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Turks in Algeria

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Turks in Algeria
Regions with significant populations
Languages
Religion
Sunni Islam

The Turks in Algeria, or Algerian Turks,[2] (Arabic: أتراك الجزائر French: Turcs d'Algérie; Turkish: Cezayir Türkleri) are ethnic Turks who constitute a minority group in Algeria.[1][3] During Ottoman rule, the Turks began to migrate to the region predominately from Anatolia[4] and many intermarried with the native population, giving birth to a people called the "Kouloughlis", who were those of mixed Turkish and central Maghrebis blood.[5][6]

In the late nineteenth century the French colonisers in North Africa classified the populations under their rule as "Arab" and "Berber", despite the fact that these countries had diverse populations, which were also composed of ethnic Turks and Kouloughlis (offspring of Turkish men and North African women).[7]

Today, Algerians of Turkish descent still represent 5% of the country's population.[1] They have formed the Association des Turcs algériens ("The Association of Algerian Turks"),[8] and continue to practice the Hanafi school of Islam (in contrast to the ethnic Arabs who mostly practice the Maliki school). Moreover, there are many Turkish-origin surnames in Algeria which mostly express a provenance or ethnic origin from Anatolia.[8][9]

History

Hayreddin Barbarossa, an Ottoman admiral, was the founder of the Regency of Algiers (Ottoman Algeria).

The foundation of Ottoman Algeria was directly linked to the establishment of the Ottoman province (beylerbeylik) of the Maghreb at the beginning of the 16th century.[10] At the time, fearing that their city would fall into Spanish hands, the inhabitants of Algiers called upon Ottoman corsairs for help.[10] Headed by Oruç Reis and his brother Hayreddin Barbarossa, they took over the rule of the city and started to expand their territory into the surrounding areas. Sultan Selim I (r. 1512-20) agreed to assume control of the Maghreb regions ruled by Hayreddin as a province, granting the rank of governor-general (beylerbey) to Hayreddin. In addition, the Sultan sent 2,000 janissaries, accompanied by about 4,000 volunteers to the newly established Ottoman province of the Maghreb, whose capital was to be the city of Algiers.[10] These Turks, mainly from Anatolia, called each other "yoldaş" (a Turkish word meaning "comrade") and called their sons born of unions with local women "Kuloğlu’s", implying that they considered their children's status as that of the Sultan's servants.[10] Likewise, to indicate in the registers that a certain person is an offspring of a Turk and a local woman, the note "ibn al-turki" (or "kuloglu") was added to his name.[11]

The exceptionally high number of turks greatly affected the character of the city of Algiers, and that of the province at large. In 1587, the province was divided into three different provinces, which were established where the modern states of Algeria, Libya and Tunisia, were to emerge. Each of these provinces was headed by a Pasha sent from Constantinople for a three-year term. The division of the Maghreb launched the process that led eventually to the janissary corps' rule over the province.[12] From the end of the 16th century, Algiers's Ottoman elite chose to emphasize its Turkish identity and nurture its Turkish character to a point at which it became an ideology.[12] By so doing, the Algerian province took a different path from that of its neighboring provinces, where local-Ottoman elites were to emerge. The aim of nurturing the elite's Turkishness was twofold: it limited the number of the privileged group (the ocak) while demonstrating the group's loyalty to the Sultan.[12] By the 18th century there was 50,000 janissaries concentrated in the city of Algiers alone.[12]

The lifestyle, language, religion, and area of origin of the Ottoman elite's members created remarkable differences between the Algerian Ottoman elite and the indigenous population.[13] For example, members of the elite adhered to Hanafi law while the rest of the population subscribed to the Maliki school.[13] Most of the elites originated from non-Arab regions of the Empire. Furthermore, most members of the elite spoke Ottoman Turkish while the local population spoke Algerian Arabic and even differed from the rest of the population in their dress.[13]

Recruiting the military-administrative elite

From its establishment, the military-administrative elite worked to reinvigorate itself by enlisting volunteers from non-Arab regions of the Ottoman Empire, mainly from Anatolia.[11] Hence, local recruiting of Arabs was almost unheard of and during the 18th century a more or less permanent network of recruiting officers was kept in some coastal Anatolian cities and on some of the islands of the Aegean Sea.[14] The recruitment policy was therefore one of the means employed to perpetuate the Turkishness of the Ottoman elite and was practiced until the fall of the province in 1830.[14]

In 1830 there was 15,000 Turkish soldiers in Algeria, however most left the country after the French conquest.[15][16][17]

Marriages to local women and the Kuloğlus

Turkish women of Algeria (c. 1876 – 1888).

During the 18th century, the militia practiced a restrictive policy on marriages between its members and local women. A married soldier would lose his right of residence in one of the city's eight barracks and the daily ration of bread to which he was entitled. He would also lose his right to purchase a variety of products at a preferential price.[14] Nonetheless, the militia's marriage policy made clear distinctions among holders of different ranks: the higher the rank, the more acceptable the marriage of its holder.[18] This policy can be understood as part of the Ottoman elite's effort to perpetuate its Turkishness and to maintain its segregation from the rest of the population.[18] Furthermore, the militia's marriage policy, in part, emerged from fear of an increase in the number of the kuloğlus.[19]

The kuloğlu’s refers to the male offspring of members of the Ottoman elite and the local Algerian women.[19] Due to their link to the local Algerian population via his maternal family, the kuloğlus' loyalty to the Ottoman elite was suspected because of the fear that they might develop another loyalty; they were therefore considered a potential danger to the elite.[19] However, the son of a non-local woman, herself an "outsider" in the local population, represented no such danger to the Ottoman elite. Therefore, the Algerian Ottoman elite had a clear policy dictating the perpetuation of its character as a special social group separated from the local population.[19] In the neighbouring province of Tunisia, the maintenance of the Turkishness of the ruling group was not insisted upon, and the kuloğlus could reach the highest ranks of government. However, the janissary corps had lost its supremacy first to the Muradid dynasty (Murad Bey's son was appointed bey), and then to the Husainid Dynasty. The Tunisian situation partly explains the continuation of the Algerian janissary corps' recruitment policy and the manifest will to distance the kuloğlus from the real centres of power.[20] Nonetheless, high-ranking kuloğlus were in the service of the ocak, in military and in administrative capacities, occupying posts explicitly considered out of bounds for them; although there were no kuloğlus who was dey during the 18th century, this seems to be the only exception.[21]

Culture

The Algerian Turks generally take pride in their Ottoman-Turkish heritage but also have integrated successfully into Algerian society. Their identity is based on their ethnic Turkish roots and links to mainland Turkey but also to the customs, language, and local culture of Algeria.[22] Due to the three centuries of Turkish rule in Algeria, today many cultural, architectural, as well as musical elements of Algeria are of Turkish origin or influence, though their Turkish heritage is most notably present in their cuisine which they have introduced to Algeria (such as Turkish coffee, Lahmacun, Börek's, desserts and pastries).[22][23] Furthermore, the Turkish language has influenced many words and vocabulary, family surnames such as Barbaros, Hayreddin, Osmanî, Stambouli, Torki, Turki, and Uluçali are very common; job titles or functions have also become family names within the Algerian-Turkish community (such as Hazneci, Demirci, Başterzi, Silahtar).[22][24]

Demographics

Population

According to the Turkish Embassy in Algeria there is between 600,000-700,000 people of Turkish origin living in Algeria.[25] In 1953, Sabri Hizmetli suggested that people of Turkish origin make up 25% of Algeria's total population.[26] However, a report by the Oxford Business Group in 2008 stated a more prudent estimate, suggesting that people of Turkish descent make up 5% of Algeria's total population.[1]

Areas of settlement

The Turkish minority mainly live in the big cities,[1] they have traditionally had a strong presence, and were alongside the native Moors, a significant part of Tlemcen's population.[27][28] Due to the long presence and ruling by the Turks, there are also remains of the old Turkish cities, such as the Casbah in Algiers.[29] The community also has notable populations in cities such as Biskra, Zammora in Kabylie, Mostaganem and Mazagran-Arzew,[30][31] Oued Zitoun[32] and Médéa[33] and Constantine. During the French conquest, Kouloughli land owners in Mazagran, Arzew and Mostaganem, joined by many others from Tlemcen and soldiers from Oran would have parked themselves in Mostaganem turning it into a fortress in the premice to get protect from French and local Arab-Berber armies.[34]

Diaspora

There are many Algerian Turks who have emigrated to other countries and hence make up part of Algeria's diaspora; for example, there is a noticeable Algerian community of Turkish descent living in England.[35] Many Algerians attend the Suleymaniye Mosque which is owned by the British-Turkish community.[36] France, Germany, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Belgium, Canada, and Spain are also top receiving countries of Algerian citizens.[37]

Organizations and associations

  • The Association of Algerian Turks (Association des Turcs algériens)[22]

Notable people

See also

Notes

^ a: "Kouloughlis" refers to the offspring (or descendants) of Turkish fathers and Algerian mothers.[50]

References

  1. ^ a b c d e Oxford Business Group (2008), The Report: Algeria 2008, Oxford Business Group, p. 10, ISBN 1-902339-09-6, ...the Algerian population reached 34.8 million in January 2006...Algerians of Turkish descent still represent 5% of the population and live mainly in the big cities [accounting to 1.74 million] {{citation}}: |last= has generic name (help)
  2. ^ Today's Zaman. "Turks in northern Africa yearn for Ottoman ancestors". Retrieved 2012-03-18.
  3. ^ UNESCO 2009, 9.
  4. ^ Ruedy 2005, 22,
  5. ^ Stone 1997, 29.
  6. ^ Milli Gazete. "Levanten Türkler". Retrieved 2012-03-19.
  7. ^ Goodman, Jane E. (2005), Berber Culture on the World Stage: From Village to Video, Indiana University Press, p. 7, ISBN 0253111455, From early on, the French viewed North Africa through a Manichean lens. Arab and Berber became the primary ethnic categories through which the French classified the population (Lorcin 1995: 2). This occurred despite the fact that a diverse and fragmented populace comprised not only various Arab and Berber tribal groups but also Turks, Andalusians (descended from Moors exiled from Spain during the Crusades), Kouloughlis (offspring of Turkish men and North African women), blacks (mostly slaves or gormer slaves), and Jews.
  8. ^ a b Amari, Chawki (2012), Que reste-t-il des Turcs et des Français en Algérie?, Slate Afrique, Les Turcs ou leurs descendants en Algérie sont bien considérés, ont même une association (Association des Turcs algériens), sont souvent des lettrés se fondant naturellement dans la société...Les Kouloughlis (kulughlis en Turc) sont des descendants de Turcs ayant épousé des autochtones pendant la colonisation (la régence) au XVIème et XVIIème siècle...Ce qu'il reste des Turcs en Algérie? De nombreux éléments culturels, culinaires ou architecturaux, de la musique,... Des mots et du vocabulaire, des noms patronymiques comme Othmani ou Osmane (de l'empire Ottoman), Stambouli (d'Istambul), Torki (Turc) ou des noms de métiers ou de fonctions, qui sont devenus des noms de famille avec le temps.
  9. ^ Parzymies, Anna (1985), Anthroponymie Algérienne: Noms de Famille Modernes d'origine Turque, Éditions scientifiques de Pologne, p. 109, ISBN 83-01-03434-3, Parmi les noms de famille d'origine turque, les plus nombreux sont ceux qui expriment une provenance ou une origine ethnique, c.-à-d., les noms qui sont dérivés de toponymes ou d'ethnonymes turcs.
  10. ^ a b c d Shuval 2000, 325.
  11. ^ a b Shuval 2000, 328.
  12. ^ a b c d Shuval 2000, 326.
  13. ^ a b c Shuval 2000, 327.
  14. ^ a b c Shuval 2000, 329.
  15. ^ "When the French took over on 5 July 1830, most Turks (around 15,000) returned to Turkey" Language Planning and Policy in Africa - Page 40 - 2007 Read here
  16. ^ Algeria: The Topography and History - John Reynell Morell - Citation
  17. ^ Cultures in Contact: World Migrations in the Second Millennium - Dirk Hoerder - 2002 Read here
  18. ^ a b Shuval 2000, 330.
  19. ^ a b c d Shuval 2000, 331.
  20. ^ Shuval 2000, 332.
  21. ^ Shuval 2000, 333.
  22. ^ a b c d Slate Afrique. "Que reste-t-il des Turcs et des Français en Algérie?". Retrieved 2013-09-08.
  23. ^ Oakes 2008, 23.
  24. ^ Al Turkiyya. "Cezayir deki Türkiye". Retrieved 2013-09-17.
  25. ^ Turkish Embassy in Algeria 2008, 4.
  26. ^ Hizmetli 1953, 10.
  27. ^ Appiah & Gates 2010, 475.
  28. ^ Britannica (2012), Tlemcen, Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
  29. ^ Oakes 2008, 5.
  30. ^ https://books.google.com/books?id=a0faeUHIi8MC&q=7+%C3%A0+800+kouloughlis,+propri%C3%A9taires+des+environs+de+Mostaganem,+d'Arzew+et+de+Mazagran&dq=7+%C3%A0+800+kouloughlis,+propri%C3%A9taires+des+environs+de+Mostaganem,+d'Arzew+et+de+Mazagran&hl=fr&sa=X&ei=8tKqUv-pD-fR7AbguoDwDg&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAA
  31. ^ Tableau de la situation des établissements français dans l'Algérie, précédé de l'exposé des motifs et du projet de loi portant demande de crédits extraordinaires au titre de l'exercice de 1838. Impr. Royale. 1838. p. 66. Retrieved 2015-04-01.
  32. ^ Rozet 1850, 107.
  33. ^ Les Enfants de Médéa et du Titteri. "Médéa". Retrieved 2012-04-13.
  34. ^ Institut des hautes-études marocaines (1931). Hespéris: archives berbères et bulletin de l'Institut des hautes-études marocaines. Vol. 13. Emile Larose. Retrieved 2015-04-01.
  35. ^ Communities and Local Government 2009, 34.
  36. ^ Communities and Local Government 2009, 53.
  37. ^ Communities and Local Government 2009, 22.
  38. ^ People. "Isabelle Adjani Has the Face That's Launching a Thousand Scripts". Retrieved 2012-03-23.
  39. ^ Love Film. "French Heartbreakers". Retrieved 2012-03-23.
  40. ^ Bencheneb 1971, 15.
  41. ^ Cheurfi 2001, 73.
  42. ^ Tocqueville 2006, 205.
  43. ^ Déjeux 1984, 121.
  44. ^ Adamson 2006, 25.
  45. ^ Ruedy 2005, 137.
  46. ^ VH magazine (2010). "Salim Halali: Le roi des nuits Csablancaises" (PDF). p. 66. Retrieved 2013-03-27.
  47. ^ Panzac 2005, 224.
  48. ^ a b Benjamin 2004, 100.
  49. ^ McDougall 2006, 158.
  50. ^ Ruedy 2005, 35.

Bibliography

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