Agriculture in Turkey

This is a good article. Click here for more information.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about farming since the creation of the Republic of Turkey in 1923. For earlier farming on that land, see Fertile Crescent and Economic history of the Ottoman Empire § Agriculture. For trees grown for timber, see Forest in Turkey. For enjoyment of farm products, see Turkish cuisine.

Large field of light brown grain with a combine harvester in the middle and trees in the distance under a blue sky with some small clouds
Wheat harvest in Sivas Province
Economy of Turkey
Emblem of Turkey
Economic history
Money
Stock exchange
Major projects
Related topics
flag Turkey portal

Agriculture is still an important sector of Turkey's economy, and the country is one of the world's top ten agricultural producers.[1] Wheat, sugar beet, milk, poultry, cotton, vegetables and fruit are major products;[2] and Turkey is the world's largest grower of hazelnuts,[3] apricots,[2] and oregano.[4]

Half of Turkey's land is agricultural,[2] and farming employs about 15% of the workforce,[5] but under half a million farmers.[6][7] It provides about 10% of exports[8] and over 5% of gross domestic product (GDP).[9] Over 380 billion lira of agricultural subsidy is budgeted for 2024.[10]

Despite being a major food producer, Turkey is a net wheat importer, with much of it coming from Russia and Ukraine.[11] Turkey is the European Union (EU)'s fourth largest vegetable supplier and the seventh largest fruit supplier. Turkey would like to extend the EU Customs Union Agreement to agricultural products.[12]

Around half of Turkey's agricultural greenhouse gas is due to cattle.[a] According to the World Bank, the sector should adapt more to climate change in Turkey and make technical improvements.[6] Strategic planning is the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, but no plan for 2024 onwards has yet been published.[14][15] Almost all the seeds used in Turkey are produced domestically.[16]

History[edit]

See also: Fertile Crescent, Economic history of the Ottoman Empire § Agriculture, and History of wine § Ancient Thrace
International Agricultural Fair in Adana in 1924

Historically, Turkey's farmers have been fairly fragmented.[17] Atatürk, who founded the republic in the early 20th century, said that the foundation of the economy was agriculture.[18] Governments initiated many projects, such as the controversial[19] Southeastern Anatolia Project,[20] but later much agriculture was privatized.[21]

The population increased a lot in the 20th century, so there was more demand for food and agricultural land. From 1880 to 1950 agricultural output growth averaged about 1% a year, in line with the increased population having new land.[22] Then growth accelerated as more land could be cultivated because there were many more machines, such as tractors – for example due to the Marshall Plan.[22] By the 1970s higher yielding varieties of wheat had been planted,[23] but einkorn continued to be consumed by locals.[24]

The increase in agricultural land continued until the 1990s when it started to decrease.[25] Like many other countries Turkey industrialized and urbanized, and by the end of the 20th century only 35% of employment and 13% of GDP was from agriculture.[22]

Formerly widespread in the west and centre of the country, in 1933 opium growing was strictly controlled.[26] In the 20th century growing tobacco was economically important in provinces such as Samsun, and was supported by the state, but in the early 21st century it was discouraged by governments keen to reduce smoking in Turkey.[27] During the early 21st century farmers shifted to growing more profitable crops such as fruit and vegetables, instead of wheat and corn.[28]: 4 

Environment[edit]

Issues[edit]

See also: Environmental issues in Turkey

Half of Turkey's land is agricultural.[2] Turkish agriculture emits greenhouse gases half from cattle. Since at least 1990 enteric fermentation (cows and sheep belching methane) has been the largest source of greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture, followed by agricultural soils.[29]: 38  According to the World Bank, the sector should adapt more to climate change in Turkey and make technical improvements.[6] The Aegean Region may be the most at risk from climate change.[30]

14% of food was lost during agricultural processing in 2016, compared to 23% trashed by consumers before eating and 5% leftovers.[31] Stubble burning is illegal in Turkey, but farmers continue the practice illicitly.[32] Deliberate burning of field residue can cause wildfires in Turkey.[33] Agriculture on steep land can increase the risk of flooding.[34]: 32  In 2020 over 900 thousand tonnes of ammonia was emitted.[35]

Water[edit]

Two large channels of water flow slowly from a low sloping dam with several pipes at one end of the dam
The Atatürk Dam is the largest of the 22 dams in the Southeastern Anatolia Project, which includes the irrigation of 1.82 million hectares of land.
See also: State Hydraulic Works (Turkey), Drought in Turkey, and Water supply and sanitation in Turkey

At around 1300 m3 freshwater per person per year Turkey is water-stressed and at risk of water scarcity, mainly due to wasteful irrigation.[36][37][38] Water pricing is being considered.[39] Desertification has been modelled and the risk has been mapped,[34] showing that high-risk regions are Karapınar, Aralık, Ceylanpınar and Lake Tuz basins.[40] Solar power is occasionally used to pump water to combat drought,[41] which can reduce planting of crops such as corn and potatoes.[42] The irrigation part of the Eastern Anatolia Project is controversial.[43]

Farmers mostly use surface irrigation, which loses 35% to 60% of water through evaporation, seepage, and leakage.[44] This old-fashioned irrigation may quickly deplete groundwater and run off the farm. Runoff is causing nitrogen pollution in some river basins.[45] This can cause eutrophication which threatens aquatic life[46] and a project is ongoing to map and combat this.[47] As of 2023 73% of Turkey's water supply is used for irrigation, and it has been estimated that this is double what it would be if all farmers used drip irrigation.[48] Farmers are reluctant because of the installation cost of drip installation, and more government support has been suggested.[38] Shrinking lakes have been blamed both on reduced precipitation due to climate change and incorrect crops using more water, such as corn and sugar beet.[49]

Regions and soils[edit]

See also: Climate of Turkey

The most important regions for agriculture are the Mediterranean, Aegean, Black Sea, Thrace and Marmara, Central Anatolia, Eastern Anatolia and transition regions.[21]: 8 

By the mid-20th century erosion had reduced the amount of arable land,[50] but the government is combating desertification and erosion in various ways.[34] However soil erosion is forecast to increase with climate change, with about 30% occurring on agricultural land.[51] The main types of soil in Turkey are calisols, cambisols and leptosols, and fluvisols.[52] Degraded soil could be improved.[21]: 11  Soil surveys have been done at least since the 1950s,[53] and the ministry has published soil maps.[54][55][56][57] The Turkish Foundation for Combating Soil Erosion is an NGO as is the Soil Science Society of Turkey.[58] A 2016 study said soil had been degraded and that there was great potential to sequester carbon.[59] There is a public soil database,[60] but as of 2023 the weblink does not work.[61] Increasing soil organic carbon (SOC) in agricultural soils is important, and in 2017 total SOC down to 0.7 m was estimated at 9.23 Pg.[62] Another estimate is slightly under 3000 tonnes/sq km.[25] Accumulation of soil organic matter depends partly on cultivation but can be hindered by aridity.[63]

Crops[edit]

Two headscarfed women, one with a plastic bowl and the other a very big tin, kneeling on a large plastic sheet spread with hazelnuts. In the background is a pile of husks.
Women drying hazelnuts in Düzce Province in northwestern Turkey

Crops can be grown in all regions and there is livestock on high mountains and in arid regions.[64] Wheat, sugar beet, cotton, vegetables and fruit are major crops;[2] and Turkey is the world's largest grower of hazelnuts,[3] apricots,[2] oregano[4] and raisins.[65]

As of 2023 most cultivated land is for grain.[66] In 2022 70 million tonnes of cereals and other crops were produced; 32 million tonnes of vegetables; and 27 million tonnes of fruit, beverages and spice crops;[67] and the country was self-sufficient in rapeseed, dry beans, potatoes and sugar beet and almost all fruits and vegetables.[68] Due to rotation a third of arable land is fallow each year.[21]: 8 

Cereals[edit]

Very tall adjacent cylinders each painted in a pale colour
Turkish Grain Board silos in İzmir

In 2021 the country was almost self-sufficient in cereals,[69] and the largest exports in 2022 were to Iraq, the United States and Syria.[70] However in hotter and colder[need quotation to verify] years less cereal is produced.[71] About 20 million tonnes a year of wheat are grown, but less than half that each of barley and corn.[72] Most wheat is winter wheat.[73] Wheat yields average 2 and a half tonnes a hectare,[74] and climate change affects both wheat productivity and where it is grown.[75] Barley is not usually irrigated, so yield depends on rainfall.[73] Drought can be a problem for both winter wheat and winter barley.[76] Nearly 85% of corn is used to make animal feed.[73] Rice is planted April/May and harvested Sept/Oct.[73]

Fruit, vegetables and legumes[edit]

Citrus fruits are grown mainly in the Mediterranean and Aegean regions.[77] Many tomatoes are exported.[78] Most vegetable and fruit exports are to the EU.[79] Greenhouses have a competitive advantage over EU ones due to lower costs.[80] In 2022 Turkey had a third of the world's greenhouses heated by geothermal energy.[81] Geothermal heat can also be used to dry fruit.[82] Tropical fruit such as mangoes can be grown in greenhouses.[83] In 2023 hydroponics was starting to be used in these geothermal greenhouses.[84] Although banana cultivation in the Mediterranean region is increasing,[85] some farmers are switching to avocados as they are more profitable because they need less water.[86][87]

About 4 million tonnes of grapes are grown annually,[88] ranking sixth in the world.[89] The country has the fifth largest area of vineyard,[90] and about 3% of the harvest is used for Turkish wine.[90] Raisins are exported to the EU and the United Kingdom.[91]

Medium sized trees with purple flowers underneath
Olive trees in Sarıçam

There are almost 200 million olive trees,[92] and Turkey produces about 200 thousand tonnes of olive oil a year,[93] that is an average of 1 kg per tree per year. Edremit (Ayvalık) is the main variety in northern Turkey and Memecik in the south. Gemlik is a black table olive and many other varieties are grown.[94]

Lentils are grown in the south-east.[95]

Nuts and oilseeds[edit]

A pile of twigs with large clusters of small green nuts with tiny white spots and tips shading to pale red, and green leaves
Pistachios in Gaziantep Province

About 70% of the world's hazelnuts are produced in Turkey. Ferrero, the Italian producer of Nutella spread, buys the most.[96] The agriculture ministry is encouraging planting more almond and commercial walnut trees, as national supply does not meet domestic demand.[96] Around 200 thousand tonnes of pistachios are produced annually but yields vary a lot between on and off years. The Turkish Foundation for Combating Soil Erosion has been training pistachio farmers.[96]

Gently rolling hills of green and yellow fields with a lone tree in the distance under high clouds
Sunflowers

Almost half of the country's sunflower seeds are grown in Thrace, and more sunflower oil is consumed than olive oil, as it is cheaper. Soybeans are used as a rotation crop and to feed fish and chickens.[97]

Tea[edit]

Man, woman and four young children with a large basket and heap of green leaves, in front of a small building
Black Sea tea farming in 1990
This section is an excerpt from Tea in Turkey § Domestic production.[edit]
Large heap of green leaves on a white plastic sheet amongst low green plants in front of a couple of small trees
Tea harvest

Since the mid-20th century most of the tea produced in Turkey has been Rize tea, a terroir from Rize Province on the Eastern Black Sea coast.[98] Rize has a mild climate with high precipitation and fertile soil.[98]

In 2019 Turkey produced 1.45 million tonnes of tea (4% of the world's tea), and was one of the largest tea markets in the world,[99] with 1.26 million tonnes being consumed in Turkey, and the rest being exported.[98] Turks drink the most tea per person at 3.5 kg each a year, or almost four glasses a day.[100] Turkey has high import tariffs on tea, roughly 145%, which helps maintain the domestic market for locally produced teas.[101]

However by 2023 production had fallen to just over 500 thousand tonnes, due to high temperatures and irregular rainfall.[102]

Herbs, medicines and spices[edit]

White flowers on long vertical stalks among similar stalks which are topped by green ovoids
Opium poppies

There are about a thousand species of herbs, medicines and spices, of which almost half are exported, with oregano, bay leaves, sage, aniseed and cumin being the top export earners. Much aniseed is used in the country to flavour rakı.[103] Turkey produces most of the world's oregano,[4] and garlic is grown.[104] Opium is grown for medicines.[26]

Livestock[edit]

There are about 150 thousand sq km of pasture.[25] Much more meat is produced from cattle than sheep.[105] A lot of sheep and goat meat is exported to Iraq. Over 20 million tonnes of milk is produced each year.[106] The meat and milk board [tr] regulates the meat market.[107]

The main animal feed crops are alfalfa, silage corn, oats, vetch, and sainfoin.[108] Animal feed manufacture depends on imports and more cattle feed is produced than chicken feed.[73] Livestock are affected by foot and mouth disease.[109]

Cattle[edit]

See also: Greenhouse gas emissions by Turkey § Agriculture and fishing

In 2022 there were 17 million cattle[110] of which about 70% were dairy.[106] Native cattle breeds such as Anatolian Black cattle are low yielding but hardy.[111] About 80% of cattle farm expenditure is on feed, with half of the ingredients being imported.[112] In 2023 inflation was a problem for cattle farmers as feed prices were increasing faster than milk and beef prices. Most imports are feeder cattle for beef.[106] Around half of Turkey's agricultural greenhouse gas is due to cattle.[b] Traditionally transhumance was practiced. The Agriculture Ministry is trying to get more biogas produced from cattle waste.[114]

Sheep, goats and buffalo[edit]

Sheep and shepherd on a gently sloping grassy hillside
Sheep in Dereli

Turkey is a major sheep producer. In 2022 there were 45 million sheep,[110] including 30 million ewes (mostly of the fat-tailed type) and the average flock size was 85. A quarter of meat is from sheep, with 390 thousand tonnes a year and an average 4.2 kilograms (9.3 lb) is consumed per person per year. The highest sheep meat consumption is during Eid Al Adha. Turkish sheep meat is exported to Iraq, Syria and Gulf countries. Cheese is made from sheep milk.[115] Sheep and goats are mostly fed on pasture.[106] In 2022 there were 12 million goats and 170 thousand water buffalos.[110]

Aquaculture[edit]

Fish farming in Aegean Turkey

There are over 400 marine aquaculture facilities.[116] Sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) and sea bream (Sparus aurata) are farmed, and mostly trout (rainbow trout and brown trout) in inland waters, these 3 being the most farmed, with about 150 thousand tonnes a year of each.[89] Aquaculture overtook fishing in 2020, with Muğla, İzmir and Elazığ being the top provinces.

Government support is provided, although subsidies for seabream and seabass ended in 2016.[116] In 2021, US$1.2 billion worth of farmed fish were exported,[6] and Turkey was the worlds top producer of seabass and seabream.[116] Most exports are to the EU and EU directives are followed.[116]

Other livestock[edit]

Over a million tonnes of poultry meat and over 2 million tonnes of eggs are produced a year,[117] and over a hundred thousand tonnes of honey.[118]

Policy, regulation and research[edit]

It is the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. Almost all the seeds used in Turkey are produced domestically.[16] Seeds and bulbs are stored long term.[119] The World Bank has a project to improve sustainable agriculture in some regions,[120] however in the first 2 decades of the 21st century farming is thought not to have been sustainable.[121] The EU said in 2022 that food safety, veterinary and phytosanitary policy should be improved.[122]

Various tech is being considered, sometimes similar is already being made in local factories, for example the defence industry makes drones.[123] There are about 2 million tractors and it has been suggested that electric tractors should be subsidized.[124] However, there is only one electric tractor manufacturer and they are not yet mass-produced.[125] There is a General Directorate of Agricultural Research and Policies (TAGEM) centre for research on soil borne pathogens.[126]

As of 2022 some gene editing of animal feed corn and feed soya has been allowed but not for human food.[127] Biostimulants have been suggested to increase drought resistance and food security, as has technology to use water more efficiently.[128] No-till farming is being studied.[129] A 2023 study said that enforcement of pesticide rules was lax.[130]

Examples of good practice suggested by the Turkish Industry and Business Association (TÜSİAD) include reduced ploughing, low fertiliser use, mulching, and nitrogen inhibitors.[131]: 19  Less ploughing saves fuel costs.[132]: 399 

Trade and economics[edit]

Agriculture is an important sector of Turkey's economy, and the country is one of the world's top ten agricultural producers.[1] Over 50 billion dollars revenue a year is from agriculture,[66] and farming provided 10% of exports in 2020[8] and 6.5% of GDP in 2022.[9] Despite being a major food producer, Turkey is a net wheat importer, with much of it coming from Russia and Ukraine.[11] Turkey is the EU's fourth largest non-EU vegetable supplier and the seventh largest fruit supplier. In 2023 Finance Minister Mehmet Şimşek said he would like to restart negotiations on the "low-hanging fruit" of extending the EU Customs Union Agreement to agricultural products, which had came to a halt in 2018;[133] as of 2023 the agreement only applies to processed agricultural products.[134] In 2021, Turkey received 65 percent of all imported wheat from Russia and more than 13 percent from Ukraine.[11] Around 70% of imported wheat is reexported as pasta, bulgur and flour.[135] Europe and the Middle East are large export markets and some food is processed before export.[1] In 2020 the country receiving the most exports was Iraq,[136] and that sending the most food to Turkey was Russia.[137] Turkey is the world's largest exporter of wheat flour, and some other countries' flour producers say it is dumping with unfair subsidies.[138] The EU intends to support rural development with €430 million during 2021–2027.[139] Total factor productivity is estimated to have decreased by 2% annually on average from 2005 to 2016.[140] According to the International Fund for Agricultural Development "investment is needed to help farmers update production techniques, boost productivity and cope with climate change" in the uplands (most rural land is uplands).[1] In 2023 food inflation was over 50%.[128] In 2023 the EU complained that Turkey was restricting imports and said it should improve food safety, veterinary and phytosanitary policy.[141]

Although in April 2023 there were no import taxes on wheat, barley, maize, rye, oats, legumes and sorghum;[142] as of May 2023 there is a 130% import tariff on wheat, rye, oats, barley and corn. The TMO price of wheat was about 30% below the market price in 2023.[135] Gübretaş and Hektaş are large producers of fertiliser and other farm products. State enterprises market some products.[39] The largest sugar company is the state-owned Türkşeker.[143] Over a billion dollars of damage to agriculture infrastructure and storage was done by the 2023 earthquake.[144] The Agricultural Insurance Pool(Turkish) is linked to the government. But import tariffs average over 40% so it would be hard to add agriculture to the EU customs union.[145] Some academics say that high food price inflation is due to macroeconomic instability.[146] Food price rises such as onion and potato prices can be politically sensitive.[146] TÜSİAD say that Turkey needs a good climate change adaptation strategy to cope with effects such as drought.[146] Input costs could be reduced by replacing some diesel use with solar power, but as of 2022 agrivoltaics is only allowed on agriculturally marginal land. and farmers say there is too much red tape.[28] Problems include small farm sizes, rising import costs and natural resource depletion such as soil.[28]: 4  Nearly two-thirds of farms are smaller than 5 hectares, possibly due to divisions on inheritance.[44]

Employment[edit]

Youngish man wearing baseball cap pitchforking sticks into a trailer
Farmer in Hacımirza

There are just under half a million farmers as of 2022,[6][7] 16% of the workforce.[5] As of 2022, agricultural statistics need improvement according to the EU.[147] In 2022 there were over 2 million people on the Agriculture Ministry's Farmer Registration System,[148] but only half a million were farmers[149] and known to the Social Security Institution.[150] Many farms are small,[151] mostly single person or family farms,[152] with many women working informally.[153] It has been claimed that with the influx of Syrian refugees seasonal agricultural work became more precarious, especially for women and children.[154][155] Kurdish seasonal workers are also poor.[156] The International Labour Organization is helping to stop child labour.[157] The UN Food and Agriculture Organization has various projects, prioritising "Food and Nutrition Security and Food Safety", "Sustainable use of natural resources and raising awareness on climate change impacts" and "Institutional Capacity of Public and Private Sectors".[158]

Subsidies[edit]

The 2024 agricultural support budget was €2.7 billion.[159] In 2019–21 about 20% of gross farm income was government support, mostly market price support, particularly for potatoes, wheat, sunflower seed and beef.[39] Diesel and fertilizer payments were made, which may make the goal of net zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2053 more difficult.[39] According to environmental group Doğa the subsidies for water intensive crops such as corn and sugar beet endanger wetlands in Turkey.[160][161] Farmers are not allowed to export wheat.[162] Despite subsidies farmers' fuel and fertilizer costs increased a lot in 21/22 due to international price rises and the fall in the lira.[73] The state's Grain Board (TMO)(Turkish) sometimes pays more for foreign than Turkish wheat, and farmers complain that foreign wheat is sold at a discount:[162] this is done so bread is cheaper, as Turks eat so much bread.[73] A TMO objective is to stabilize grain prices.[73] Cotton growing[163] and oilseeds[97] are subsidized. There is some support for organic farming.[164] Some farmers say their debt is due to not enough state support.[159]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^ Total 72 Mt: 27 Mt enteric fermentation + 61% of 9 Mt manure management = 32 Mt + unknown share of agricultural soils.[13]: 240, 257 
  2. ^ Total 72 Mt: 27 Mt enteric fermentation + 61% of 9 Mt manure management = 32 Mt + unknown share of agricultural soils.[113]: 240, 257 

References[edit]

  1. ^ a b c d "Türkiye". International Fund for Agricultural Development. Retrieved 2023-04-12.
  2. ^ a b c d e f "Turkey – Country Commercial Guide". International Trade Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce. 2022-07-26.
  3. ^ a b "Hazelnuts: Turkey remains top producer". Mundus Agri. 23 March 2022. Retrieved 2023-08-07.
  4. ^ a b c Uğural, İsmail (2023-03-29). "Türkiye supplies 80% of world production of Oregano". Turkish Agrinews. Retrieved 2023-04-19.
  5. ^ a b "Labour Force Statistics, 2022". Turkstat. Retrieved 2023-04-27.
  6. ^ a b c d e "Turkey's farmers battle with soaring costs and mounting debt". Financial Times. 2022-05-04. Retrieved 2022-05-13.
  7. ^ a b "Number of farmers in Turkey plummets below half a million". Gazete Duvar. 2022-04-21. Retrieved 2022-09-10.
  8. ^ a b "World Bank Provides $341 Million Boost to Advance Green and Competitive Growth of Turkey's Agricultural Sector". World Bank. 30 March 2022.
  9. ^ a b "Gayri̇ Safi̇ Yurti̇çi̇ Hasila Değerler" [Gross Domestic Product Values] (PDF). Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (Turkey).
  10. ^ "Turkey to privatize highways, bridges, and hydroelectric power plants to reduce current account deficit". Gercek News. 2023-11-01. Retrieved 2023-11-17.
  11. ^ a b c Gostev, Aleksandr; Liklikadze, Koba (30 April 2022). "Analysis: Erdogan Hoping Russian Invasion Of Ukraine Can Bolster Turkish Regional Power". Radio Free Europe.
  12. ^ Valero, Jorge (2023-08-02). "EU and Turkey Discuss Easing Trade Relations Amid Warmer Ties". Bloomberg News. Retrieved 2023-08-11.
  13. ^ "Türkiye. 2023 National Inventory Report (NIR)". unfccc.int. Turkstat. Retrieved 2023-04-29.
  14. ^ "Kamuda Stratejik Yönetim |". www.sp.gov.tr. Retrieved 2023-11-28.
  15. ^ 2019–23 strategic plan (updated in 2022) (PDF) (Report). Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry.
  16. ^ a b "Bakan Pakdemirli: 'Ülkemizde kullanılan tohumlukların yüzde 96'sı yurt içinde üretilmektedir'" [Minister Pakdemirli: '96 percent of the seeds used in our country are produced domestically']. gazete banka. 21 December 2021.
  17. ^ Ray, Isha; Gül, Serap (2000). "More from less: policy options and farmer choice under and Drainage Systems" (PDF). Irrigation and Drainage Systems. 13 (4): 363–383. doi:10.1023/A:1006357511193. S2CID 108983638. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-02-16.
  18. ^ "Agriculture". Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Retrieved 2023-04-18.
  19. ^ "The Great Anatolia Project: Is Water Management a Panacea or Crisis Multiplier for Turkey's Kurds?". New Security Beat. 2013-08-05. Retrieved 2023-11-04.
  20. ^ "What's GAP?". Ministry of Industry and Technology.
  21. ^ a b c d "The state of Turkey's Biodiversity for Food and Agriculture" (PDF). Food and Agriculture Organization. 2016.
  22. ^ a b c Pamuk, Şevket (2008). "Agriculture and economic development in Turkey, 1870–2000" (PDF). Boğaziçi University.
  23. ^ Bayri, Tulay Y.; Furtan, W. Hartley (1989). "The Impact of New Wheat Technology on Income Distribution: A Green Revolution Case Study, Turkey, 1960–1983". Economic Development and Cultural Change. 38: 113–127. doi:10.1086/451778. S2CID 154937584.
  24. ^ Atalan Helicke, Nurcan. "Markets and Collective Action: A Case Study of Traditional Wheat Varieties in Turkey". Journal of Economy Culture and Society. doi:10.26650/JECS402676.
  25. ^ a b c "TURKEY Land Degradation Neutrality National Report" (PDF). Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (Turkey). 2016.
  26. ^ a b "UNODC – Bulletin on Narcotics – 1950 Issue 1 – 003". United Nations : Office on Drugs and Crime. Retrieved 2023-08-11.
  27. ^ "Farmers as Dispossessed Citizens. The Remaking of the Tobacco Market in Adıyaman". Ethnologie française.
  28. ^ a b c Ağır, Seven; Güre, Pınar Derin; Şentürk, Bilge (2023). Agropv's Potential Opportunities and Challenges in a Mediterranean Developing Country Setting: A Farmer's Perspective. Economic Research Center.
  29. ^ "Türkiye. 2023 National Inventory Report (NIR)". unfccc.int. Turkstat. 14 Apr 2023. Retrieved 2023-04-29.
  30. ^ Pilevneli, Tolga; Capar, Goksen; Sánchez-Cerdà, Clara (2023-01-01). "Investigation of climate change impacts on agricultural production in Turkey using volumetric water footprint approach". Sustainable Production and Consumption. 35: 605–623. doi:10.1016/j.spc.2022.12.013. ISSN 2352-5509. S2CID 254848305.
  31. ^ Turetken, Mucahit (27 January 2021). "One-fourth of wasted food could feed 870M people: expert". Anadolu Agency.
  32. ^ Yakupoğlu, Tuğrul; Di̇ndaroğlu, Turgay; Rodri̇go-Comi̇no, Jesús; Cerdà, Artemio (2022-01-01). "Stubble burning and wildfires in Turkey considering the Sustainable Development Goals of the United Nations". Eurasian Journal of Soil Science. 11 (1): 66–76. doi:10.18393/ejss.993611. ISSN 2147-4249. S2CID 245619452.
  33. ^ "Turkey combats 19 wildfires in one day amid extreme heat and sabotages". Gazete Duvar. 17 July 2023.
  34. ^ a b c "Combating Desertification and Erosion activities in Turkey" (PDF). Ministry of Environment, Urbanisation and Climate Change. 2017.
  35. ^ "Agri-Environmental other indicators : Ammonia emissions". stats.oecd.org. Retrieved 2023-09-22.
  36. ^ "Per capita freshwater in Turkey reduced by three quarters". Bianet. Retrieved 2023-11-10.
  37. ^ "Water Challenges in Turkey". Fanack Water. Retrieved 2023-11-10.
  38. ^ a b "Main Cause of Water Waste in Turkey: Agricultural Irrigation". İklim Haber. 2023-03-29. Retrieved 2023-11-10.
  39. ^ a b c d Agricultural Policy Monitoring and Evaluation 2022. OECD. 2022. doi:10.1787/7f4542bf-en. ISBN 9789264998681. S2CID 264550308. Retrieved 2023-04-12.
  40. ^ "Turkey Monitors Desertification with the Model Developed by TÜBİTAK BİLGEM YTE". Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey.
  41. ^ Brown, Hannah (2023-01-05). "How this Turkish city is transforming its energy supply". euronews. Retrieved 2023-01-22.
  42. ^ "Drought might hinder planting of some crops: Farmers". Hürriyet Daily News. 13 January 2023. Retrieved 2023-04-13.
  43. ^ "Turkey Plan To Build Dams On Aras River To Turn 3 Iranian Provinces Into Deserts: Univ. Professor". Iran Front Page. 2023-05-23. Retrieved 2023-11-04.
  44. ^ a b Ergur, Semih (September 30, 2023). "97% of Turkish Farmers Reported Diminishing Harvests and Yields Due to Climate Change-Related Impacts".
  45. ^ Muratoglu, Abdullah (2020-11-10). "Grey water footprint of agricultural production: An assessment based on nitrogen surplus and high-resolution leaching runoff fractions in Turkey". Science of the Total Environment. 742: 140553. Bibcode:2020ScTEn.742n0553M. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140553. ISSN 0048-9697. PMID 32615375. S2CID 220331395.
  46. ^ Varol, Memet; Tokatlı, Cem (2021-10-15). "Impact of paddy fields on water quality of Gala Lake (Turkey): An important migratory bird stopover habitat". Environmental Pollution. 287: 117640. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2021.117640. ISSN 0269-7491. PMID 34182394.
  47. ^ "Nepiz Project | Nitrate Action Plans Protection of Waters Against Agricultural Pollution". www.nepiz.com. Retrieved 2023-11-11.
  48. ^ "A Water Crisis Of Turkey's Own Making". menafn.com. 4 April 2023. Retrieved 2023-04-13.
  49. ^ "Son 30 yılda Türkiye'nin büyük göllerinin yüzde 54'ü küçüldü" [54 percent of Turkey's large lakes have shrunk in the last 30 years]. BBC News Türkçe (in Turkish). Retrieved 2023-05-30.
  50. ^ Erinç, Sirri; Tunçdilek, Necdet (1952). "The Agricultural Regions of Turkey". Geographical Review. 42 (2): 179–203. Bibcode:1952GeoRv..42..179E. doi:10.2307/211384. JSTOR 211384.
  51. ^ Berberoglu, Suha; Cilek, Ahmet; Kirkby, Mike; Irvine, Brian; Donmez, Cenk (2020). "Spatial and temporal evaluation of soil erosion in Turkey under climate change scenarios using the Pan-European Soil Erosion Risk Assessment (PESERA) model". Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 192 (8): 491. doi:10.1007/s10661-020-08429-5. PMID 32638113. S2CID 220375323.
  52. ^ "Map of the principal soil types in Turkey (European Commission and... | Download Scientific Diagram".
  53. ^ Kapur, Selim; Akça, Erhan; Günal, Hikmet, eds. (2018). The Soils of Turkey. World Soils Book Series. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-64392-2. ISBN 978-3-319-64390-8. ISSN 2211-1255. S2CID 133976504.
  54. ^ "General Soil Map of Turkey {West Part or Sheet 1.1}".
  55. ^ "General Soil Map of Turkey {West-middle Part or Sheet 1.2}".
  56. ^ "General Soil Map of Turkey {Middle-east Part or Sheet 1.3}".
  57. ^ "General Soil Map of Turkey {East Part or Sheet 1.4}".
  58. ^ "Türkiye Toprak Bilimi Derneği". Soil Science Society of Turkey. Retrieved 2023-05-18.
  59. ^ "Soil Organic Carbon Management in Turkey".
  60. ^ "Türkiye Soil information System".
  61. ^ http://portal.cem.gov.tr/ToprakPortal
  62. ^ "Mapping Soil Carbon: Stocks in Turkey".
  63. ^ Yanardag, İbrahim Halil; Büyükkiliç Yanardağ, Asuman; Mermut, Ahmet Ruhi; Faz Cano, Angel (2021). "Carbon storage potential and its distributions in the particle size fractions in Harran Plain, Turkey". Tarım Bilimleri Dergisi. 28 (3): 501–510. doi:10.15832/ankutbd.907173. S2CID 246810251.
  64. ^ "Agricultural SectorProfile of Turkey in the World". Turkish Journal of Agricultural and Natural Sciences.
  65. ^ "Export Raisin". Sepcotrading. Retrieved 2023-08-25.
  66. ^ a b "Agri-tech market in Turkey". 4 May 2022.
  67. ^ "Crop Production Statistics, 2022". Turkstat. Retrieved 2023-04-27.
  68. ^ "Crop Products Balance Sheets, 2022". Turkstat. Retrieved 2023-04-27.
  69. ^ "Amid high bread prices, TurkStat says Turkey self-sufficient in agriculture, wheat production". Bianet.
  70. ^ Ministerie van Landbouw, Natuur en Voedselkwaliteit (2023-02-22). "Türkiye exports cereals and pulses to 216 countries – Nieuwsbericht – Agroberichten Buitenland". www.agroberichtenbuitenland.nl. Retrieved 2023-04-14.
  71. ^ Sumerli̇ Sarigül, Sevgi; Ünlü, Merve; Avci, Pınar; Yaşar, Esra (2023). "The empirical analysis of cereal production under the climate exchange and examining the effects of banks' domestic credit on cereal production: Evidence from Turkey". Journal of Ekonomi. 5 (2): 1. doi:10.58251/ekonomi.1315338. S2CID 260413625.
  72. ^ "FAO GIEWS Country Brief on Türkiye –". www.fao.org. Retrieved 2023-04-14.
  73. ^ a b c d e f g h "Grain and Feed Annual" (PDF).
  74. ^ "Turkey Wheat Area, Yield and Production". ipad.fas.usda.gov. Retrieved 2023-04-14.
  75. ^ Erdoğan, Zeynep; Selçuk, Fatma; Akgün, Aliye (2022-12-30). "Wheat Self-Sufficiency in Turkey: Production and Climate Change in Focus". Yuzuncu Yıl University Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 32 (4): 654–670. doi:10.29133/yyutbd.1141592. ISSN 1308-7576. S2CID 254809209.
  76. ^ "Lowest rainfall in decades threatens Turkey's grain production". intellinews.com. 2023-04-11. Retrieved 2023-04-16.
  77. ^ "Citrus annual" (PDF).
  78. ^ "Export ban on tomatoes has been lifted in Türkiye". www.hortidaily.com. 8 March 2023. Retrieved 2023-04-16.
  79. ^ "Türkiye's fruit, vegetables exports soar". Hürriyet Daily News. 27 December 2022. Retrieved 2023-04-16.
  80. ^ "Troubles in Europe offer opportunities for Turkish agriculture sector". Hürriyet Daily News. 20 September 2022. Retrieved 2022-12-12.
  81. ^ Todorović, Igor (2022-08-05). "Turkey accounts for one third of world's geothermal greenhouses". Balkan Green Energy News. Retrieved 2023-04-13.
  82. ^ GeoEnergy, Think (2022-11-07). "Geothermal fruit drying plant approved in Alasehir, Turkiye". Retrieved 2023-04-16.
  83. ^ "Türkiye grows seven tropical fruits, eyes four other". Hürriyet Daily News. 29 October 2022. Retrieved 2023-04-16.
  84. ^ "Major Turkish company started production in geothermal greenhouses in 60 hectares". www.hortidaily.com. 2023-05-17. Retrieved 2023-05-18.
  85. ^ "Fruits from Turkey are to flood the markets because of another collapse of the Turkish lira". EastFruit. 2023-06-11. Retrieved 2023-11-06.
  86. ^ "Korona virüs avokado üretimini arttırdı, üretici talebe yetişemiyor" [Coronavirus increased avocado production, the producer cannot keep up with the demand]. Gazetebanka Haber (in Turkish). 15 November 2021. Archived from the original on 15 December 2021. Retrieved 15 November 2021.
  87. ^ "Alanya producers shift to avocado for higher profit". Hürriyet Daily News. 2023-08-08. Retrieved 2023-11-10.
  88. ^ "Leading Countries in Grape Exports in the World". Turkish Goods – From Turkey to The World. Retrieved 2023-04-14.
  89. ^ a b "Heritage grapes, old vines and cultural landscapes". Hürriyet Daily News. 13 June 2022. Retrieved 2023-04-14.
  90. ^ a b "Young Turks and old vines". www.jancisrobinson.com. 2022-07-06. Retrieved 2023-04-14.
  91. ^ "Turkey: Raisin Annual". USDA Foreign Agricultural Service. 31 August 2022. Retrieved 2023-04-14.
  92. ^ "A Predicted Record Harvest Would Make Turkey the World's Second-Largest Olive Oil Producer". Olive Oil Times. 2022-11-10. Retrieved 2022-12-13.
  93. ^ "The World of Olive Oil". International Olive Council. 2022-01-13. Retrieved 2023-02-27.
  94. ^ "The Turkish olive oil sector". www.olioofficina.net. 2016. Archived from the original on 2020-02-17. Retrieved 2018-07-11.
  95. ^ "Lentil Harvest Areas in Turkey".
  96. ^ a b c Erdoğan, Çaglar (October 3, 2022). "Turkey: Tree Nuts Annual" (PDF). USFDA.
  97. ^ a b "Oilseeds and Products Annual" (PDF). 9 March 2023.
  98. ^ a b c Ergener, Rashid; Ergener, Reşit (2002). About Turkey: Geography, Economy, Politics, Religion, and Culture. Pilgrims Process, Inc. p. 41. ISBN 978-0-9710609-6-8.
  99. ^ "Tarım Ürünleri Piyasaları: Çay" [Agricultural product market: tea] (PDF). Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (in Turkish). June 1, 2021.
  100. ^ "Why Turkey subsidises organic tea". The Economist. 2019-12-18. ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 2021-04-24.
  101. ^ "The Worlds Top 10 Tea Producing Nations". History of Ceylon Tea. Retrieved 2021-10-04.
  102. ^ Bolton, Dan (2023-10-16). "Heat, Drought Pressure Turkey's Tea Crop". STiR Coffee and Tea Magazine. Retrieved 2023-11-10.
  103. ^ "Herbs & Spice Crop Report" (PDF).
  104. ^ "EU grants Turkish garlic geographical indication". www.aa.com.tr. Retrieved 2023-04-16.
  105. ^ "Kırmızı Et Üretim İstatistikleri, 2020–2021" [Red meat production stats]. Turkstat (in Turkish). Retrieved 2023-04-25.
  106. ^ a b c d Duyum, Sinem. "Livestock and Products Annual" (PDF). USFDA.
  107. ^ "Meat and Milk Board". Meat and Milk Board. Retrieved 2023-11-10.
  108. ^ Tan, Mustafa; Yolcu, Halil (2021-06-04). "Current Status of Forage Crops Cultivation and Strategies for the Future in Turkey: A Review". Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 27 (2): 114–121. doi:10.15832/ankutbd.903732.
  109. ^ "Livestock markets closed as foot-and-mouth disease spreads". Hürriyet Daily News. 13 March 2023. Retrieved 2023-04-14.
  110. ^ a b c "Animal Production Statistics, 2022". Turkstat. Retrieved 2023-04-27.
  111. ^ Demir, Eymen; Balcioglu, Murat Soner (2019). "Genetic diversity and population structure of four cattle breeds raised in Turkey using microsatellite markers". Czech Journal of Animal Science. 64 (10): 411–419. doi:10.17221/62/2019-CJAS. S2CID 207819926. Archived from the original on 9 February 2020.
  112. ^ "Turkey's livestock outlook: A glimpse into challenges and prospects". feedplanetmagazine.com. Retrieved 2024-03-27.
  113. ^ "Türkiye. 2023 National Inventory Report (NIR)". unfccc.int. Turkstat. Retrieved 2023-04-29.
  114. ^ "Türkiye working to diversify renewable energy resources". Hürriyet Daily News. 2023-04-25. Retrieved 2023-05-18.
  115. ^ "Sheep – Turkey – a major sheep producer". Teagasc. Agriculture and Food Development Authority. Retrieved 2023-04-14.
  116. ^ a b c d "Lessons from the Young Turks: how Turkey became an aquaculture powerhouse". The Fish Site. 2021-01-08. Retrieved 2024-04-02.
  117. ^ "Agriculture in Turkey". www.allaboutturkey.com. Retrieved 2023-04-19.
  118. ^ "47th APIMONDIA | International Apicultural Congress". apimondia2021.com. Retrieved 2023-05-05.
  119. ^ "Digital database established for endemic plant species". Hürriyet Daily News. 18 November 2022.
  120. ^ "Development Projects : Turkey Climate Smart and Competitive Agricultural Growth Project (TUCSAP) – P175011". World Bank.
  121. ^ Yeni, Onur; Teoman, Özgür (April 2022). "The Agriculture–Environment Relationship and Environment-based Agricultural Support Instruments in Turkey". European Review. 30 (2): 194–218. doi:10.1017/S1062798720001015. ISSN 1062-7987. S2CID 225722222.
  122. ^ "Key findings of the 2022 Report on Türkiye". European Commission – European Commission. 12 October 2022. Retrieved 2023-04-20.
  123. ^ "THE NATIONAL TECHNOLOGY INITIATIVE IN THE AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD SECTORS" (PDF).
  124. ^ "A Literature Review on the Electric Tractors and Assessment of Using for Türkiye". Journal of Agricultural Machinery Science.
  125. ^ "Three electric tractor start-ups you need to know about – Agriculture News". www.autotrader.co.za. Retrieved 2023-04-16.
  126. ^ "Inauguration of the international soil-borne pathogens research & development center in Ankara, Turkey". International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center. 29 May 2023.
  127. ^ "Turkey: Agricultural Biotechnology Annual". USDA Foreign Agricultural Service. 2022-11-14. Retrieved 2023-08-25.
  128. ^ a b "Climate Change Threatens Turkey's Role as a Food Supplier to Europe and the Middle East". www.turkeyanalyst.org. Retrieved 2023-11-04.
  129. ^ Altıkat, Sefa; Kuş, Emrah; Küçükerdem, Hasan Kaan; Gözübüyük, Zinnur (2017-12-27). "The Applications of No-tillage in Turkey". International Journal of Environmental Trends (IJENT). 1 (1): 54–63. ISSN 2602-4160.
  130. ^ "Pesticide use in Türkiye at alarming level: Report". Hürriyet Daily News. 2023-10-13. Retrieved 2023-11-05.
  131. ^ "TÜSİAD'ın "Türkiye'de İklim Krizi ile Mücadelede Orman Ekosistemleri ve Yutak Alan Yönetimi" Raporu kamuoyu ile paylaşıldı" [TÜSİAD's "Forest Ecosystems and Sink Area Management in Combating the Climate Crisis in Turkey" Report was shared with the public]. Turkish Industry and Business Association (in Turkish). Retrieved 2023-11-10.
  132. ^ "EVALUATION OF NO-TILLAGE AGRICULTURE WITHIN THE SCOPE OF FOOD AVAILABILITY FOR TÜRKİYE" (PDF).
  133. ^ "Enlargement and Stabilisation and Association Process: Council conclusions" (PDF). Council of the European Union. 26 June 2018.
  134. ^ Valero, Jorge (2 August 2023). "EU and Turkey Discuss Easing Trade Relations Amid Warmer Ties". BNN. Retrieved 2023-08-11.
  135. ^ a b "Focus on Turkey | World Grain". www.world-grain.com.
  136. ^ "Turkey Food Products Exports by country & region 2020". wits.worldbank.org. Retrieved 2022-12-13.
  137. ^ "Turkey Food Products Imports by country 2020 | WITS Data". wits.worldbank.org. Retrieved 2022-12-13.
  138. ^ "American wheat group takes Turkey to task over dumping | The Western Producer".
  139. ^ "EU and Türkiye hold first high-level dialogue on agriculture". EU Delegation to Türkiye. Retrieved 2022-12-26.
  140. ^ Şişman, Zeynep; Tekiner-Mogulkoc, Hatice (2022-10-09). "Using malmquist TFP index for evaluating agricultural productivity: Agriculture of Türkiye NUTS2 regions". Sigma Journal of Engineering and Natural Sciences. 40 (3): 513–528. ISSN 1304-7191.
  141. ^ "Key findings of the 2023 Report on Türkiye | EEAS". www.eeas.europa.eu. Retrieved 2023-11-13.
  142. ^ "FAO GIEWS Country Brief on Türkiye –".
  143. ^ "Sugar Annual Turkey" (PDF). USFDA.
  144. ^ "Turkey-Syria earthquake sees $5.1bn wiped off food supply chains". Supply Management. Retrieved 2023-04-13.
  145. ^ "EU Turkey Customs Union" (PDF). chathamhouse.org. Retrieved 8 May 2023.
  146. ^ a b c "Türkiye'de gıda enflasyonu neden artıyor, nasıl düşürülebilir?" [Why is food inflation increasing in Turkey and how can it be reduced?]. BBC News Türkçe (in Turkish). 2023-04-24. Retrieved 2023-04-24.
  147. ^ Türkiye 2022 Report. EU Delegation to Türkiye (Report). Retrieved 2023-01-13.
  148. ^ "Çiftçi sayısı en fazla il: Ordu". www.trthaber.com (in Turkish). 14 May 2022. Retrieved 2022-09-10.
  149. ^ "Çiftçi sayısı son yılların en düşük seviyesine gerileyerek 500 binin altına düştü". TEPAV (in Turkish). Retrieved 2023-04-13.
  150. ^ "Türkiye'de çiftçi sayısı son 5 yılda yüzde 28 azaldı". euronews (in Turkish). 2021-12-09. Retrieved 2022-09-10.
  151. ^ Türker, Metin (2022). "A research on agricultural land market in Turkey". Ciência Rural. 52 (12). doi:10.1590/0103-8478cr20210491. ISSN 0103-8478.
  152. ^ "AGRICULTURE IN TÜRKİYE" (PDF).
  153. ^ Is the Globalization of Agriculture changing the role of Women? Cases of Turkey and Spain.
  154. ^ Dedeoğlu, Saniye. Syrian Refugees and Agriculture in Turkey. Bloomsbury. Retrieved 2022-12-26.
  155. ^ Aksu, Ege; Erzan, Refik; Kırdar, Murat Güray (2022-06-01). "The impact of mass migration of Syrians on the Turkish labor market" (PDF). Labour Economics. 76: 102183. doi:10.1016/j.labeco.2022.102183. ISSN 0927-5371. S2CID 159259610.
  156. ^ Pelek, Deniz (2022-01-02). "Ethnic residential segregation among seasonal migrant workers: from temporary tents to new rural ghettos in southern Turkey". The Journal of Peasant Studies. 49 (1): 54–77. doi:10.1080/03066150.2020.1767077. ISSN 0306-6150. S2CID 225580327.
  157. ^ "Elimination of Worst Forms of Child Labour in Seasonal Agriculture in Hazelnut Harvesting in Turkey – Annual Bulletin 2022". www.ilo.org. 2023-01-02. Retrieved 2023-01-22.
  158. ^ "FAO in Türkiye". www.fao.org. Retrieved 2023-01-22.
  159. ^ a b "Turkish farmers worse off than EU counterparts". dw.com. Retrieved 2024-03-27.
  160. ^ "Bakan Yumaklı, şeker pancarı alım fiyatını açıkladı" [Minister Yumaklı announced the purchase price of sugar beet]. www.trthaber.com (in Turkish). 2023-10-05. Retrieved 2023-11-19. Tarım ve Orman Bakarı İbrahim Yumaklı ….. şeker pancarı alım fiyatının ton başına …. bin 855 lira olduğunu bildirdi. [Minister of Agriculture and Forestry İbrahim Yumaklı stated that the purchase price of sugar beet ….. is 1,855 lira,]
  161. ^ Tridimas, Beatrice (2023-09-25). "Turkey's fishermen fight to save wetlands as water scarcity bites". Reuters. Retrieved 2023-11-24.
  162. ^ a b Bland, William; Bobylov, Alexandre (2022-05-25). "Turkey's wheat farmers await state price amid criticism of higher-priced imports". www.spglobal.com. Retrieved 2023-04-16.
  163. ^ Çullu, Mehmet Ali; Teke, Mustafa; Aydoğdu, Mustafa Hakkı; Günal, Hikmet (2022-09-01). "Effects of subsidy and regulation policy on soil and water resources of cotton planted lands in Harran Plain, Turkey". Land Use Policy. 120: 106288. doi:10.1016/j.landusepol.2022.106288. ISSN 0264-8377. S2CID 251031944.
  164. ^ "Organic Farming Projects". www.tarimorman.gov.tr. Retrieved 2023-04-28.

External links[edit]

Further reading[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Agriculture in Turkey.


Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture_in_Turkey&oldid=1219972622"