Ottoman Empire

Template:Ottoman Empire infobox The Ottoman Empire (Ottoman Turkish: دولتِ عليه عثمانيه Devlet-i Âliye-i Osmâniyye; literally, "The Sublime Ottoman State"), also sometimes known in the West as the Turkish Empire, existed from 1299 to 1923. At the height of its power in the 16th and 17th centuries, its territory included Anatolia, the Middle East, parts of North Africa, and much of south-eastern Europe to the Caucasus. It comprised an area of about 5.6 million km², though it controlled a much larger area, if adjoining areas dominated mainly by nomadic tribes, where the empire's suzerainty was recognized, are included. The empire interacted with both Eastern and Western cultures throughout its 624-year history.

In the 16th and 17th centuries, the Ottoman Empire was among the world's most powerful political entities, with the powers of eastern Europe constantly threatened by its steady advance through the Balkans and the southern part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Its navy was also a powerful force in the Mediterranean. On several occasions, the Ottoman army invaded central Europe, laying siege to Vienna in 1529 and again in 1683 in an attempt to conquer the Habsburg domain, and was finally repulsed only by great coalitions of European powers at sea and on land. It was the only non-European power to seriously challenge the rising power of the West between the 15th and 20th centuries, eventually becoming an integral part of European balance of power politics, hence blurring the distinctions.

The dissolution of the empire was a direct consequence of World War I, when the Allied Powers defeated the Central Powers in Europe as well as the Ottoman forces in the Middle Eastern theatre. At the end of the war, the Ottoman government collapsed and the empire was conquered and divided among the victorious powers. Subsequent years saw the declaration of new states from the remnants of the Ottoman Empire. Republic of Turkey, which established in central lands of Empire included Ottoman Dynasty in 150 personae non gratae of Turkey. In 1974, after 50 years, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey granted the right to re-acquire Turkish citizenship to the family descendants, which completed by the head of the family, Ertuğrul Osman V, in 2004.

History

Further information: [[:Timeline of the Ottoman Empire, Ottoman Archives]]

The history of the Ottoman Empire spans more than seven centuries, and 39 different archives. Older classifications of this history were based on military gains and losses. Current approaches use wider perspectives, such as periods of growth or dissolution, or else use economic perspectives to delineate periods of stagnation and decline. Classification from a military-political perspective distinguishes five periods, however the socio-economical perspective organizes the history as a classic period (enlargement) and reform period (westernization).

Origins

The ancestry of the Ottoman Dynasty is traced to the Turkic migrations from Asia, which began during the 10th century. The Kayı tribe (or Kai) of Oghuz Turks was one of the main tribes taking part in this migration, and it was they who established the Ottoman Empire in western Anatolia. When the Kayı began to settle in Anatolia in the 12th century, they were under the suzerainty of the Seljuk State of Anatolia. With the Mongol Empire extending to west, the Kayı became a puppet and vassal of the Il Khanate of the Mongol Empire. The Seljuk system allowed the Kayı protection from outsiders, which gave them a chance to develop their own internal structure. Moreover, being on the far eastern side of the Seljuk state gave them some military power through cooperation with the non-Turkic populations of eastern Anatolia, among whom were many Christians.

When the Seljuk state was in the process of collapse, the various beyliks, or territories, of Anatolia came into conflict with one another, with the Ottoman beylik eventually emerging as the supreme power in the region. In 1299, Osman I declared independence for the Ottoman beylik, which had gradually been developed by the now-settled Kayı. The history of the tribe before Osman I extended back through Osman's father Ertuğrul to his grandfather Süleyman Shah, who had died in 1227 by drowning in the river Euphrates while fleeing the Mongol advance.

Rise (1299–1453)

Mehmed II and his agreement (ﻋﻬﺪنامه ahdnâme) to protect Bosnian Christians

The rise of the empire defined the characteristics and nature of the state. The Ottomans definitively carved out their own preserve in history under the rule of Mehmed II.

The Ottoman state existed before Osman I (Arabic: عُثمَان ʿUthmān; hence the name Ottoman Empire). However he is regarded as the founder of the empire, as he named it and was the first bey (chieftain) to declare his independence. He extended the frontiers of the empire towards the Byzantine Empire, while other Turkish beyliks suffered from infighting. Under Osman I, the Ottoman capital moved to Bursa. He minted the first coin under his name, demonstrating the confidence his people had in him. In centuries to come, his age would be recalled with the phrase, "May he be as good as Osman".

The Ottoman historians attached great importance to the "Osman's Dream" and its initiation of foundation of the Empire The dream is also an example of Turkish oral tradition. The historian von Hammer cites the story.

It was in this period that the ruling institution occurred, which was to last in this form for nearly four centuries until its reformation. Unlike many contemporaries, the Ottoman bureaucracy tried to avoid military rule. Although the Ottoman Empire was primarily a military state, its civics and economy did not reflect a policy of aggression. The expansionist policies of the Ottoman Empire did not lead to total war, given the fact that the Ottoman raids in Balkans, which after this accomplished they moved to Anatolia, was not made for the destruction and booty, but was a part of settlement.

Mehmed II was only 12 years old when he became sultan, and he was reputed to have been a capable warrior. His military prowess was demonstrated with his conquest of Constantinople. Mehmed II also enjoyed the full support of the empire, using this to reorganize the state structure and military. In 1453, following the capture of Constantinople (modern İstanbul, see: Istanbul (Etymology)) from the Byzantine Empire, the city became the new capital of the Ottoman Empire.

Growth (1453–1683)

Ottoman Empire, 1299–1683

The growth of Ottoman power can be grouped into two main characteristic periods. The first period is that of conquest and growth, from the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 to the death of Suleiman I (the Magnificent) in 1566. This was a period of great achievement for the Ottoman Empire. The second period, extending from 1566 to 1683, is that of the consolidation of a now large and stable state, during which time many changes were occurring in the empire's social structures.

In 1389, the Ottomans ended Serbian power at the Battle of Kosovo, which paved the way for expansion into Europe. Sultan Selim I (1512–1520) expanded the empire's eastern frontiers temporarily, defeating the young Safavid Ismail I ruler of Persia in the Battle of Chaldiran, establishing a naval presence in the Red Sea. Selim's successor, Suleiman the Magnificent (1520-1566), increased the empire's size and power even further. After capturing Belgrade, Suleiman struck a major blow against the Kingdom of Hungary at the 1526 Battle of Mohacs, causing that kingdom to fall into anarchy. He then laid siege to Vienna in 1529, but failed to take the city when he was forced to retreat before the onset of winter. Soon, Transylvania, Walachia, and Moldavia became tributary principalities of the Ottoman Empire. In the east, Suleiman the Magnificent took Baghdad from the Persians in 1535, giving the Ottomans control of the Middle East. The Ottomans reached their "Golden Age" during Suleiman the Magnificent's reign. The Ottoman empire entered into an alliance with France, England and Holland against Habsburg Spain, Italy and Habsburg Germany. The Ottoman admiral Barbarossa ended the spanish occupation of Tunis and Algeria. Barbarossa rescued Muslims and Jews from Spain to North Africa and Turkey during the catholic inquisition . In 1543 Barbarossa invaded Italy and took Nice, and turned it over to the French king Francis.

In 1683, sultan Mehmed IV (1648-1687) reacted to Austrian Habsburg interference in Hungary with an Ottoman offensive which resulted in the second siege at Vienna, the Battle of Vienna. The siege turned some of the Ottoman allies against it, and Pope Innocent XI abandoned his secular interests to agitate for a general crusade against the Ottoman Empire. In the following decades, the Ottoman Empire was not just an occupying force; it was an instrument in European politics. The Battle of Vienna was a turning point in the 300-year struggle between the forces of Central European kingdoms and the Ottoman Empire. It brought about a long period of stagnation, ending 230 years of growth and the empire's expansion into Europe.

Stagnation (1683–1827)

Köçeks at a fair

What followed was a long succession of sultans who were capable but not comparable to Mehmed II, Selim I or Suleiman the Magnificent. The defeat at the Battle of Lepanto (1571) frustrated the ambition to control the Mediterranean Sea but was not in itself the beginning of Ottoman decline. The empire was later weakened by many wars, particularly against Persia, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Russia, and Austria.

By this period, despite a notable resilience, the Ottoman Empire had ceased to be Europe's foremost power. After the defeat of Kara Mustafa by a combined army of Poland and the Holy Roman Empire at the Battle of Vienna in 1683 the empire lost some of its standing in Europe. In the Treaty of Karlowitz, that ended the Great Turkish War in 1699, the Ottomans ceded large territories which had been in their possession for two centuries. They also acknowledged, for the first time in their history, that the Austrian Empire could sign a treaty with them on equal terms.

Further wars and territories were lost to Austria in the Balkans. Certain areas of the empire, such as Egypt and Algeria, became independent from the Ottoman Empire in all but name, and subsequently came under the influence of France and the United Kingdom. A series of ten wars was fought between the Russian and Ottoman empires from the 17th to the 19th centuries.

During the "Tulip Era" (لاله دورى Lâle Devri), named after the extensive use of the tulip motif, policies toward Europe began to change. The region was a peaceful era between 1718–1730, as the Ottoman defeat of the Russians in the Pruth Campaign in 1712 and the Treaty of Passarowitz. The empire began to improve the cities bordering the Balkans to act as a defense against the expansionist movements of the different European States. Other tentative reforms were also enacted: taxes were lowered; there were attempts to improve the image of the Ottoman state; and the first civilian industrial investments began. These measures, however, failed to put an end to the empire's decline. As covered in technological and scientific advantages the Ottomans had once enjoyed over the European countries had long since disappeared.

Ottoman military reform efforts was the first response of the ottomans lead the Sultan Selim III (1789-1807) to initiate several efforts to modernize the system and revitalize the empire. These efforts, however, were hampered by reactionary forces within the empire, primarily religious groups and the Janissary military units.

Decline (1828–1908)

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"Consultative Menagerie", January 1885; see image detail for explication

The period of the Ottoman Empire's decline was characterized by the reorganization and transformation of most of the empire's structures in an attempt to bolster the empire against increasingly powerful rivals.

The Tanzimat period—named from the term تنظيمات tanzîmât, meaning "reorganization"—lasted from 1839 to 1876. During this time, many significant changes were effected: a fairly modern conscripted army was organized; the banking system was reformed; and the guilds were replaced with modern factories. Economically, the empire had difficulties in repaying its loans to European banks. At the same time, it had military difficulties in defending itself from foreign invasion and occupation: Egypt, for instance, was occupied by the French in 1798, while Cyprus was occupied by the British in 1876. In a significant change from the past, the empire stopped entering conflicts alone and began to enter into alliances with European countries. There were a series of alliances with countries such as France, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and Russia. A prime example of this change was the Crimean War, in which the British, French, Ottomans, and others united against Imperial Russia.

Opening of the Ottoman parliament, 1876

The rise of nationalism (Ottoman Empire) swept many countries during the 19th century, and the Ottoman Empire was not immune. A burgeoning national consciousness, together with a rise in ethnic nationalism, became at this time, probably the most significant of the ideas that the Ottoman Empire imported from the West, as it was forced to deal with nationalism-related issues both within and beyond its borders. The parties with revolutionary philosophies showed a surge. Uprisings in Ottoman territory had many far-reaching effects during the 19th century and determined many of the choices that the Ottoman Empire would have to make during the 20th century. Many Ottoman Turks questioned whether the policies of the state were the issue: some felt that the sources of the inter-ethnic conflicts were external, with unrelated goals to immanent issues. While this period had many achievements, the ability of the Ottoman state to strongly influence the ethnic uprisings was questionable.

The socioeconomics of reformation era covers the changes during the decline period. From economic perspective, it was just the opposite, even if it was common to describe the Empire as the "sick man of Europe". The empire's actual weakness, did not reside in its developing economy, but the cultural gap which separated it from the European powers. The empire's problems were, in fact, the result of incabability to deal with the new combination of problems arising from external imperialism and rising internal nationalism.

The empire's First Constitutional Era (برنجى مشروطيت دورى Birinci Meşrûtiyyet Devri), was a short-lived period, however the idea that was behind the movement "Ottomanism" was continued. A wide-ranging group of reformers which named Young Ottomans, primarily educated in Western universities, believed that a constitutional monarchy could ease the empire's growing social unrest. Through a military coup in 1876, they forced Sultan Abdülaziz (1861-1876) to leave his position to Murad V. However, Murad V proved to be mentally ill, and was deposed within a few months. His heir-apparent Abdülhamid II (1876-1909) was invited to assume power, with the promise that he would declare a constitutional monarchy, which he did on 23 November 1876. The subsequent constitution—called Kanûn-ı Esâsî (قانون اساسى, meaning "Basic Law")—was written by members of the Young Ottomans, but was in effect for only two years.

Dissolution (1908–1922)

File:Constantinople settings and traits (1926)- public demonstration.png

Public demonstration in the Sultanahmet district of Istanbul, 1908

The period of the Ottoman Empire's final dissolution begins with the onset of the empire's Second Constitutional Era (ايکنجى مشروطيت دورى İkinci Meşrûtiyyet Devri). This era is symbolized by the Committee of Union and Progress (اتحاد و ترقى جمعيت İttihâd ve Terakkî Cem'iyyet) and the movement that would become known as the "Young Turks" (ژون تورکلر Jön Türkler). The Young Turk Revolution began on 3 July 1908 and quickly spread throughout the empire, resulting in the sultan's announcement of the restoration of the 1876 constitution and the reconvening of parliament. The Committee of Union and Progress managed to win the elections that were held in that year. Now in power, the Young Turks introduced a number of new initiatives intended to promote the modernization of the Ottoman Empire. They supported industrialization and administrative reforms, and their reforms of provincial administration quickly led to a higher degree of centralization. In addition, they implemented the secularization of the legal system and subsidies for the education of women, and altered the administrative structure of the state-operated primary schools. Their domestic reforms were in some ways quite successful, but their foreign policy proved to be disastrous.

The Balkan Wars were the first big test to the Committee of Union and Progress, just after the Italian occupation (1911) of Libya. The three new Balkan states formed at the end of the 19th century, as well as Montenegro, sought additional territories from Albania, Macedonia, and Thrace, on nationalism-based grounds. The incomplete emergence of these nation-states on the fringes of the Ottoman Empire during the 19th century set the stage for the Balkan Wars. Initially, with the encouragement of Russia, a series of agreements were concluded between Serbia and Bulgaria in March 1912 and between Greece and Bulgaria in May 1912. Montenegro subsequently concluded agreements between Serbia and Bulgaria in October 1912. The Serbian-Bulgarian agreement specifically called for the partition of Macedonia, which resulted in the First Balkan War. The Second Balkan War soon followed. The political downfall of balkan wars reflected as coup of 1913, which had set the envirnment for the famaous Three Pashas.

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The Ottoman Empire joins the Central Powers in World War I.

The Ottoman Empire took part in the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I, under the terms of the Ottoman-German Alliance. The Ottoman Empire had some successes in the beginning years of the war, particularly at the Battle of Gallipoli. There were some setbacks as well, however, in particular the disastrous Caucasus Campaign against the Russians. Also, in the winter of 1915-16, the Ottoman government ordered all Armenians deported from eastern Anatolia during a forced march southward. The result was a catastrophe, referred to by Armenians as an instance of "genocide". The Russian Revolution of 1917 gave the Ottomans a chance to regain some of their lost ground; however, continued British offensives ultimately proved to be too much. The Ottomans were eventually defeated due to key attacks by the British general Edmund Allenby, as well as assistance from the Arab Revolt, the Republic of Armenia of the Armenian Revolution. The initial peace agreement with the Ottoman Empire was the Armistice of Mudros, followed by the Treaty of Sèvres, the treaty which granted recognition to the Republic of Armenia. The United Kingdom obtained virtually everything it had sought—according to the secret Sykes-Picot Agreement made together with France in 1916, while the war was still going on—from the empire's partition. The other powers of the Triple Entente, however, soon became entangled in the Turkish War of Independence.

The Turkish War of Independence was organized against the plans of the Allies. Angered by the Sèvres agreement, Mustafa Kemal—who had been an important force at the 1915 Battle of Gallipoli—raised an army, that expelled the Greeks, the Italians, and the French, confronted the Republic of Armenia, and eventually threatened the British as well. Turkish revolutionaries, under Mustafa Kemal's leadership, formed a parliament Grand National Assembly) (Büyük Millet Meclisi) in Ankara, so as to direct the war against the invading forces. this parlement decleared its sovereignty on 23 April 1920. In the end, they asserted their right to an independent national existence. The final blow to the Ottoman Empire came on 1 November 1922, with the abolishment of the sultanate. The last sultan, Mehmed VI Vahdettin (1918-1922), left the country on 17 November, and the Republic of Turkey was officially declared on 29 October 1923. The title of caliphate—the very last official remnant of the empire—was constitutionally abolished several months later, on 3 March 1924.

Ultimately, the main reasons for the fall of the Ottoman Empire can be attributed to the failure of its economic structure. For one thing, the size of the empire created problems. Also the empire's communication technology did not migrate into the empire's state structure. The trade dynamics was based on non-state elements. In many ways, the circumstances surrounding the Ottoman Empire's fall closely paralleled those surrounding the fall of the Roman Empire, particularly in terms of the ongoing tensions among the empires' populations and the respective governments' inability to deal with these tensions. In the case of the Ottomans, the introduction of a parliamentary system during the Tanzimat proved to be too late to reverse the damage that had already been done.

State

Main article: State organisation of the Ottoman Empire

Ottoman bureaucracy

In diplomatic circles, the empire was often referred to as the "Sublime Porte", a literal translation of the Ottoman باب عالی (Bâb-ı Âlî), which was the one gate of the imperial Topkapı Palace that was open to foreigners and was where the sultan greeted ambassadors.

The Ottoman state revolutionized its administrative system with the aid and experience of Greeks and other Christians, Muslims, and Jews, while many other states still held tightly to their own religions and national identities. The rapidly expanding state utilized skilled local people to manage the empire, people who were often selected from among loyal Phanariot Greeks, Armenians, and others. From the perspective of the West, this eclectic administration was apparent even in the diplomatic correspondence of the empire, which was undertaken in the Greek language. Like the Byzantines before them, the Ottomans practiced a system in which the state had control of the clergy. The Byzantine forms of land tenure were largely retained—with a number of unique adjustments—in the Ottoman Empire. At the same time, however, certain pre-Islamic Turkish practices that had survived the influx of administrative and legal practices from Islamic Iran continued to be important in Ottoman administrative circles. In the Ottoman judiciary, for example, the courts were run by kadı (قاضی), who were religious judges appointed by the sultan and who exercised direct control over members of the religious establishment. Ultimately, then, the Ottoman administrative system was a blend of influences derived from the Turkish nomads, the Byzantines, and the Islamic world.

The Ottomans were primarily administrators and not producers in the sense that the empire did not employ a program of economic exploitation, as did the colonial empires of the modern European states. According to Ottoman understanding, the primary responsibility was to defend the empire's land and to secure security and harmony within its borders.

House of Osman

Further information: [[:Ottoman Dynasty, House of Osman]]

The Ottoman sultan, also known as the pâdişâh (پادشاه) or "lord of kings", served as the empire's sole regent and was considered to be the embodiment of its government, though he did not always exercise complete control.

Throughout Ottoman history, however—despite the sultan's supreme de jure authority and the Grand Vizier's sometime de facto one—there were many insistences in which local governors acted with a degree of independence, sometimes even in opposition to the ruler. There are, for instance, eleven incidences in which the sultan was dethroned because he was perceived as a threat to the state. On the other hand, although new sultans were always chosen from among the sons of the previous sultan, there was a strong educational system in place that was geared towards eliminating the unfit and establishing a common trust among the ruling élite for the son before he was actually crowned. Only two failed attempts were made in the whole of Ottoman history to unseat the ruling Osmanlı dynasty, a fact which is suggestive of a high level of political stability.

Imperial Harem

Main article: Imperial Harem

The Harem was one of the most important powers of the Ottoman court. It was ruled by the Valide Sultan (also known as the Baş Kadın, or "chief lady"), who was the mother of the reigning sultan and who held supreme power over the Harem and thus a powerful position in the court. On occasion, the Valide Sultan would become involved in state politics and could diminish the power and position of the sultan. For a period of time beginning in the 16th century and extending into the 17th, the women of the Harem effectively controlled the state in what was termed the "Sultanate of Women" (Kadınlar Sultanatı).

The harem had its own internal organization, and order of formulating policies. Beneath the Valide Sultan in the hierarchy was the Hasseki Sultana, the mother of the sultan's first-born son, who had the highest chance of becoming the next Valide Sultan. The sultan also had four other official wives, who were each called Hasseki Kadın. Next in rank below the sultan's wives were his eight favorite concubines (ikbâls or hâs odalıks), and then the other concubines whom the sultan favored and who were termed gözde. Next in rank were the concubines of other court officials. Pupils (acemî) and novices (câriye or şâhgird) were younger women who were either waiting to be married off to someone or who had not yet graduated out of the Harem School.

Palace schools

The palace schools were where the devşirme boys where trained. There were palace schools in the old palace in Edirne, one in Galata Palace north of the Istanbul's Golden Horn, and one in Ibrahim Pasha Palace in the Hippodrome area of Istanbul. The boys would graduate from these schools after seven years, and were then ready to become servants to the sultan or other notables, to serve in the Six Divisions of Cavalry, or to serve as a Janissary. Some of the most talented devşirme boys would come to Topkapi Palace, where they were trained for high positions within the Ottoman court or military.

The Divan (Council)

Further information: [[:Divan, Grand Vizier, Vizier]]

Though the sultan was the sublime monarch he had a number of advisors and ministers. The most powerful of these were the viziers of the Divan, led by the Grand Vizier. The Divan was a council where the viziers met and debated the politics of the empire. It was the Grand Vizier's duty to inform the sultan of the opinion of the divan. The sultan often took his vizier's advices in consideration, but he by no means had to obey the divan. The divan consisted of three viziers in the 14th century and eleven in the 17th century, four of them served as Viziers of the Dome, the most important ministers next to the Grand Vizier.

Imperial Government

Main article: Imperial Government of the Ottoman Empire

Further information: [[:Subdivisions of the Ottoman Empire, List of Ottoman Grand Viziers]]

File:Bab-ıAli.jpg

باب عالی Bâb-ı Âlî, the "Sublime Porte"

Though the state apparatus of the Ottoman Empire underwent many reforms during its long history, a number of its basic structures remained consistently the same. Primary among these structures was the primacy of the sultan. Despite important decisions usually being made by the Dîvân, or council of state, the final decision always belonged to the sultan.

The Dîvân, in the years when the Ottoman state was still a beylik, was composed of elders of the tribe. It was later modified so as to include professionals from the military and also local élites, such as religious and political advisors. These individuals became known as viziers. Later still, beginning in the year 1320, a Grand Vizier (صدر اﻋظم Sadr-ı a'zam) was appointed in order to assume certain of the sultan's responsibilities. The Sublime Porte, which became synonymous with the Ottoman government, was in fact the gate to the Grand Vizier's headquarters and the place where the sultan held the greeting ceremony for foreign ambassadors. At times throughout Ottoman history, the Grand Vizier became as important as, or more important than, the sultan himself. After the Young Turk Revolution of 1908, the Ottoman state became a constitutional monarchy without executive powers, and a parliament was formed, with representatives chosen from the provinces.

At the height of its power, the Ottoman Empire contained 29 provinces, in addition to the tributary principalities of Moldavia, Transylvania, and Wallachia.

Insignia

Further information: [[:Tughra, Ottoman Flag]]

Sultan Mahmud II; it reads Mahmud Khan son of Abdulhamid is forever victorious

A Tughra is an outstanding calligraphic imperial rigging, monogram or a kind of signature of Ottoman Sultans. It bears the names of the sultan and his father and the prayer statement “ever victorious” in most. Tugras were carved on Sultan’s seal. The earliest tugra belongs to Orhan Gazi. There are 35 tugras. It became a branch in Ottoman-Arabic calligraphy. After completing its official role, they became a possession of history.

Ottoman Empire used many insignia (flags, tugras, etc) through out times.

File:Ottoman Sultanate1299-1453.png

Early Ottoman Flag

File:Ot flag.gif

Late Ottoman flag

Society

Main article: Society structure of the Ottoman Empire

One of the successes of the Ottoman Empire was the unity that it brought about among its highly varied population. While the main reason was the military might and heavyhandedness in newly invaded territories, one other indirect source of this unity was allowed for by the laws of Islam, which stated that Muslims, Christians, and Jews—who constituted the vast majority of the Ottoman population—were all related in that they were "People of the Book" (Arabic: اهل الكتاب; ahl al-Kitâb). As early as the rule of Mehmed II, the Ottomans had foreseen the results of such policies: Mehmed II, for instance, granted extensive rights to Phanariot Greeks and invited many Jews to settle in Ottoman territory.

Concept of Nation

Main article: Millet (Ottoman Empire)

See also: Ottomanism

Under Ottoman rule the major religious groups were allowed to establish their own communities, called millets, each retaining its own religious laws, traditions, and language under the general protection of the sultan. Millets were led by religious chiefs, who served as secular as well as religious leaders and thus had a substantial interest in the continuation of Ottoman rule. Mehmed II used the conquering army to restore the physical structure of the city. Old buildings were repaired, streets, aqueducts, and bridges were constructed, sanitary facilities were modernized, and a vast supply system was established to provide for the city's inhabitants.

Ultimately, the Ottoman Empire's relatively high degree of tolerance on the level of ethnicity proved to be one of its greatest strengths. As Donald Quataert points out, "the Ottoman family was ethnically Turkish in its origins, as were some of its supporters and subjects. But ... the dynasty immediately lost this "Turkish" ethnic identification through intermarriage with many different ethnicities. As for a "Turkish empire", state power relied on a similarly heterogeneous mix of peoples. The Ottoman empire succeeded because it incorporated the energies of the vastly varied peoples it encountered, quickly transcending its roots in the Turkish nomadic migrations from Central Asia into the Middle East."

Slavery

Further information: [[:Devshirmeh]]

Ottomans were coming from a nomadic nation, in which slavery was very distant to the social structure. Also, from the Islamic perspective, the Kuran specifically states "everyone is same", although the practice showed differences based on cultures, which Islam and Slavery covers these perspectives, specifically Ottoman application on their domain was not approved. However, the ottomans policies were based on millet perspective which each millet had the right to govern their own domain. Trafficking in slaves is expressly forbidden by the Ottoman application of sharia, or Islamic law. For example, by the terms of the sharia, any slaves who were taken could not be kept in the status of slaves if they converted to Islam.

All of the soldiers in the Ottoman system were paid, including court servants. Some servants were given access to members of the Osmanlı dynasty, which was otherwise forbidden to outsiders. Those who had such access were considered a part of the family, which in turn allowed them to assume greater responsibility.

The devshirmeh system was considered by many to be a form of slavery. They were paid, and had the opportunity to attain higher status within Ottoman society. Upon reaching a certain age and performing a specific service, they were considered free.

It was, in fact, considered an insult to term an Ottoman man as a slave-master, and there were incidents in which Ottomans responded unsympathetically to any who even mentioned the idea of slavery to them.

Culture

Main article: Culture of the Ottoman Empire

Further information: [[:Poetry of the Ottoman Empire, Prose of the Ottoman Empire, Costumes of the Ottoman Empire]]

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Istanbul Park

Many different cultures lived under the umbrella of the Ottoman Empire, and as a result, a specifically "Ottoman" culture can be difficult to define. To some extent, there existed a Turkish Ottoman culture, a Greek Ottoman culture, an Armenian Ottoman culture, and so on. However, there was also, to a great extent, a specific intersecting multi-ethnic culture that can be said to have reached its highest levels among the Ottoman élite, who—far from being monolithic—were in fact composed of a myriad of different ethnic and religious groups.

One of the roots of Ottoman culture comes from the Oghuz Turks with their Central Asian Turkic nomadic culture. As the Oghuz passed into Anatolia through Persia over a period of a few hundred years they absorbed many elements of Persian culture. Following Sultan Mehmed II's capture of Constantinople in 1453, many aspects of Byzantine—and, more broadly, European—culture began to be integrated into Ottoman culture. As the empire expanded in subsequent years, different cultures were brought into this mix, enriching it still further.

This Ottoman multicultural perspective reflects on their policies. One of the reasons that the Ottoman Empire lasted as long as it did was the highly tolerant policies pursued originating from their nomadic inheritance. This statement should be taken as a comparison to assimilative medieval times (east and west). The Ottoman State pursued multi-cultural and multi-religious policies - accommodating different perspectives. Two examples of this are the Ottoman justice system and the regional governors. As the Ottomans moved further west, the Ottoman leaders themselves absorbed some of the culture of conquered regions. In addition, with intercultural marriages, new cultural structures were gradually added to the Ottomans, creating the characteristic Ottoman elite culture. When compared to common Turkish arts (folkloric), the assimilation of the Ottoman elites to these new cultures is apparent.

Architecture

Architectural plan of Bey Hamam in Thessaloniki dated 1444

Main article: Ottoman architecture

Ottoman architecture influenced by Seljuk, Byzantine and Arab architecture came to develop a style all of its own. The years 1300-1453 (Rise Period) constitute the early or first Ottoman period, when Ottoman art was in search of new ideas. The years 1453-1600, which is named classical period, coincidence with growth period, constitudes most strong period. During the years of the stagnation period, principles of architecture deviated from classical times. During the Tulip Era, it was under the influence of the excessive decorations of the west; Baroque, Rococo, Empire and other styles intermingled.

Concepts of Ottoman architecture mainly circles around mosque. The society and mosque was being visioned as an entity interconnected with city planning and communal life. Beside the mosque, there were soup kitchens, theological schools, hospitals, Turkish baths and tombs.

Examples of Ottoman architecture of the classical period, aside from Istanbul and Edirne, can also be seen in Egypt, Tunisia, Algiers, the Balkans and Hungary, where mosques, bridges, fountains and schools were built.

Language

Main article: Ottoman Turkish language

At the Ottoman court, a version of Turkish with Arabic and Persian vocabulary was spoken. The basic grammar was still largely Turkish, but far more elaborate than the Turkish that was spoken outside of the court. The two varieties of the language became so differentiated that ordinary people had to hire special "request-writers" (arzıhâlcis) in order to be able to communicate with the government.

The Sultans had a very mixed ethnic lineage because the Sultans married women from various backgrounds. They spoke their mother tongue: Ottoman, Persian, Turkish, Greek, Arabic and some European languages.

In cosmopolitan cities, people often spoke their family languages, some Ottoman if they were educated, and some Arabic if they were Muslim. In the last two centuries, French and English emerged as popular languages where the elite learned French at school, and used European products as a fashion statement. All ethnicities who had their own language continued to speak their own language in their family, in villages where two populations lived together, the two populations would often speak each other's language (Cyprus:Greek/Turkish, the Balkans: Albanian/ Greek/ Serbian/ Bulgarian, Eastern Turkey: Kurdish/ Turkish/ Armenian, Northeastern Turkey: Laz/ Georgian/ Greek/ Turkish).

Music

Main article: Ottoman classical music

Further information: [[:Janissary Music, Roma music, Belly dance, Turkish folk music]]

As music was an important part of the education of the Ottoman élite, a number of the Ottoman sultans were accomplished musicians and composers themselves, such as Selim III, whose compositions are still frequently performed today. Due to a geographic and cultural divide between the capital and other areas, two broadly distinct styles of music arose in the Ottoman Empire: Ottoman classical music, and folk music.

Ottoman classical music arose largely from a confluence of Byzantine music, Arab music, and Persian music. Compositionally, it is organized around rhythmic units called usul, which are somewhat similar to meter in Western music, and melodic units called makam, which bear some resemblance to Western musical modes. The instruments used are a mixture of Anatolian and Central Asian instruments (the saz, the bağlama, the kemence), other Middle Eastern instruments (the ud, the tanbur, the kanun, the ney), and—later in the tradition—Western instruments (the violin, the piano).

In the provinces, several different kinds of Folk music were created. The most dominant regions with their distinguished musical styles are : Balkan-Thracian Turkus, North-Eastern Turkus(Laz), Aegean Turkus, Central Anatolian Turkus, Eastern Anatolian Turkus, and Caucasian Turkus. Istanbul does not have any Turkus, because it has the Turkish Classical Music.

Lifestyle

Main article: Lifestyle of the Ottoman Empire

File:Constantinople(1878)-Fausto Zonaro, c1900 -scanned constantinopole (1996)-The bridge of galata.png

Galata Bridge in Istanbul, 1878

The Ottoman court life in many aspects assembled ancient traditions of the Persian Shahs, but had many Greek and European influences.

In general, Turks take their shoes off in the house. There are slippers that are designated to home use. This custom was carried through centuries as the Turkish babies have been free to move and adults can rest on the floor. This custom aimed in keeping the carpet and kilim clean. Women and girls take up carpet and kilim weaving as a means of earning money.

The court (Topkapi)

Main article: Topkapi Palace

Further information: [[:Harem (household)]]

The culture that evolved around the court was known as the Ottoman Way. To get a high position in the empire, one must be skilled in the Way. It included knowing both Persian, Arabic and Ottoman Turkish and how to behave in court, in front of the sultan, and in formal and religious occasions. The Ottoman Way also used to separate the nobles from the lower classes. Peasants and villagers were called Turks, while nobles were Ottomans.

The sultan was served by an army of pages and scholars. Twenty-five of these served in the kitchen and in the larder. Others served in the Treasury and the Armoury, maintaining the sultan's treasures and weapons. There where also a branch of servants that were said to serve the Chamber of Campaign, i.e. they accompanied the sultan and his court while on campaign. The best of the pages was chosen to serve the sultan in person. One was responsible for the sultan's clothening, one served him with drinks, one carried his weaponry, one helped him mount his horse, one was responsible for making his turban and a barber shaved the sultan every day. At the palace served also a great number of stewards who carried food, water and wood throughout the palace and lit the fireplaces and braziers. The corps of doorkeepers (Kapıcı) numbered several hundreds and were responsible for opening the doors throughout the entire palace and also for execution. The chief doorkeeper was responsible for escorting important guests to the sultan. A number of lackeys (Çikadar) served as messengers in the palace and the city and from one of these were the Imperial Herald (Divan Çavısı, literally "sergeant of the divan") who was a man entrusted by the sultan to various tasks, among others to inform people who would take part in meetings of the Divan.

The Harem was under the administration of the eunuchs, of which there were two categories, Black and White Eunuchs. Black Eunuchs were Africans who served the concubines and officials in the Harem and together with chamber maidens of low rank. The White Eunuchs were Europeans from the Balkans. They served the recruits at the Palace School (see below) and were from 1582 prohibited from entering the Harem. An important figure in the Ottoman court was the Chief Black Eunuch (Kızlar Ağası or Harem Ağası). In control of the Harem and a perfect net of spies in the Black Eunuchs, the Chief Eunuch was involved in almost every palace intrigue and could thereby gain power over either the sultan or one of his viziers, ministers or other court officials.

The Harem was a small world in itself. Often the mother of the current sultan (Valide Sultan) was a politically influential person. She also selected the concubines for her son. The concubines could live in or around the palace for their entire life, and it supported them with whatever they needed. Women not found suitable for the sultan were married off to eligible bachelors from the Ottoman nobility or sent back home. Female servants did all the chores such as serving food and making the beds. Male (sometimes eunuch) white and black servants did the hard work such as shopping, guarding the palaces and maintaining the gardens and palaces.

Every prince has his own place. It is a tradition to take the bride from her house and take it to where she will be building her new familiy.

See also: Seraglio.

The provincial capitals

Apart from the Ottoman court, there were also large metropolitan centers were the Ottoman influence expressed itself with a diversity similar to metropolises of today : New York, London, Paris. Sarajevo, Skopje, Thessaloniki, Damascus, Baghdad, Beirut, Jerusalem, Mecca were other cities that tasted the Ottoman diversity with their own small versions of Provincial Administration replicating the culture of the Ottoman court locally.

Religion

Further information: [[:History of the Jews in Turkey, History of the Armenians in Ottoman Empire]]

Following the fall of Constantinople in 1453, Mehmed II did not disband the Greek Orthodox Ecumenical Patriarchate, but instead brought it under close control by installing Gennadius II Scholarius as the patriarch—after receiving from him a hefty fee—and thus establishing him as the ethnarch of the Millet of Rum; that is, the Orthodox Christian subjects of the empire, regardless of their ethnicity. Under the millet system—which applied to other non-Muslim religious groups as well—people were considered subjects of the empire but were not subject to the Muslim faith or Muslim law. The Orthodox millet, for instance, was still officially legally subject to Justinian's Code, which had been in effect in the Byzantine Empire for 900 years. Also, as the largest group of non-Muslim subjects (ذمي zimmi) of the Islamic Ottoman state, the Orthodox millet was granted a number of special privileges in the fields of politics and commerce, in addition to having to pay higher taxes than Muslim subjects.

Similar millets were established for the Ottoman Jewish community, who were under the authority of the Haham Başı or Ottoman Chief Rabbi; the Armenian Orthodox community, who were under the authority of a head bishop; and a number of other religious communities as well.

Adoption of Islam

Further information: [[:Ottoman Caliphate]]

Before adopting Islam—a process that was greatly facilitated by the Abbasid victory at the 751 CE Battle of Talas, which ensured Abbasid influence in Central Asia—the Turkic peoples practised a variety of shamanism. After this battle, many of the various Turkic tribes—including the Oghuz Turks, who were the ancestors of both the Seljuks and the Ottomans—gradually converted to Islam, and brought the religion with them to Anatolia beginning in the 11th century CE.

State and Religion

Largely for practical reasons, the Ottoman Empire was, in a broad sense, tolerant towards its non-Muslim subjects; it did not, for instance, forcibly convert all of them to Islam. Nevertheless, non-Muslims were devoid of some rights and were not allowed to take active part in Ottoman state affairs. The sultans took their primary duty to be service to the interests of the state, which could not survive without taxes and a strong administrative system. The state's relationship with the Greek Orthodox Church, for example, was largely peaceful, and the church's structure was kept intact and largely left alone but under close control and scrutiny until the Greek War of Independence of 1821–1831 and, later in the 19th and early 20th centuries, the rise of the Ottoman constitutional monarchy, which was driven to some extent by nationalistic currents. Other churches, like the Bulgarian Orthodox Church, were dissolved and placed under the jurisdiction of the Greek Orthodox Church. On the other hand, the empire often served as a refuge for the persecuted and exiled Jews of Europe, as for example following the expulsion of the Jews from Spain in 1492, when Sultan Beyazid II welcomed them into Ottoman lands.

Religious Freedoms

Although the Ottoman state did not directly and harshly pursue a policy of forced individual conversion, it did decree that, for reasons of outward distinction, the people of the different millets wear specific colors of, for instance, turbans and shoes—a policy that was not, however, always followed by Ottoman citizens. Moreover—from the time of Murad I through the 17th century—the Ottoman state also put into effect the devşirme (دوشيرم), a policy of filling the ranks of the Ottoman army and administrative system by means of forcefully collecting young Christian boys from their families and taking them to the capital for education and an eventual career either in the Janissary military corps or, for the most gifted, the Ottoman administrative system. Most of the children thus collected were from the empire's Balkan territories, where the devşirme system was referred to as the "blood tax". The children themselves were not forcefully converted to Islam—though they ended up becoming Islamic due to the milieu in which they were raised—but any children that they had were considered to be free Muslims.

Economy

Main article: Economy of the Ottoman Empire

Stamp 1901

The economic structure of the Empire was defined by the geopolitical structure. The Ottoman Empire stood in between West and East, thus blocking the route eastward and forcing Spanish and Portuguese navigators to set out in search of a new route to the Orient. The empire was controlling the route that Marco Polo once used. When Christopher Columbus first journeyed to America in 1492, the Ottoman Empire was at its highest position—an economic power which extended over three continents. Current Ottoman studies imply that the change in politics between Ottomans and central Europe did depend on the opening of the new sea routes. It is also possible to see the decay of the Ottoman Empire by measuring the diminishing significance of the land routes, as Western Europe opened the ocean routes that bypassed the Middle East and Mediterranean. While central Europe was moving forward, Ottoman clung to their traditions. The pragmatic thinking of Ottomans that once helped to reform the systems left behind by Roman Empire was once again giving out the same signs of rigidity which Ottomans had encountered centuries earlier.

Law

Main article: Law of the Ottoman Empire

Further information: [[:Mecelle]]

An Ottoman trial, 1877 (see image detail for explication)

Legally, the Ottoman Empire was organized around a system of local jurisprudence; that is, local legal systems which did not conflict with the state as a whole were largely left alone. The Ottoman system had three court systems: one for Muslims, which was run by the kadıs, or Islamic judges; one for non-Muslims, involving appointed Jews and Christians ruling over their respective religious areas; and one which regulated trade and had its origins in the empire's capitulation agreements with foreign powers. The entire system was regulated from above by means of the administrative kanun (قانون) laws.

These court categories were not, however, wholly exclusive in nature: for instance, the Islamic courts—which were the empire's primary courts—could also be used to settle a trade conflict or disputes between litigants of differing religions, and Jews and Christians often went to them so as to obtain a more forceful ruling on an issue. Women nearly always choose the Islamic courts, as these courts tended to be fairer towards them and to give them more just recompense.

Throughout the empire, there were two systems of law in effect: one was the Islamic sharia (شريعة) law system, and the other was the Turkish kanun system. The Ottoman state tended not to interfere with non-Muslim religious law systems, despite legally having a voice to do so through local governors. The Islamic sharia law system had been developed from a combination of the Qur'ān (قرآن); the Hadīth (حدیث), or sayings of the prophet Muhammad; ijmā' (اجماع), or consensus of the members of the Muslim community; qiyas (قياس), a system of analogical reasoning from previous precedents; and local customs. The kanun law system, on the other hand, was the secular law of the sultan, and dealt with issues not clearly addressed by the sharia system. Both systems were taught at the empire's law schools, which were in Istanbul and Bursa.

Military

Main article: Military of the Ottoman Empire

Further information: [[:Sipahi, Akinci, Timariot]]

The Ottoman military was a complex system of recruiting and fief-holding. In the Ottoman army, light cavalry long formed the core and they were given fiefs called timars. Cavalry used bows and short swords and made use of nomad tactics similar to those of the Mongol Empire. The Ottoman army was once among the most advanced fighting forces in the world, being one of the first to employ muskets.

The modernisation of the Ottoman empire in the 19th century started with the military. This was the first institution to hire foreign experts and which sent their officer corps for training in western European countries. Technology and new weapons were transferred to the empire, such as German and British guns, air force and a modern navy.

Janissary

Main article: Janissary

The Janissaries comprised infantry units that formed the Ottoman sultan's household troops and bodyguard. The force originated in the 14th century; it was abolished by Sultan Mahmud II in 1826. The Timar system, which organized the Janissary acquisition, was a land based system that extended through out the Empire. The Eurocentric view perceives that often young Christians converted to Islam. Timar as a system of assimilation is questionable.

Nizamis

Main article: Nizam-ı Cedid

The Nizamis (Nizam-ı Cedid) were the Ottoman soldiers who replaced the Janissaries. This army was established at the beginning of the year 1842.

Military Band

Main article: Ottoman military band

An Ottoman mehterân

Ottoman military bands are thought to be the oldest variety of military marching band in the world. Though they are often known by the Persian-derived word mehter (مهتر) in the West, that word, properly speaking, refers only to a single musician in the band.

References

• Cleveland, William L. "The Ottoman and Safavid Empires: A New Imperial Synthesis" in A History of the Modern Middle East. Westview Press, 2004. pp. 37–56. ISBN 0813340489.
• Creasy, Sir Edward Shepherd. History of the Ottoman Turks: From the beginning of their empire to the present time. R. Bentley and Son, 1877.
• Finkel, Caroline. Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1923. John Murray, 2005. ISBN 0719555132.
• Imber, Colin. The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power. Palgrave Macmillan, 2002. ISBN 0333613864.
• Jelavich, Barbara. History of the Balkans: Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. Cambridge University Press, 1983. ISBN 0521252490.
• Lybyer, Albert Howe. The Government of the Ottoman Empire in the Time of Suleiman the Magnificent. AMS Press, 1978. ISBN 0404146813.
• Mansel, Philip. Constantinople: City of the World's Desire, 1453–1924. Gardners Books, 1997. ISBN 0140262466.
• McCarthy, Justin. The Ottoman Peoples and the End of Empire. Hodder Arnold, 2001. ISBN 0340706570.
• Necipoğlu, Gülru. Architecture, Ceremonial, and Power: The Topkapi Palace in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries. MIT Press, 1991. ISBN 0262140500.
• Quataert, Donald. The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922. Cambridge University Press, 2005. ISBN 0521547822.
• This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)

See also

• History of the Balkans
• Armenian Revolution

External links

In English

• The Ottoman Empire
• Royal Ark: Turkey—an extensive site with much detailed information
• The Ottomans—covers various aspects of the Ottoman Empire in detail
• World Civilizations: The Ottomans—a comprehensive site that covers much about the Ottoman state and government
• Capitals of Ottoman Empire—covers the different Ottoman capitals
• History of Turkish Empire- Gives detail timetable.
• Ottoman Website

In Turkish

• Everything about the Ottoman Empire—a detailed site covering many different aspects of the Ottoman Empire
• Turkcebilgi.com Ottoman Empire Pages—a site covering various aspects of the Ottoman Empire
• Flags of the Ottoman Empire—contains information about Ottoman flags
• Everything About Ottoman Coins—a comprehensive site that covers much about Ottoman currency
• Kutsal Emanetler Topkapi Palace—a comprehensive site that covers much about Kutsal Emanetler