Amarna letters. Note that after the excavation, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, of various Neo-Assyrian documents, such as the Assyrian king list, scholars assumed that the chronological data for earlier Assyrian periods could be taken as accurate history. That view has changed over the years and the early Assyrian chronology is being re-assessed. Since there is yet no consensus, the traditional order and regnal lengths will be followed.[33][34][35]
Ruler | Proposed reign | Notes |
---|---|---|
Eriba-Adad I | 1380–1353 BC | |
Ashur-uballit I | 1353–1318 BC | Contemporary of Burnaburiash II of Babylon and Suppiluliuma I of the Hittites |
Enlil-nirari | 1317–1308 BC | Fought Battle of Sugagi with Kurigalzu II of Babylon, Son of Ashur-uballit I |
Arik-den-ili | 1307–1296 BC | |
Adad-nirari I | 1295–1264 BC | Contemporary of Shattuara I and Wasashatta of Mitanni |
Shalmaneser I | 1263–1234 BC | Son of Adad-nirari I |
Tukulti-Ninurta I | 1233–1197 BC | Contemporary of Kashtiliashu IV of Babylon |
Ashur-nadin-apli | 1196–1194 BC | Son of Tukulti-Ninurta I |
Ashur-nirari III | 1193–1188 BC | Contemporary of Adad-shuma-usur of Babylon and Son of Ashur-nadin-apli |
Enlil-kudurri-usur | 1187–1183 BC | Son of Tukulti-Ninurta I |
Ninurta-apal-Ekur | 1182–1180 BC |
- Hittite New Kingdom
Beginning under his father, Suppiluliuma I brought the Hittites from obscurity into an empire that lasts for almost 150 years. The Hittite New Kingdom reaches its height after the defeat of Mitanni, an event which ironically leads to the rise of Assyria. The dynasty ends with the destruction of Hattusa by parties undetermined but which may have included the Sea People and the Kaskians.[36][37][38][39]
Ruler | Proposed reign | Notes |
---|---|---|
Tudhaliya III | 1360–1344 BC | Son of Tudhaliya II |
Suppiluliuma I | 1344–1322 BC | Son of Tudhaliya III, Contemporary of Tushratta of Mitanni |
Arnuwanda II | 1322–1321 BC | Son of Suppiluliuma I |
Mursili II | 1321–1295 BC | Son of Suppiluliuma I; Mursili's eclipse |
Muwatalli II | 1295–1272 BC | Son of Mursili II, Battle of Kadesh in year 5 of Ramses II of Egypt, |
Mursili III or Urhi-Teshub | 1272–1267 BC | Son of Muwatalli II |
Hattusili III | 1267–1237 BC | Son of Mursili II, Treaty in year 21 of Ramses II of Egypt, Contemporary of Shalmaneser I of Assyria & Kadashman-Turgu of Babylon |
Tudhaliya IV | 1237–1209 BC | Son of Hattusili III, Battle of Nihriya |
Arnuwanda III | 1209–1207 BC | Son of Tudhaliya IV |
Suppiluliuma II | 1207–1178 BC | Son of Tudhaliya IV, Fall of Hattusa |
- Kings of Ugarit
A client state of Mitanni and later the Hittites, Ugarit was nonetheless a significant player in the region. While regnal lengths and an absolute chronology for Ugarit are not yet available, the known order of kings and some firm synchronisms make it reasonably placeable in time. The fall of Ugarit has been narrowed down to the range from the reign of Pharaoh Merneptah to the 8th year of Pharaoh Rameses III of Egypt. This is roughly the same time that Hattusa is destroyed.[40][41]
Ruler | Proposed reign | Notes |
---|---|---|
Ammittamru I | ca. 1350 BC | |
Niqmaddu II | Contemporary of Suppiluliuma I of the Hittites | |
Arhalba | ||
Niqmepa | Treaty with Mursili II of the Hittites, Son of Niqmadu II, | |
Ammittamru II | Contemporary of Bentisina of Amurru, Son of Niqmepa | |
Ibiranu | ||
Niqmaddu III | ||
Ammurapi | ca. 1200 BC | Contemporary of Chancellor Bay of Egypt, Ugarit is destroyed |
Iron Age
The Early Iron Age (12th to 7th centuries BC). While not subject to the long versus short dating issue, chronology in the Ancient Near East is not on a firm footing until the rise of the Neo-Babylonian and Neo-Assyrian rulers in their respective regions. The dates, regnal lengths, and even the names of a number of rulers from that interim period are still unknown. To make matters worse, the few surviving records, such as the Synchronistic Chronicle, give conflicting data.[42]
- Second Dynasty of Isin
After the fall of the Kassite dynasty of Babylon to Elam, power in the region, and control of Babylon, swung to the city-state of Isin. Assyria at this time was extremely weak, except during the reign of the powerful Assyrian ruler Tiglath-Pileser I. Other polities in the area had yet to recover from the Bronze Age collapse.[43][44]
Ruler | Reign | Notes |
---|---|---|
Marduk-kabit-aḫḫēšu | 1157–1140 BC | |
Itti-Marduk-balāṭu | 1139–1132 BC | |
Ninurta-nādin-šumi | 1131–1126 BC | Contemporary of Ashur-resh-ishi I of Assyria |
Nebuchadnezzar I | 1125–1104 BC | Orig. Nabu-kudurri-usur, Contemporary of Ashur-resh-ishi I |
Enlil-nadin-apli | 1103–1100 BC | Son of Nebuchadnezzar I |
Marduk-nadin-ahhe | 1099–1082 BC | Contemporary of Tiglath-Pileser I of Assyria |
Marduk-šāpik-zēri | 1081–1069 BC | Contemporary of Ashur-bel-kala of Assyria |
Adad-apla-iddina | 1168–1147 BC | Contemporary of Ashur-bel-kala |
Marduk-aḫḫē-erība | 1046 BC | |
Marduk-zer-X | 1045–1034 BC | |
Nabû-šuma-libūr | 1033–1026 BC |
- Middle-Assyrian period
After the Middle Assyrian Kingdom there is an uncertain period in Assyrian history. The current cornerstone of chronology for this time is the Assyrian King List which, unfortunately, conflicts with other records such as the Synchronised King List and the Babylonian King List. In any event, the rulers of Assyria in this time were all fairly weak, except for Tiglath-Pileser I. Note too that this chronology is based on assumed synchronisms with Egypt in the previous period.
Ruler | Reign | Notes |
---|---|---|
Ashur-Dan I | 1179–1133 BC | Son of Ninurta-apal-Ekur |
Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur | 1133 BC | |
Mutakkil-nusku | 1133 BC | |
Ashur-resh-ishi I | 1133–1115 BC | |
Tiglath-Pileser I | 1115–1076 BC | |
Asharid-apal-Ekur | 1076–1074 BC | |
Ashur-bel-kala | 1074–1056 BC | |
Eriba-Adad II | 1056–1054 BC | |
Shamshi-Adad IV | 1054–1050 BC | |
Ashur-nasir-pal I | 1050–1031 BC | |
Shalmaneser II | 1031–1019 BC | |
Ashur-nirari IV | 1019–1013 BC | |
Ashur-rabi II | 1013–972 BC | |
Ashur-resh-ishi II | 972–967 BC | |
Tiglath-Pileser II | 967–935 BC | |
Ashur-dan II | 935–912 BC |
- Babylon
Dynasties V to IX of Babylon (post-Kassite):
Ruler | Reign | Notes |
---|---|---|
Simbar-šipak | 1025–1008 BC | Dynasty V – Second Sealand Dynasty |
Ea-mukin-zēri | 1008 BC | |
Kaššu-nādin-aḫi | 1008–1004 BC | |
Eulmaš-šākin-šumi | 1004–987 BC | Dynasty VI – Bῑt-Bazi Dynasty |
Ninurta-kudurrῑ-uṣur I | 987–985 BC | |
Širikti-šuqamuna | 985 BC | |
Mâr-bîti-apla-uṣur | 985–979 BC | Dynasty VII – Dynasty of "Elam" |
Nabû-mukin-apli | 979–943 BC | Dynasty VIII – Dynasty of E |
Ninurta-kudurri-usur II | 943 BC | Dynasty IX |
Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina | 943–920 BC | |
Šamaš-mudammiq | c. 900 BC | |
Nabû-šuma-ukin I | ||
Nabu-apla-iddina | ||
Marduk-zakir-šumi I | ||
Marduk-balassu-iqbi | ||
Baba-aha-iddina | ||
5 unnamed kings | c. 800 BC | |
Ninurta-apla-X | ||
Marduk-bel-zeri | ||
Marduk-apla-usur | ||
Eriba-Marduk | 769–761 BC | |
Nabu-šuma-iškun | 761–748 BC | |
Nabonassar (Nabu-nasir) | 748–734 BC | Contemporary of Tiglath-Pileser III |
Nabu-nadin-zeri | 734–732 BC | |
Nabu-šuma-ukin II | 732 BC |
- Neo-Assyrian Empire
The Assyrian empire rises to become the dominant power in the ancient Near East for over two centuries. This occurs despite the efforts of various other strong groups that existed in this period, including Babylon, Urartu, Damascus, Elam, and Egypt.[45][46][47]
Ruler | Reign | Notes |
---|---|---|
Adad-nirari II | 912–891 BC | |
Tukulti-Ninurta II | 890–884 BC | Son of Adad-nirari II |
Assur-nasir-pal II | 883–859 BC | Son of Tukulti-Ninurta II |
Shalmaneser III | 858–824 BC | Battle of Qarqar |
Shamshi-Adad V | 823–811 BC | Treaty with Marduk-zakir-sumi I of Babylon |
Adad-nirari III | 810–783 BC | Regent Shammu-ramat |
Shalmaneser IV | 782–773 BC | Son of Adad-nirari III |
Ashur-Dan III | 772–755 BC | Eclipse on June 15 763 BC |
Ashur-nirari V | 754–745 BC | |
Tiglath-Pileser III | 744–727 BC | Contemporary of Nabonassar of Babylon |
Shalmaneser V | 726–722 BC | Contemporary of Rusas I of Urartu |
Sargon II | 721–705 BC | Contemporary of Marduk-apla-iddina II of Babylon |
Sennacherib | 704–681 BC | Contemporary of Shutruk-Nahhunte II of Elam |
Esarhaddon | 680–669 BC | Contemporary of Pharaoh Taharqa of Egypt |
Assurbanipal | 668–631 BC |
- Babylon
Dynasties X of Babylon (Assyrian):
Babylon was under the direct control of Neo-Assyrian rulers or their appointed governors for much of this period.
Ruler | Reign | Notes |
---|---|---|
Nabu-mukin-zeri of Assyria | 732–729 BC | |
Tiglath-Pileser III of Assyria | 729–727 BC | |
Shalmaneser V of Assyria | 727–722 BC | |
Marduk-apla-iddina II | 722–710 BC | |
Sargon II of Assyria | 710–705 BC | |
Sennacherib of Assyria | 705–703 BC | |
Marduk-zakir-shumi II | 703 BC | |
Marduk-apla-iddina II | 703 BC | |
Bel-ibni | 703–700 BC | Assyrian appointed governor |
Ashur-nadin-shumi | 700–694 BC | Son of Sennacherib of Assyria |
Nergal-ushezib | 694–693 BC | |
Mushezib-Marduk | 693–689 BC | |
Sennacherib of Assyria | 689–681 BC | |
Esarhaddon of Assyria | 681–669 BC | |
Shamash-shum-ukin | 668–648 BC | Son of Esarhaddon of Assyria |
Kandalanu | 648–627 BC | |
Sin-shumu-lishir | 626 BC | |
Sinsharishkun | ca. 627–620 BC | Son of Assurbanipal of Assyria |
- Classical Antiquity
For times after Assurbanipal (died 627 BC), see:
- Median Empire (c.615–549 BC), see List of Kings of the Medes
- Neo-Babylonian Empire (626–539 BC)
- Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BC)
The Hellenistic period begins with the conquests of Alexander the Great in 330 BC.
See also
Notes
- ^ Manning, S. W.; Kromer, B.; Kuniholm, P. I.; and Newton, M. W. 2001 Anatolian tree-rings and a new chronology for the east Mediterranean Bronze-Iron Ages. Science 294: 2532-35.
- ^ Sturt W. Manning et al., Integrated Tree-Ring-Radiocarbon High-Resolution Timeframe to Resolve Earlier Second Millennium BCE Mesopotamian Chronology, PlosONE July 13 2016
- ^ [1], Schwartz, Glenn, 2008. "Problems of Chronology: Mesopotamia, Anatolia, and the Syro-Levantine Region." In Beyond Babylon: Art, Trade, and Diplomacy in the Second Millennium B.C., edited by Joan Aruz, Kim Benzel, and Jean M. Evans: 450-452.
- ^ A Victory over Mari and the Fall of Ebla, Alfonso Archi, Maria Giovanna Biga, Journal of Cuneiform Studies, Vol. 55, 2003, pp. 1-44
- ^ Sumerian and Akkadian Royal Inscriptions: Presargonic Inscriptions, Jerold S. Cooper, Eisenbrauns, 1986, ISBN 0-940490-82-X
- ^ The Genesis and Collapse of Third Millennium North Mesopotamian Civilization, H. Weiss et al., Science, Aug 20, pp. 995-1004, 1993
- ^ Historical Perception in the Sargonic Literary Tradition. The Implication of Copied Texts, Rosetta 1, pp 1-9, 2006
- ^ The Sargonic and Gutian Periods (2334-2113), Douglas R. Frayne, University of Toronto Press, 1993, ISBN 0-8020-0593-4
- ^ Reallexikon der Assyriologie by Erich Ebling, Bruno Meissner, 1993, Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 3-11-003705-X
- ^ Gudea and His Dynasty, Dietz Otto Edzard, 1997, University of Toronto Press ISBN 0-8020-4187-6
- ^ The Calendar of Neo-Sumerian Ur and Its Political Significance, Magnus Widell, University of Chicago, 2004
- ^ A Sumerian reading-book, C.J Gadd, The Clarendon Press, 1924
- ^ The Ancient Near East: C.3000-330 B.C. By Amélie Kuhrt, Routledge, 1995, ISBN 0-415-16762-0
- ^ Ur III Period (2112-2004 BC) by Douglas Frayne, University of Toronto Press, 1997, ISBN 0-8020-4198-1
- ^ The ruling family of Ur III Umma. A Prosopographical Analysis of an Elite Family in Southern Iraq 4000 Years ago Archived 2006-05-12 at the Wayback Machine, J.L. Dahl, UCLA dissertation, 2003
- ^ "Ancient Eclipses and Dating the Fall of Babylon"[permanent dead link], Boris Banjevic, Publ. Astron. Obs. Belgrade No. 80 (2006), 251 – 257
- ^ Kings of Isin Year Names
- ^ The Old Babylonian Period (2003-1595), Douglas R. Frayne, University Of Toronto Press, 1990, ISBN 0-8020-5873-6
- ^ The Rulers of Larsa Archived 2009-03-06 at the Wayback Machine, M. Fitzgerald, Yale University Dissertation, 2002
- ^ Larsa Year Names, Marcel Segrist, Andrews University Press, 1990, ISBN 0-943872-54-5
- ^ Chronology of the Larsa Dynasty, E.M. Grice, C.E. Keiser, M. Jastrow, AMS Press, 1979, ISBN 0-404-60274-6
- ^ Chronicle of early kings at Livius.org
- ^ The Proclamation of Telipinu Archived 2012-08-16 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Albert Kirk Grayson, Assyrian and Babylonian chronicles, Eisenbrauns, 2000 ISBN 1-57506-049-3
- ^ W. G. Lambert, The Home of the First Sealand Dynasty, Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 208-210, 1974
- ^ Stephanie Dalley, Babylonian Tablets from The First Sealand Dynasty in the Schoyen Collection, CDL Press, 2009 ISBN 1-934309-08-7
- ^ The Collapse of a Complex State, A Reappraisal of the End of the First Dynasty of Babylon 1683–1597 B.C., Seth Richardson, dissertation, Columbia University, 2002
- ^ J. A. Brinkman (1976). Materials for the Study of Kassite History, Vol. I (MSKH I). Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago.
- ^ The Kassites of Ancient Mesopotamian: Origins, Politics, and Culture, Walter Sommerfield, vol 2 of J. M. Sasson ed. Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1995
- ^ "The Kassites and Near Eastern Chronology," Albrecht Goetze, Journal of Cuneiform Studies, Vol. 18, No. 4, 1964, pp. 97–101.
- ^ Pharaoh and his Brothers, S Jakob
- ^ Letters of the Great Kings of the Ancient Near East, Trevor Bryce, Routledge, 2003, ISBN 0-415-25857-X
- ^ "Comments on the Nassouhi Kinglist and the Assyrian Kinglist Tradition," J.A. Brinkman, Orientalia N.S 42, 1973
- ^ Assyrian Rulers of the Third and Second Millennia BC, A.K. Grayson, University of Toronto Press, 1987, ISBN 0-8020-2605-2
- ^ "The Chronology of Ancient Assyria Re-assessed," B. Newgrosh, JACF, vol. 08, pp. 78–106, 1999
- ^ Bryce, T., 'The 'Eternal Treaty' from the Hittite perspective', BMSAES 6 (2006), 1–11
- ^ Sürenhagen, D., 'Forerunners of the Hattusili-Ramesses treaty', BMSAES 6 (2006), 59–67
- ^ Hittite Studies in Honor of Harry A. Hoffner Jr. on the Occasion of His 65th Birthday. Eisenbrauns, 2003, ISBN 1-57506-079-5
- ^ Hittite Diplomatic Texts, G Brinkman, Scholars Press, 1999, ISBN 0-7885-0551-3
- ^ Handbook of Ugaritic Studies, edited by Wilfred G. E. Watson and Nicolas Wyatt, Brill, 1999, ISBN 90-04-10988-9
- ^ The City of Ugarit at Tell Ras Shamra, Marguerite Yon, Eisenbrauns, 2006, ISBN 1-57506-029-9
- ^ John Anthony Brinkman, A Political History of Post-Kassite Babylonia, 1158–722 B.C., Biblical Institute Press, 1968, ISBN 88-7653-243-9
- ^ A Poebel, "The Second Dynasty of Isin According to a New King-List Tablet," Assyriological Studies 15, Oriental Institute of Chicago, 1955
- ^ J. A. Brinkman, "Foreign Relations of Babylonia from 1600 to 624 B. C.: The Documentary Evidence," American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 76, no. 3, pp. 271–281, 1972
- ^ "Landscape and Settlement in the Neo-Assyrian Empire," T. J. Wilkinson, E. B. Wilkinson, J. Ur, M. Altaweel, Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, Nov 2005
- ^ Neo-Assyrian Eponym List Livius.org
- ^ Empires and Exploitation: The Neo-Assyrian Empire Archived 2008-08-27 at the Wayback Machine, P Bedford, WA Perth, 2001
References
- Schwartz, Glenn (2008). "Problems of Chronology: Mesopotamia, Anatolia, and the Syro-Levantine Region". In Aruz, Joan; Benzel, Kim; Evans, Jean M. (eds.). Beyond Babylon: Art, Trade, and Diplomacy in the Second Millennium B.C. Metropolitan Museum of Art. pp. 450–452. ISBN 978-0300141436.
- Newgrosh, Bernard (2007). Chronology at the Crossroads: The Late Bronze Age in Western Asia. Troubador Publishing. ISBN 1-906221-62-6.
- Bryce, Trevor (2005). The Kingdom of the Hittites (New ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-928132-7.
- Van De Mieroop, Marc (2006). A History of the Ancient Near East ca. 3000 - 323 BC. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 1-4051-4911-6.
- Leick, Gwendolyn (2003). Mesopotamia: The Invention of the City. Penguin. ISBN 0-14-026574-0.
- Gasche, H.; Armstrong, J.A.; Cole, S.W.; Gurzadyan, V.G. (1998). Dating the Fall of Babylon: A Reappraisal of Second-Millennium Chronology. University of Ghent and the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. ISBN 978-1885923103.