Bukiyip language
| Bukiyip | |
|---|---|
| Mountain Arapesh | |
| Native to | Papua New Guinea |
| Region | East Sepik Province |
Native speakers | 16,000 (2003)[1] |
Torricelli
| |
| Dialects |
|
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | ape |
| Glottolog | buki1249 |
| ELP | Bukiyip |
Bukiyip (Bukiyúp), or Mountain Arapesh, is an Arapesh language (Torricelli)[2] spoken by around 16,000 people between Yangoru and Maprik[3] in the East Sepik Province of Papua New Guinea.[4] Bukiyip follows the SVO typology.[2] The Arapesh languages are known for their complex noun-phrase agreement system (Bukiyip has 18 of these noun classes).[5]
Classification
There are two primary dialects of Bukiyip Chamaun-Yabonuh and Ilipeim-Yamil (western)[4] and two minor dialects Buki and Lohuhwim.[5] Given significant variation among dialects, linguist Robert Conrad suggests that Bukiyip is likely part of dialect chain that also involves other Arapesh languages.[3] The dialects may be further generalized as Coastal Arapesh and Mountain Bukiyip.[5][6]
Phonology
Syllable structure
Syllabic stress is usually placed on the penultimate syllable, which has a higher pitch.
There are four contrastive intonation contours.
- Final Intonation - falling pitch on the last syllable, followed by a pause
- Non-final Intonation - level mid pitch on the last syllable, followed by a pause
- Interrogative Intonation - level mid/high pitch on the last word
- Imperative Intonation - high pitch and heavy stress throughout clause with a rapid pitch drop on the last syllable[5]
Consonants
| Bilabial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| plain | round | |||||
| Nasal | m | n | ɳ | |||
| Stop | voiceless | p | t | tʃ | k | kʷ |
| voiced | b | d | dʒ | ɡ | ɡʷ | |
| Fricative | s | h | hʷ | |||
| Rhotic | ɾ | |||||
| Lateral | l | |||||
written as: p, t, k, b, d, g, s, ch, j, h, m, n, ny, l, r, w, y[5]
Vowels
Initial vowels clusters: ou, au, ai, ia
Medial vowel clusters: e (a,o,i,u), a (u,e,i), i (é,a,e), o (u,i), uu, úo
Final vowel clusters: eo, ou, uu
| Front | Central | Back | |
|---|---|---|---|
| High | i | ɨ | u |
| Mid | e | ə | o |
| Low | a |
written as: i, e, a, o, u, æ, é, ú[5]
Morphophonemics
Bukiyip has 18 basic rules for morphophonemic shifts (rules 8-18 primarily apply to the Chamaun-Yabonuh and Buki dialects).[5]
- VcCalv → VfCalv (e.g. p-a-chuh → pechuh)
- w + ú → u, ú + w → uw, i + ú → i (e.g. i-ú-nak → inak)
- ny + u → nyú (e.g. bolany+umu → bolanyumu)
- ú + CrVr → uCrVr, eCrVr → oCrVr (e.g. p-ú-hok → puhok)
- a + CVc → éCVc (e.g. n-a-bah →nébah)
- Vc + C + w → VrCw, where Vc is not a, (e.g. ny-ú-hwech → nyuhwech)
- Cw + Vr → CVr (e.g. éhwahw →ohohw)
- i# + i → i (e.g. i-ú-tak → itak)
- #w + é → #wo (e.g. kw-é-nak → konak)
- m# + ú → mu (e.g. m-ú-bo → mubo)
- #Vc +tVr → otVr (e.g. atúwe → otuwe)
- e# + úk → eik (e.g. napewe+-úk → napweik)
- C# + CVc → CVcCVc (e.g. chagas + búk → chagasúbúk)
- ú + C# + u → uCu (e.g. u-túl-úgún+-u → utulugunu)
- ú# + C + u# → oCu# (e.g. natalú → natalogu)
- VrCr# + ú → VrCru (e.g. chaklipom+-úk →chaklipomuk)
- u# + ú → uwu (e.g. natu + -uk → natuwuk)
- ú# + u → o (e.g. yekinú+umu → yekinomu)
The above rules use the following abbreviations:
Vr - rounded vowels
Vc - central unrounded vowels
Vu - unrounded vowels
Vf - front vowels
C - consonant
Calv - alveopalatal consonants
Cr - rounded consonants
# - morpheme boundary in phonological word
Words
Nouns
There are 18 noun classes with a closed set of suffixes of the form: noun nucleus + number (-unú).[5]
| Noun Class | Noun Suffix | Adjective Suffix | Verb Prefix | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| 1 | -b/n | -bús | -bi | -búsi | b-/n- | s- |
| 2 | -bél | -lúb | -bili | -lúbi | bl- | bl- |
| 3 | g/-gú | -s/-as | -gali/-gú | -gasi | g- | s- |
| 4 | -k | -ou/-eb | -kwi | -wali | kw- | w- |
| 5 | -m/-bal | -s/-ipi/-bal | -mi/-bali | -si/-ipi/-bali | m-/bl- | s-/p-/bl- |
| 6 | -n/nú | -b | -nali | -bi | n- | b- |
| 7 | -n/nú | -m | -nali | -mi | n- | h- |
| 8 | -ny/-l | -ch/-has | -nyi/-li | -chi | ny-/l- | ch- |
| 9 | -p | -s | -pi | -si | p- | s- |
| 10 | -l/-ny | -guh | -li/-ny | -guhi | l-/ny- | hw- |
| 11 | -t/-tú | -gw | -tali | -gwi | t- | gw- |
| 12 | -hw | -lúh | -hwi | -lihi | hw- | hl- |
| 13 | -V1h | -V2h | -hi | -h | h- | h- |
| 14 | -s | -s | -si | -si | s- | s- |
| 15 | -gún | -gún | -gúni | -gúni | gn- | gn- |
| 16 | -has | -has | - | - | gn- | gn- |
| 17 | - | - | -nali/-kwi | - | n-/kw- | - |
| 18 | - | -gún | - | -gúni | gn- | gn- |
V1 is the first vowel in a medial vowel cluster, V2 is the second vowel in a medial vowel cluster.
Pronouns and demonstratives
Pronouns and demonstratives must agree with the noun class and have singular and plural forms, pronouns also encode proximal and distal information.[5]
| Noun Class | Singular Pronouns | Plural Pronouns | Singular Demonstratives | Plural Demonstratives | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Proximal | Distal | Proximal | Distal | |||
| 1 | ébab | babi | ébúsab | babasi | ébúdak | ébúsúdak |
| 2 | éblab | babli | éblalúb | balbi | ébúlúdak | élbúdak |
| 3 | égag | gagi | égsag | gagasi | égúdak | égúsúdak |
| 4 | okok | kwakwi | owou | wawi | oukudak | oudak |
| 5 | omom | mami | éblab | babli | omudak | ébúlúdak |
| 6 | énan | nani | ébab | babi | énúdak | ébúdak |
| 7 | énan | nani | omom | mami | énúdak | omudak |
| 8 | enyeny | nyanyi | echech | chachi | enyédak | echédak |
| 9 | énap | papi | ésas | sasi | opudak | ésúdak |
| 10 | élal | lali | oguhogw | gwaguhi | élúdak | oguhudak |
| 11 | état | tati | ogogw | gwagwi | étúdak | ogudak |
| 12 | ohohw | hwahwi | éhlah | hlahli | ohudak | éhúlúdak |
| 13 | éhah | hahi | ohoh | haehi | éhédak | éhúdak |
| 14 | ésas | sasi | ésas | sasi | ésúdak | ésúdak |
| 15 | égnag | gani | ogohuh | gwaguhi | égúndak | oguhudak |
| 16 | égúgún | gani | égúgún | gani | égúndak | égúndak |
| 17 | énan | nani | omom | mami | énúdak | omudak |
| 18 | okok | kwakwi | owou | wawi | oukudak | oudak |
| Person | Singular | Dual | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1st | yek(eik) | ohwak | apak |
| 2nd | nyak(nyek) | bwiepú | ipak |
| 3rd (masculine) | énan/nani | omom bwiom | omom/mami |
| 3rd (feminine) | okok/kwakwi | owo bwiou | owo/wawi |
| 3rd (mixed gender) | - | echech bwiech | echech/chachi |
Possessive pronouns have the form: pronoun + -i + unú (noun number class)
Verbs
Verb structure
Verbs have a complex structure of affixes encoding mood, object, benefactive, and direction which either have their own classes or must agree with the noun class. The structure is:[5]
Subject (n-) + Mood (u- 'irrealis', a- 'realis') + Object (unú-) + Verb Nucleus (verb root 1–6, verb stem 1-2)+ Object 2 (-unú) + Benefactive (-m 'benefactive' + -unú/-ag 'here') + Directional (-u 'displaced', -i 'toward speaker', '-uk' permanent).
Object 2 and Benefactive may not occur in all verbs.
Verb subject prefixes
| Person | Singular | Dual | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| First | i- | w- | m- |
| Second | ny- | p- | p- |
Mood marker
All verbs (with the exception of class 6 have a mood marker). The realis mood (mood marker 'a-') concerns events that have happens in the past and present. The irrealis mood (mood marker 'u-') concerns future events and events that did not happen in the past (such as in the case of a mistaken memory). The imperative mood (used for commands) and interrogative mood (used for questions) are formed by clausal transformations.[citation needed]
Verb object suffixes
| Person | Singular | Dual | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1st | -uwe/-owe | -ohu | -apú |
| 2nd | -enyú/-inyú | - | -epú |
| 3rd (masculine) | -unú/-an´ | - | -om |
| 3rd (feminine) | -ok/-uk | - | -ou |
| 3rd (mixed gender) | -eny/-iny | - | -ech/-ich |
Verb root classes
| Transitive | Intransitive | Stative | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Obligatory Object | Optional Object | |||||
| Prefix | Suffix | Prefix | Suffix | |||
| Optional Free Subject | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 / 8 | 5 | 6 |
| Obligatory Free Subject | 7 | |||||
Class 8 has a second object while class 4 only has one.
Adjectives
Adjectives consist of a root word followed by the appropriate noun-class suffix (see the noun class table).[5]
Adverbs
There are three adverb classes in Bukiyip: 'natimogúk' (all) in the irrealis mood and '-nubu' (completely) and '-gamu' (well) in the realis mood. All adverbs are inflected, and may have free or bound stems depending on which modifier slot they are placed in the clausal, phrase, or sentence syntax.[5]
Counting system
There are two basic numeral roots 'atú-' (one) and 'bia-' (two). These numeral prefixes are added to noun root words and then undergo a morphological process (see the [[Bukiyip language#Morphophonemics[10]|Morphophonemics section]]) that combines them.[5] For example:
atú + -p + utom → atum → otum
or
bia + -ch + batowich → biech
The numeral root 'nobati-' (four) is an exception to this assimilation pattern. In addition to the atú- and bia- numeral roots, there is also a stem éné- meaning one, an, or some depending on context.
Phrases
There are 23 phrase formations in Bukiyip.[5]
Verb phrases
1. Modified Verb Phrase: Modifier (class 1-2 adverb) + Head (verb class 1-7) + Modifier (class 3 adverb, adverb phrase)
2. Repeated Verb Phrase: Head (verb class 10, motion verb) + Modifier (class 3 adverb) + Head (verb class 10, '-lto') + Modifier
3. Coordinate Verb Phrase: Head (verb class 1–5, coordinate phrase) + Head (verb class 1–5, modified phrase) + Modifier
4. Motion Verb Phrase: Head (motion verb, motion verb phrase) + Head (verb class 3, coordinate verb phrase) + Modifier (adverb class 3)
Noun phrases
5. Modified Noun Phrase 1: Modifier (demonstrative, numeral phrase, quantitative stem) + Modifier (class 2 adjective, adjective phrase, nominalised clause, limiter phrase) + Possessive (possessive phrase, possessive pronoun) + Head (class 1-15 noun, coordinate noun phrase)
6. Modified Noun Phrase 2: Modifier (noun stem, class 17-18 noun, class 3 locative phrase) + Head (noun)
7. Apposition Noun Phrase: Head (apposition noun phrase, coordinate noun phrase, demonstrative, intensive phrase, class 18 noun, pronoun, temporal stem) + Apposition (clause, nominalised clause, coordinate noun phrase, modified noun phrase, class 17-18 noun, derived noun stem, pronoun, temporal stem) + Identification (pronoun)
8. Coordinate Noun Phrase: Head (apposition noun phrase, modified noun phrase, class 17 noun, pronoun) + Head (apposition noun phrase, modified noun phrase, class 17 noun, pronoun) + Coordinate ('o', 'úli', ⟨n-⟩ + a- + -nú, ⟨n-⟩ + ú- + -nú)
Modified noun phrases
9. Possessive Phrase: Head (apposition noun phrase, coordinate noun phrase, demonstrative, class 3 locative phrase, modified noun phrase, class 17-18 noun, noun stem) + Possessive (personal pronoun, '-i-')
10. Limiter Phrase: Head (adverb, demonstrative, modified noun phrase, noun stem, pronoun) + Limiter (at- + <únú>, ati)
11. Intensive Phrase: Head (pronoun) + Intensifier ('kénak', 'meho')
12. Instrumental-Benefactor Phrase: Benefactive (umu) + Head (intransitive clause, transitive clause, modified noun phrase)
13. Similarity Phrase: Similarity ('(ko)bwidou(k)') + Head (intransitive clause, transitive clause, demonstrative, pronoun, modified noun phrase) + Similarity ('-umu')
14. Accompaniment Phrase: Head (pronoun, modified noun phrase, apposition noun phrase) + Accompaniment ('nagún')
Locative phrase
15. Locative Phrase 1: Locative (locative) + Head (locative clause, locative word, class 2-3 locative phrase 2, modified noun phrase, class 18 noun) + Identifier (class 18 noun)
16. Locative Phrase 2: Head (intransitive clause, transitive clause, locative, noun, pronoun) + Locative ('-umu', '-ahah')
17. Locative Phrase 3: Head (class 2 locative) + Head (class 3 locative)
Temporal phrase
18. Temporal Phrase 1: Head (temporal stem) + Temporal ('-abali')
19. Temporal Phrase 2: Modifier ('húlúkati-mu) + Head (temporal word)
20. Serial Temporal Phrase: Head (temporal word) + Head (temporal word)
Numeral phrase
21. Numeral Phrase: Head (modified noun phrase, numeral stem) + Head (numeral stem) + Head (numeral stem)
Interrogative phrase
22. Interrogative Phrase: Modifier (interrogative word) + Head (class 1-14 noun)
Adjective/adverb phrase
23. Adjective Phrase: Head (adjective stem) + Head (adjective stem) 1-14 noun
References
- ^ Bukiyip at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
- ^ a b "Bukiyip". Ethnologue. Retrieved 2019-10-07.
- ^ a b Dobrin, Lise Miriam. Phonological form, morphological class, and syntactic gender : the noun class systems of Papua New Guinea Arapeshan. OCLC 42975575.
- ^ a b Juagu, Junny, author. (2008). Bukiyip dictionary. ISBN 978-9980033833. OCLC 892628484.
{{cite book}}:|last=has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Conrad, Robert; Wogiga, Kepas (1991). "An Outline Of Bukiyip Grammar". Pacific Linguistics. C (113). Australian National University. ISBN 0-85883-391-3. ISSN 0078-7558.
- ^ "Glottolog 4.0 - Bukiyip". glottolog.org. Retrieved 2019-10-07.