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The Lucas numbers or Lucas series are an integer sequence named after the mathematician François Édouard Anatole Lucas (1842–91), who studied both that sequence and the closely related Fibonacci numbers. Lucas numbers and Fibonacci numbers form complementary instances of Lucas sequences.

Definition

Similar to the Fibonacci numbers, each Lucas number is defined to be the sum of its two immediate previous terms, thereby forming a Fibonacci integer sequence. The first two Lucas numbers are L₀ = 2 and L₁ = 1 as opposed to the first two Fibonacci numbers F₀ = 0 and F₁ = 1. Though closely related in definition, Lucas and Fibonacci numbers exhibit distinct properties.

The Lucas numbers may thus be defined as follows:

L_{n}:={\begin{cases}2&{\text{if }}n=0;\\1&{\text{if }}n=1;\\L_{n-1}+L_{n-2}&{\text{if }}n>1.\\\end{cases}}

The sequence of Lucas numbers is:

2,\;1,\;3,\;4,\;7,\;11,\;18,\;29,\;47,\;76,\;123,\;\ldots \;

(sequence A000032 in the OEIS).

All Fibonacci-like integer sequences appear in shifted form as a row of the Wythoff array; the Fibonacci sequence itself is the first row and the Lucas sequence is the second row. Also like all Fibonacci-like integer sequences, the ratio between two consecutive Lucas numbers converges to the golden ratio.

Extension to negative integers

Using L_n−2 = L_n − L_n−1, one can extend the Lucas numbers to negative integers to obtain a doubly infinite sequence:

..., −11, 7, −4, 3, −1, 2, 1, 3, 4, 7, 11, ... (terms

L_{n}

for

-5\leq {}n\leq 5

are shown).

The formula for terms with negative indices in this sequence is

L_{-n}=(-1)^{n}L_{n}.\!

Relationship to Fibonacci numbers

The Lucas numbers are related to the Fibonacci numbers by the identities

$\,L_{n}=F_{n-1}+F_{n+1}=F_{n}+2F_{n-1}=F_{n+2}-F_{n-2}$
$\,L_{m+n}=L_{m+1}F_{n}+L_{m}F_{n-1}$
$\,L_{n}^{2}=5F_{n}^{2}+4(-1)^{n}$ , and thus as $n\,$ approaches +∞, the ratio ${\frac {L_{n}}{F_{n}}}$ approaches ${\sqrt {5}}.$
$\,F_{2n}=L_{n}F_{n}$
$\,F_{n+k}+(-1)^{k}F_{n-k}=L_{k}F_{n}$
$\,F_{n}={L_{n-1}+L_{n+1} \over 5}={L_{n-3}+L_{n+3} \over 10}$

Their closed formula is given as:

L_{n}=\varphi ^{n}+(1-\varphi )^{n}=\varphi ^{n}+(-\varphi )^{-n}=\left({1+{\sqrt {5}} \over 2}\right)^{n}+\left({1-{\sqrt {5}} \over 2}\right)^{n}\,,

where $\varphi$ is the golden ratio. Alternatively, as for $n>1$ the magnitude of the term $(-\varphi )^{-n}$ is less than 1/2, $L_{n}$ is the closest integer to $\varphi ^{n}$ or, equivalently, the integer part of $\varphi ^{n}+1/2$ , also written as $\lfloor \varphi ^{n}+1/2\rfloor$ .

Conversely, since Binet's formula gives:

F_{n}={\frac {\varphi ^{n}-(1-\varphi )^{n}}{\sqrt {5}}}\,,

we have:

\varphi ^{n}={{L_{n}+F_{n}{\sqrt {5}}} \over 2}\,.

Congruence relations

If F_n ≥ 5 is a Fibonacci number then no Lucas number is divisible by F_n.

L_n is congruent to 1 mod n if n is prime, but some composite values of n also have this property.

Lucas primes

A Lucas prime is a Lucas number that is prime. The first few Lucas primes are

2, 3, 7, 11, 29, 47, 199, 521, 2207, 3571, 9349, 3010349, 54018521, 370248451, 6643838879, ... (sequence A005479 in the OEIS).

For these ns are

0, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 11, 13, 16, 17, 19, 31, 37, 41, 47, 53, 61, 71, 79, 113, 313, 353, 503, 613, 617, 863, 1097, 1361, 4787, 4793, 5851, 7741, 8467, ... (sequence A001606 in the OEIS).

If L_n is prime then n is either 0, prime, or a power of 2.^[1] L_2^m is prime for m = 1, 2, 3, and 4 and no other known values of m.

Lucas polynomials

In the same way as Fibonacci polynomials are derived from the Fibonacci numbers, the Lucas polynomials L_n(x) are a polynomial sequence derived from the Lucas numbers.

References

^ Chris Caldwell, "The Prime Glossary: Lucas prime" from The Prime Pages.

External links

"Lucas polynomials", Encyclopedia of Mathematics, EMS Press, 2001 [1994]
Weisstein, Eric W. "Lucas Number". MathWorld.
Weisstein, Eric W. "Lucas Polynomial". MathWorld.
Dr Ron Knott
Lucas numbers and the Golden Section
Lucas Series Generator at Palash90
A Lucas Number Calculator can be found here.
(sequence A000032 in the OEIS) Lucas Numbers in the On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences.

[1] Chris Caldwell, "The Prime Glossary: Lucas prime" from The Prime Pages.

[1]

@@ Line 79: / Line 79: @@
 * [http://www.mcs.surrey.ac.uk/Personal/R.Knott/Fibonacci/lucasNbs.html Dr Ron Knott]
 * [http://milan.milanovic.org/math/english/lucas/lucas.html Lucas numbers and the Golden Section]
+* [http://www.palash90.in/tools.html#/fibonacciLucas Lucas Series Generator] at Palash90
 * [http://www.plenilune.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/fibonacci-calculator.asp A Lucas Number Calculator can be found here.]
 * {{OEIS|id=A000032}} Lucas Numbers in the On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences.

v t e Prime number classes
By formula	Fermat ( $2 2 n + 1$ ) Mersenne ( $2 p - 1$ ) Double Mersenne ( $2 2 p -1 - 1$ ) Wagstaff $(2 p + 1)/3$ Proth ( $k \cdot2 n + 1$ ) Factorial ( $n! \pm 1$ ) Primorial ( $p n # \pm 1$ ) Euclid ( $p n # + 1$ ) Pythagorean ( $4 n + 1$ ) Pierpont ( $2 m \cdot3 n + 1$ ) Quartan ( $x 4 + y 4$ ) Solinas ( $2 m \pm 2 n \pm 1$ ) Cullen ( $n \cdot2 n + 1$ ) Woodall ( $n \cdot2 n - 1$ ) Cuban ( $x 3 - y 3)/(x - y$ ) Leyland ( $x y + y x$ ) Thabit ( $3\cdot2 n - 1$ ) Williams ( $(b -1)\cdot b n - 1$ ) Mills ( $⌊ A 3 n ⌋$ )
By integer sequence	Fibonacci Lucas Pell Newman–Shanks–Williams Perrin
By property	Wieferich (pair) Wall–Sun–Sun Wolstenholme Wilson Lucky Fortunate Ramanujan Pillai Regular Strong Stern Supersingular (elliptic curve) Supersingular (moonshine theory) Good Super Higgs Highly cototient Unique
Base-dependent	Palindromic Emirp Repunit $(10 n - 1)/9$ Permutable Circular Truncatable Minimal Delicate Primeval Full reptend Unique Happy Self Smarandache–Wellin Strobogrammatic Dihedral Tetradic
Patterns	Twin ( $p, p + 2$ ) Bi-twin chain ( $n \pm 1, 2 n \pm 1, 4 n \pm 1, \dots$ ) Triplet ( $p, p + 2 or p + 4, p + 6$ ) Quadruplet ( $p, p + 2, p + 6, p + 8$ ) k-tuple Cousin ( $p, p + 4$ ) Sexy ( $p, p + 6$ ) Chen Sophie Germain/Safe ( $p, 2 p + 1$ ) Cunningham ( $p, 2 p \pm 1, 4 p \pm 3, 8 p \pm 7, ...$ ) Arithmetic progression ( $p + a\cdotn, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...$ ) Balanced ( $consecutive p - n, p, p + n$ )
By size	Mega (1,000,000+ digits) Largest known list
Complex numbers	Eisenstein prime Gaussian prime
Composite numbers	Pseudoprime Catalan Elliptic Euler Euler–Jacobi Fermat Frobenius Lucas Perrin Somer–Lucas Strong Carmichael number Almost prime Semiprime Sphenic number Interprime Pernicious
Related topics	Probable prime Industrial-grade prime Illegal prime Formula for primes Prime gap
First 60 primes	2 3 5 7 11 13 17 19 23 29 31 37 41 43 47 53 59 61 67 71 73 79 83 89 97 101 103 107 109 113 127 131 137 139 149 151 157 163 167 173 179 181 191 193 197 199 211 223 227 229 233 239 241 251 257 263 269 271 277 281
List of prime numbers