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{{about|wind-powered electrical generators|wind-powered machinery used to grind grain or pump water|Windmill|and|Windpump}} |
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girl thats a butty whole |
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[[File:Windmills D1-D4 (Thornton Bank).jpg|thumb|Offshore wind farm, using 5 MW turbines [[REpower]] 5M in the [[North Sea]] off the coast of [[Belgium]].]] |
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{{Renewable energy sources}} |
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A '''wind turbine''' is a device that converts [[kinetic energy]] from the [[wind power|wind into electrical power]]. The term appears to have migrated from parallel [[hydroelectric technology]] (rotary propeller). The technical description for this type of machine is an '''aerofoil-powered generator'''. |
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The result of over a millennium of windmill development and modern engineering, today's wind turbines are manufactured in a wide range of vertical and horizontal axis types. The smallest turbines are used for applications such as battery charging for auxiliary power for boats or [[Travel trailer|caravans]] or to power traffic warning signs. Slightly larger turbines can be used for making contributions to a domestic power supply while selling unused power back to the utility supplier via the [[electrical grid]]. Arrays of large turbines, known as [[wind farm]]s, are becoming an increasingly important source of [[renewable energy]] and are used by many countries as part of a strategy to reduce their reliance on [[fossil fuel|fossil fuels]]. |
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== History == |
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{{Main|History of wind power}} |
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[[File:James Blyth's 1891 windmill.jpg|thumb|left|James Blyth's electricity-generating wind turbine, photographed in 1891]] |
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Windmills were used in Persia (present-day Iran) about 500-900 A.D.<ref>{{cite web |
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| url = http://ww.telosnet.com/wind/early.html |
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| title = Part 1 — Early History Through 1875 |
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| accessdate = 2008-07-31}}</ref> The windwheel of [[Hero of Alexandria]] marks one of the first known instances of wind powering a machine in history.<ref name="Drachmann">A.G. Drachmann, "Heron's Windmill", ''Centaurus'', 7 (1961), pp. 145–151</ref><ref name="Lohrmann 10f.">Dietrich Lohrmann, "Von der östlichen zur westlichen Windmühle", ''Archiv für Kulturgeschichte'', Vol. 77, Issue 1 (1995), pp. 1–30 (10f.)</ref> However, the first known practical windmills were built in [[Sistan]], an Eastern province of Iran, from the 7th century. These "[[Panemone windmill|Panemone]]" were vertical axle windmills, which had long vertical [[drive shaft]]s with rectangular blades.<ref>[[Ahmad Y Hassan]], [[Donald Routledge Hill]] (1986). ''Islamic Technology: An illustrated history'', p. 54. [[Cambridge University Press]]. ISBN 0-521-42239-6.</ref> Made of six to twelve [[Windmill sail|sails]] covered in reed matting or cloth material, these windmills were used to grind grain or draw up water, and were used in the [[gristmill]]ing and sugarcane industries.<ref>[[Donald Routledge Hill]], "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East", ''Scientific American'', May 1991, p. 64-69. ([[cf.]] [[Donald Routledge Hill]], [http://home.swipnet.se/islam/articles/HistoryofSciences.htm Mechanical Engineering])</ref> |
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Windmills first appeared in Europe during the [[Middle Ages]]. The first historical records of their use in England date to the 11th or 12th centuries and there are reports of German [[crusades|crusaders]] taking their windmill-making skills to Syria around 1190.<ref name="Morthorst">{{cite book |
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| author = Morthorst, Poul Erik; Redlinger, Robert Y.; Andersen, Per |
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| title = Wind energy in the 21st century: economics, policy, technology and the changing electricity industry |
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| publisher = Palgrave/UNEP |
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| location=Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire |
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| year = 2002 |
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| isbn = 0-333-79248-3}}</ref> By the 14th century, Dutch windmills were in use to drain areas of the [[Rhine]] delta. Advanced wind mills were described by Venetian inventor [[Fausto Veranzio]]. In his book Machinae Novae (1595) he described [[vertical axis wind turbine]]s with curved or V-shaped blades. |
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The first electricity-generating wind turbine was a battery charging machine installed in July 1887 by Scottish academic [[James Blyth (engineer)|James Blyth]] to light his holiday home in [[Marykirk]], Scotland.<ref name="ODNB">{{cite ODNB|last=Price |first=Trevor J.|id=100957|title=Blyth, James (1839–1906)|year=2004}}</ref> Some months later American inventor [[Charles F. Brush]] was able to build the first automatically operated wind turbine after consulting local University professors and colleagues [[Jacob S. Gibbs]] and [[Brinsley Coleberd]] and successfully getting the blueprints peer-reviewed for electricity production in [[Cleveland, Ohio]].<ref name="ODNB" /> Although Blyth's turbine was considered uneconomical in the United Kingdom<ref name="ODNB" /> electricity generation by wind turbines was more cost effective in countries with widely scattered populations.<ref name="Morthorst" /> |
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[[File:Wind turbine 1888 Charles Brush.jpg|thumb|The first automatically operated wind turbine, built in Cleveland in 1887 by Charles F. Brush. It was {{convert|60|ft|m|sp=us}} tall, weighed 4 tons (3.6 metric tonnes) and powered a 12 kW generator.<ref>{{Cite book |
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| url = http://www.windpower.org/en/pictures/brush.htm |
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| title = A Wind Energy Pioneer: Charles F. Brush |
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| accessdate = 2008-12-28 |
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| publisher = Danish Wind Industry Association}}</ref>]] |
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In Denmark by 1900, there were about 2500 windmills for mechanical loads such as pumps and mills, producing an estimated combined peak power of about 30 MW. The largest machines were on {{convert|24|m|ft|adj=on|sp=us}} towers with four-bladed {{convert|23|m|ft|adj=on|sp=us}} diameter rotors. By 1908 there were 72 wind-driven electric generators operating in the United States from 5 kW to 25 kW. Around the time of World War I, American windmill makers were producing 100,000 farm windmills each year, mostly for water-pumping.<ref name="Aermotor">[http://www.mysanantonio.com/news/weather/weatherwise/stories/MYSA092407.01A.State_windmills.3430a27.html Quirky old-style contraptions make water from wind on the mesas of West Texas] {{wayback|url=http://www.mysanantonio.com/news/weather/weatherwise/stories/MYSA092407.01A.State_windmills.3430a27.html |date=20080203053651 }}</ref> |
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By the 1930s, wind generators for electricity were common on farms, mostly in the United States where distribution systems had not yet been installed. In this period, high-tensile steel was cheap, and the generators were placed atop prefabricated open steel lattice towers. |
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A forerunner of modern horizontal-axis wind generators was in service at [[Yalta]], USSR in 1931. This was a 100 kW generator on a {{convert|30|m|ft|adj=on|sp=us}} tower, connected to the local 6.3 kV distribution system. It was reported to have an annual [[capacity factor]] of 32 percent, not much different from current wind machines.<ref>Alan Wyatt: ''Electric Power: Challenges and Choices''. Book Press Ltd., Toronto 1986, ISBN 0-920650-00-7</ref> |
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In the autumn of 1941, the first megawatt-class wind turbine was synchronized to a utility grid in [[Vermont]]. The [[Smith-Putnam wind turbine]] only ran for 1,100 hours before suffering a critical failure. The unit was not repaired, because of shortage of materials during the war. |
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The first utility grid-connected wind turbine to operate in the UK was built by [[John Brown & Company]] in 1951 in the [[Orkney|Orkney Islands]].<ref name="ODNB" /><ref>{{cite web |
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| url = http://www.orkneywind.co.uk/costa.html |
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| title = Costa Head Experimental Wind Turbine |
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| last = Anon |
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| work = Orkney Sustainable Energy Website |
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| publisher = Orkney Sustainable Energy Ltd |
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| accessdate = 19 December 2010}}</ref> |
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Despite these diverse developments, developments in fossil fuel systems almost entirely eliminated any wind turbine systems larger than supermicro size. In the early 1970s, however, anti-nuclear protests in Denmark spurred artisan mechanics to develop microturbines of 22 kW. Organizing owners into associations and co-operatives lead to the lobbying of the government and utilities and provided incentives for larger turbines throughout the 1980s and later. Local activists in Germany, nascent turbine manufacturers in Spain, and large investors in the United States in the early 1990s then lobbied for policies that stimulated the industry in those countries. Later companies formed in India and China. As of 2012, Danish company [[Vestas]] is the world's biggest wind-turbine manufacturer. |
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== Resources == |
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{{Main|Wind power}} |
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[[File:N117, Hohenahr 7.JPG|thumb|[[Nordex SE|Nordex]] N117/2400 in [[Germany]], a modern low-wind turbine.]] |
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[[File:Jepirachí.jpg|thumb|right|Wind turbines at the Jepirachí Eolian Park in [[La Guajira]], [[Colombia]].]] |
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A quantitative measure of the wind energy available at any location is called the [[Wind#Wind power density|Wind Power Density]] (WPD). It is a calculation of the mean annual power available per square meter of swept area of a turbine, and is tabulated for different heights above ground. Calculation of [[wind profile power law#Wind power density|wind power density]] includes the effect of wind velocity and air density. Color-coded maps are prepared for a particular area described, for example, as "Mean Annual Power Density at 50 Metres". In the United States, the results of the above calculation are included in an index developed by the [[National Renewable Energy Laboratory]] and referred to as "NREL CLASS". The larger the WPD calculation, the higher it is rated by class. Classes range from Class 1 (200 watts per square meter or less at 50 m altitude) to Class 7 (800 to 2000 watts per square m). Commercial wind farms generally are sited in Class 3 or higher areas, although isolated points in an otherwise Class 1 area may be practical to exploit.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nrel.gov/gis/wind.html |title=NREL: Dynamic Maps, GIS Data, and Analysis Tools – Wind Maps |publisher=Nrel.gov |date=2013-09-03 |accessdate=2013-11-06}}</ref> |
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Wind turbines are classified by the wind speed they are designed for, from class I to class IV, with A or B referring to the turbulence.<ref>[http://www.wind-works.org/articles/IECWindTurbineClasses.html IEC Wind Turbine Classes] June 7, 2006</ref> |
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{| class=wikitable |
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|- |
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!Class!!Avg Wind Speed (m/s)!!Turbulence |
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|- |
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| IA || 10 || 18% |
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|- |
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| IB || 10 || 16% |
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|- |
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| IIA || 8.5 || 18% |
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|- |
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| IIB || 8.5 || 16% |
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|- |
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| IIIA || 7.5 || 18% |
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|- |
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| IIIB || 7.5 || 16% |
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|- |
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| IVA || 6 || 18% |
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|- |
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| IVB || 6 || 16% |
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|} |
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== Efficiency == |
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Not all the energy of blowing wind can be used, but some [[small wind turbine]]s are designed to work at low wind speeds.<ref>[http://www.greenoptimistic.com/small-scale-dragonfly-like-wind-turbine-works-low-wind-speed-20131028/#.VaZfvPIyeYE Small-Scale "Dragonfly" Wind Turbine Works at Low Wind Speeds]</ref> |
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[[Conservation of mass]] requires that the amount of air entering and exiting a turbine must be equal. Accordingly, [[Betz's law]] gives the maximal achievable extraction of wind power by a wind turbine as 59% of the total kinetic energy of the air flowing through the turbine.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://apps.carleton.edu/campus/library/digitalcommons/assets/pacp_7.pdf |title=The Physics of Wind Turbines Kira Grogg Carleton College, 2005, p.8 |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2013-11-06}}</ref> |
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Further inefficiencies, such as rotor blade [[friction]] and [[drag (physics)|drag]], gearbox losses, generator and converter losses, reduce the power delivered by a wind turbine. Commercial utility-connected turbines deliver 75% to 80% of the Betz limit of power extractable from the wind, at rated operating speed.<ref name=Enercon>[http://www.enercon.de/p/downloads/EN_Productoverview_0710.pdf "Enercon E-family, 330 Kw to 7.5 Mw, Wind Turbine Specification"]</ref><ref>Tony Burton et al., (ed), ''Wind Energy Handbook'', John Wiley and Sons 2001 ISBN 0471489972 page 65</ref> |
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Efficiency can decrease slightly over time due to wear. Analysis of 3128 wind turbines older than 10 years in Denmark showed that half of the turbines had no decrease, while the other half saw a production decrease of 1.2% per year.<ref>Sanne Wittrup. "[http://ing.dk/artikel/11-aars-vinddata-afsloerede-overraskende-produktionsnedgang-163917 11 years of wind data shows surprising production decrease]" (in Danish) ''[[Ingeniøren]]'', 1 November 2013. Accessed: 2 November 2013.</ref> |
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== Types == |
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[[File:HAWT and VAWTs in operation medium.gif|thumb|The three primary types: VAWT Savonius, HAWT towered; VAWT [[Darrieus wind turbine|Darrieus]] as they appear in operation]] |
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Wind turbines can rotate about either a horizontal or a vertical axis, the former being both older and more common.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.awea.org/faq/wwt_basics.html | title = Wind Energy Basics | publisher = American Wind Energy Association | accessdate = 2009-09-24 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20100923194211/http://www.awea.org/faq/wwt_basics.html |archivedate = 2010-09-23}}</ref> They can also include blades (transparent or not)<ref>[http://www.treehugger.com/wind-technology/dragonfly-wind-turbine-aims-blend-produce-power-low-wind-conditions.html Transparent plexiglass blades]</ref> or be bladeless.<ref>[http://www.wired.com/2015/05/future-wind-turbines-no-blades/ No blades]</ref> |
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=== Horizontal axis === |
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[[File:Scout moor gearbox, rotor shaft and brake assembly.jpg|thumb|Components of a horizontal axis wind turbine (gearbox, rotor shaft and brake assembly) being lifted into position]] |
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[[File:Turbine Blade Convoy Passing through Edenfield.jpg|thumb|A [[Wind turbine design#Blades|turbine blade]] convoy passing through [[Edenfield]], UK]] |
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Horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT) have the main [[rotor (turbine)|rotor]] shaft and [[electrical generator]] at the top of a tower, and must be pointed into the wind. Small turbines are pointed by a simple [[wind vane]], while large turbines generally use a wind sensor coupled with a [[servo motor]]. Most have a gearbox, which turns the slow rotation of the blades into a quicker rotation that is more suitable to drive an electrical generator.<ref>[http://www.windpower.org/en/tour/wtrb/comp/index.htm] {{wayback|url=http://www.windpower.org/en/tour/wtrb/comp/index.htm |date=20080607001802 }}</ref> |
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Since a tower produces [[turbulence]] behind it, the turbine is usually positioned upwind of its supporting tower. Turbine blades are made stiff to prevent the blades from being pushed into the tower by high winds. Additionally, the blades are placed a considerable distance in front of the tower and are sometimes tilted forward into the wind a small amount. |
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Downwind machines have been built, despite the problem of turbulence (mast wake), because they don't need an additional mechanism for keeping them in line with the wind, and because in high winds the blades can be allowed to bend which reduces their swept area and thus their wind resistance. Since cyclical (that is repetitive) turbulence may lead to [[fatigue (material)|fatigue]] failures, most HAWTs are of upwind design. |
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Turbines used in [[wind farm]]s for commercial production of electric power are usually three-bladed and pointed into the wind by computer-controlled motors. These have high tip speeds of over {{convert|320|km/h|mph|abbr=on}}, high efficiency, and low [[torque ripple]], which contribute to good reliability. The blades are usually colored white for daytime visibility by aircraft and range in length from {{convert|20|to|40|m|ft|sp=us}} or more. The tubular steel towers range from {{convert|60|to|90|m|ft|sp=us}} tall. |
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The blades rotate at 10 to 22 revolutions per minute. At 22 rotations per minute the tip speed exceeds {{convert|90|m/s|ft/s|sp=us}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gepower.com/prod_serv/products/wind_turbines/en/15mw/specs.htm |title=Products & Services |publisher=Gepower.com |date= |accessdate=2013-11-06}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aweo.org/windmodels.html |title=Technical Specs of Common Wind Turbine Models |publisher=Aweo.org<!-- Bot generated title -->}}</ref> A gear box is commonly used for stepping up the speed of the generator, although designs may also use direct drive of an annular generator. Some models operate at constant speed, but more energy can be collected by variable-speed turbines which use a solid-state power converter to interface to the transmission system. All turbines are equipped with protective features to avoid damage at high wind speeds, by [[Feathering (propeller)|feathering]] the blades into the wind which ceases their rotation, supplemented by [[brake]]s. |
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Year by year the size and height of turbines increase. Offshore wind turbines are built up to 8MW today and have a blade length up to 80m. Onshore wind turbines are installed in low wind speed areas and getting higher and higher towers. Usual towers of multi megawatt turbines have a height of 70m to 120m and in extremes up to 160m. All turbines are rotating with a speed, that the blade tip speed reach 80 m/s to 90 m/s. Higher tip speeds means more noise and blade erosion. |
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Two different types of turbines are common today: geared wind turbines or direct drive turbines. Direct drive turbines need a huge generator due to low rotation speed. Geared wind turbines are using a gear box used for stepping up the speed of the small generator. Some models operate at constant speed, but more energy can be collected by variable-speed turbines which use a solid-state power converter to interface to the transmission system. All turbines are equipped with protective features to avoid damage at high wind speeds, by [[Feathering (propeller)|feathering]] the blades into the wind which ceases their rotation, supplemented by [[brake]]s. |
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=== Vertical axis design === |
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[[File:Twisted Savonius wind turbine in operation@60rpm.gif|thumb|left|upright|A vertical axis Twisted Savonius type turbine.]] |
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[[Vertical-axis wind turbine]]s (or VAWTs) have the main rotor shaft arranged vertically. One advantage of this arrangement is that the turbine does not need to be pointed into the wind to be effective, which is an advantage on a site where the wind direction is highly variable. It is also an advantage when the turbine is integrated into a building because it is inherently less steerable. Also, the generator and gearbox can be placed near the ground, using a direct drive from the rotor assembly to the ground-based gearbox, improving accessibility for maintenance. |
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The key disadvantages include the relatively low rotational speed with the consequential higher [[torque]] and hence higher cost of the drive train, the inherently lower [[Wind turbine aerodynamics|power coefficient]], the 360 degree rotation of the aerofoil within the wind flow during each cycle and hence the highly dynamic loading on the blade, the pulsating torque generated by some rotor designs on the drive train, and the difficulty of modelling the wind flow accurately and hence the challenges of analysing and designing the rotor prior to fabricating a prototype.<ref>http://www.awsopenwind.org/downloads/documentation/ModelingUncertaintyPublic.pdf</ref> |
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When a turbine is mounted on a rooftop the building generally redirects wind over the roof and this can double the wind speed at the turbine. If the height of a rooftop mounted turbine tower is approximately 50% of the building height it is near the optimum for maximum wind energy and minimum wind turbulence. Wind speeds within the built environment are generally much lower than at exposed rural sites,<ref>{{cite web|author=Hugh Piggott |url=http://www.scoraigwind.com/citywinds |title=Windspeed in the city – reality versus the DTI database |publisher=Scoraigwind.com |date=2007-01-06 |accessdate=2013-11-06}}</ref><ref>http://www.urbanwind.net/pdf/technological_analysis.pdf</ref> noise may be a concern and an existing structure may not adequately resist the additional stress. |
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Subtypes of the vertical axis design include: |
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[[File:Wind Turbines (5132099985).jpg|thumb|Offshore Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines (HAWTs) at [[Scroby Sands Wind Farm|Scroby Sands Wind Farm, UK]]]] |
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[[File:西甸子梁风车.jpg|thumb|Onshore Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines in [[Zhangjiakou]], China]] |
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; [[Darrieus wind turbine]]: "Eggbeater" turbines, or Darrieus turbines, were named after the French inventor, Georges Darrieus.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.symscape.com/blog/vertical_axis_wind_turbine |title=Vertical-Axis Wind Turbines |publisher=Symscape |date=2008-07-07 |accessdate=2013-11-06}}</ref> They have good efficiency, but produce large [[torque ripple]] and cyclical stress on the tower, which contributes to poor reliability. They also generally require some external power source, or an additional Savonius rotor to start turning, because the starting torque is very low. The torque ripple is reduced by using three or more blades which results in greater solidity of the rotor. Solidity is measured by blade area divided by the rotor area. Newer Darrieus type turbines are not held up by [[guy-wire]]s but have an external superstructure connected to the top bearing.<ref>Exploit Nature-Renewable Energy Technologies by Gurmit Singh, Aditya Books, pp 378</ref> |
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; [[Giromill]]: A subtype of Darrieus turbine with straight, as opposed to curved, blades. The cycloturbine variety has variable pitch to reduce the torque pulsation and is self-starting.<ref>[http://www.awea.org/faq/vawt.html ] {{wayback|url=http://www.awea.org/faq/vawt.html |date=20050403101826 }}</ref> The advantages of variable pitch are: high starting torque; a wide, relatively flat torque curve; a higher coefficient of performance; more efficient operation in turbulent winds; and a lower blade speed ratio which lowers blade bending stresses. Straight, V, or curved blades may be used.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.springerlink.com/index/Y703547454T51180.pdf |title=Experimental Mechanics, Volume 18, Number 1 – SpringerLink |publisher=Springerlink.com |date=1978-01-01 |accessdate=2013-11-06}}</ref> |
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; [[Savonius wind turbine]]: These are drag-type devices with two (or more) scoops that are used in anemometers, ''Flettner'' vents (commonly seen on bus and van roofs), and in some high-reliability low-efficiency power turbines. They are always self-starting if there are at least three scoops. |
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; Twisted Savonius: Twisted Savonius is a modified savonius, with long helical scoops to provide smooth torque. This is often used as a rooftop windturbine and has even been [[Hornblower Hybrid|adapted for ships]].<ref>Rob Varnon. [http://www.ctpost.com/news/article/Derecktor-converting-boat-into-hybrid-passenger-851170.php Derecktor converting boat into hybrid passenger ferry], Connecticut Post website, December 2, 2010. Retrieved April 25, 2012.</ref> |
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Another type of vertical axis is the Parallel turbine, which is similar to the crossflow fan or centrifugal fan. It uses the [[ground effect (aircraft)|ground effect]]. Vertical axis turbines of this type have been tried for many years: a unit producing 10 kW was built by Israeli wind pioneer Bruce Brill in the 1980s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.freepatentsonline.com/6481957.html |title=Modular wind energy device – Brill, Bruce I |publisher=Freepatentsonline.com |date=2002-11-19 |accessdate=2013-11-06}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=October 2013}} |
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; [[Vortexis]]: The most recent advancement in Vertical Axis Wind Turbines has been the Vortexis VAWT, utilizing a pre-swirled augmented vertical axis wind turbine (PA-VAWT) designed for the purpose of developing a high efficiency VAWT concept that keeps the advantages of VAWT’s compact size, lack of bias as to incoming wind direction, easy deployment and low radar cross section for use in mobile applications for the military, referred to in [[Special Operations]] as "Black Swan." <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.windpwrsys.com/vortexis-engineering.html |title=Wind Power Systems |publisher=windpwrsys.com |date=2015-05-15 |accessdate=2015-10-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://navy.specialoperationssummit.com/redforms.aspx?eventid=6236&id=389080&formid=11&frmtype=1&m=851&frmbypass=false&mloc=f&sponsoropt=false |title=Special Operations Summit Little Creek - Wind Power: "Small and Micro Wind"…A Position of Power I |publisher=Tactical Defense Media’s DoD Power, Energy & Propulsion Q2 2012, tacticaldefensemedia.com |accessdate=2015-10-20}}</ref> |
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== Design and construction == |
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{{Main|Wind turbine design}} |
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[[File:EERE illust large turbine.gif|thumb|Components of a horizontal-axis wind turbine]] |
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[[File:WKA spannglieder.jpg|thumb|right|Inside view of a wind turbine tower, showing the tendon cables.]] |
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Wind turbines are designed to exploit the wind energy that exists at a location. [[Wind turbine aerodynamics|Aerodynamic modeling]] is used to determine the optimum tower height, control systems, number of blades and blade shape. |
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Wind turbines convert wind energy to electricity for distribution. Conventional horizontal axis turbines can be divided into three components: |
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* The rotor component, which is approximately 20% of the wind turbine cost, includes the blades for converting wind energy to low speed rotational energy. |
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* The generator component, which is approximately 34% of the wind turbine cost, includes the [[electrical generator]],<ref>{{cite journal | journal = International Journal of Dynamics and Control | title = A Review on the Development of the Wind Turbine Generators across the World | author = Navid Goudarzi | publisher = Springer | date = June 2013 | volume = 1 | issue = 2 | pages = 192–202 | url = http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40435-013-0016-y | doi=10.1007/s40435-013-0016-y}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| journal = ASME 2012 International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition | title = A Review of the Development of Wind Turbine Generators Across the World | author = Navid Goudarzi, Weidong Zhu | publisher = ASME | date = November 2012 | volume = 4 - Paper No: IMECE2012-88615 | pages =1257–1265 | url = http://proceedings.asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/proceeding.aspx?articleid=1750788}}</ref> the control electronics, and most likely a [[gearbox]] (e.g. [[epicyclic gearing|planetary gearbox]]),<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.hansentransmissions.com/en/hansen_w4.html|title = Hansen W4 series|publisher = Hansentransmissions.com|accessdate = 6 November 2013|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20120315160450/http://www.hansentransmissions.com/en/hansen_w4.html|archivedate = 15 March 2002}}</ref> [[adjustable-speed drive]] or [[continuously variable transmission]]<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://coen.boisestate.edu/windenergy/files/2011/10/Active-Drivetrain-Control-to-Improve-Energy-Capture-of-Wind-Turbines.pdf |title=Active Drivetrain Control to Improve Energy Capture of Wind Turbines |author=John Gardner, Nathaniel Haro and Todd Haynes |date=October 2011 |publisher=Boise State University |accessdate=28 February 2012 |postscript=<!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->{{inconsistent citations}}}}</ref> component for converting the low speed incoming rotation to high speed rotation suitable for generating electricity. |
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* The structural support component, which is approximately 15% of the wind turbine cost, includes the tower and rotor yaw mechanism.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy07osti/40566.pdf |title="Wind Turbine Design Cost and Scaling Model", Technical Report NREL/TP-500-40566, December, 2006, page 35, 36 |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2013-11-06}}</ref> |
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A 1.5 MW wind turbine of a type frequently seen in the United States has a tower {{convert|80|m|sp=us}} high. The rotor assembly (blades and hub) weighs {{convert|48,000|lbs|disp=flip}}. The nacelle, which contains the generator component, weighs {{convert|115,000|lbs|disp=flip}}. The concrete base for the tower is constructed using {{convert|58,000|lbs|disp=flip}} of reinforcing steel and contains {{convert|250|cuyd|disp=flip|sp=us}} of concrete. The base is {{convert|50|ft|disp=flip|sp=us}} in diameter and {{convert|8|ft|disp=flip|sp=us}} thick near the center.<ref>[http://www.pomeroyiowa.com/windflyer.pdf] {{wayback|url=http://www.pomeroyiowa.com/windflyer.pdf |date=20110715103033 }}</ref> |
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Among all renewable energy systems wind turbines have the highest effective [[Intensity (physics)|intensity]] of power-harvesting surface<ref>See Erich Hau: ''Windkraftanlagen: Grundlagen, Technik, Einsatz, Wirtschaftlichkeit''. Berlin/ Heidelberg 2008, pp. 621. (German). (For the english Edition see Erich Hau, ''Wind Turbines: Fundamentals, Technologies, Application, Economics'', Springer 2005)</ref> because turbine blades not only harvest wind power, but also concentrate it.<ref>"Innovation in Wind Turbine Design" (2011), Peter Jamieson</ref>{{dubious|date=October 2013}}<!--water turbines have higher intensity. Rotors expand the air tube due to the flow slowing down ([[Betz' law]])--> |
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=== Unconventional designs === |
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{{Main|Unconventional wind turbines}} |
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[[File:Progressive Field Wind Turbine.jpg|thumb|right|thumb|The corkscrew shaped wind turbine at [[Progressive Field]] in [[Cleveland]], [[Ohio]]]] |
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One E-66 wind turbine at [[Windpark Holtriem]], Germany, carries an observation deck, open for visitors. Another turbine of the same type, with an observation deck, is located in [[Swaffham]], England. [[Airborne wind turbine]]s have been investigated many times but have yet to produce significant energy. Conceptually, wind turbines may also be used in conjunction with a large vertical [[solar updraft tower]] to extract the energy due to air heated by the sun. |
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Wind turbines which utilise the [[Magnus effect]] have been developed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mecaro.jp/eng/introduction.html |title=Spiral Magnus|MECARO|Introducuction to Magnus |publisher=Mecaro.jp |date= |accessdate=2013-11-06}}</ref> |
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The [[ram air turbine]] is a specialist form of small turbine that is fitted to some aircraft. When deployed, the RAT is spun by the airstream going past the aircraft and can provide power for the most essential systems if there is a loss of all on–board electrical power.{{Citation needed|date=February 2011}} |
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The 2 bladed turbine SCD 6MW Offshore turbine designed by [[aerodyn Energiesysteme]], built by [[MingYang Wind Power]] has a helideck for helicopter landing on top of nacelle. |
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The prototype has been erected in 2014 in Rudong China. |
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=== Turbine monitoring and diagnostics === |
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{{see also|Wind turbine prognostics}} |
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Due to data transmission problems, [[structural health monitoring]] of wind turbines is usually performed using several accelerometers and strain gages attached to the nacelle to monitor the gearbox and equipments. Recently, digital image correlation and stereophotogrammetry are used to measure dynamics of wind turbine blades. These methods usually measure displacement and strain to identify location of defects. Dynamic characteristics of non-rotating wind turbines have been measured using digital image correlation and photogrammetry.<ref>[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0888327015001478 Using Stereophotogrammetry to Predict Dynamic Strain on A Wind Turbine Rotor]</ref> Three dimensional point tracking has also been used to measure rotating dynamics of wind turbines.<ref>[http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4614-2419-2_26 Using Stereophotogrammetry to Measure Vibrations of a Rotating Wind Turbine]</ref> |
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== Materials and duration == |
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{{Incomprehensible|machine=yes|section|date=November 2015}} |
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Currently serving wind turbine blades are mainly composite blade. These blades are substantially made of a polyester resin, a vinyl resin, and epoxy thermosetting matrix resin and E-glass fibers, S- glass fibers and carbon fiber reinforced material, by manual placement or a composite resin injection molding process from to meet the requirements of different wind farms.{{what|date=November 2015}} As the price of glass fibers is only about one tenth the price of carbon fiber, reinforced materials currently used in the manufacturing of blades is still largely glass fiber-based. For example, at 54 meters long large composite blade manufacturing still glass fiber reinforced materials, the lightest blade weighs only 13.4 tons.{{what|date=November 2015}} |
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With the advent of large blades, blade length increased, the blade on the reinforcing material strength and stiffness properties also put forward new demands, the glass fiber in the manufacture of large composite blade gradually emerging out of lack of performance.<ref>M B Weimann and Li V C, Drying Shrinkage and Crack width of an Engineered Cementitious Composite(ECC). Proceedings of The Seventh International Symposium on Brittle Matrix Composites(BMC). |
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Eds. A. M. Brandt, V. C. Li and I. H. Marshall, 2003,(10):37~46 |
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</ref> |
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LM company in the manufacture of large composite blade 61.5m, in order to ensure that the blade can assume the wind and temperature and other external loads safely, simple glass fiber reinforced material has been difficult to meet the requirements for strength and stiffness blade. Thus, the blades made of glass fiber / carbon fiber hybrid composite structures, especially in the flange and other materials for higher strength and stiffness requirements of the site, the use of carbon fiber as a reinforcing material. Thus, not only can increase the carrying capacity of the blade, because the carbon fiber is conductive, can effectively prevent lightning damage to the blade.<ref>Spera D A. The Brush Wind Turbine Generator as Described in Scientific American[R]. Workshop on Wind Turbine Structural |
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Dynamics. USA, 1977.</ref> |
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In the operation, composite blades only to withstand strong wind load, but also to withstand the gas erosion, sand particle impact erosion and strong ultraviolet radiation and other external conditions.<ref>Engineered materials handbook volume 1: composites[M], ASM International, Materials Park, OH,1987:65-69.</ref> |
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In order to give full play to enhance the role of reinforcing materials, increase the load to bear composite blades, corrosion and erosion items of property, LM companies and other composite blade manufacturers are also on the resin matrix system has been carefully designed and improved. Instead of using the excellent performance of epoxy resin unsaturated polyester resin to improve the adhesion properties of glass fiber and resin interface, improved blade capacity, expanding the glass fiber blades in a large range of applications. To improve the composite |
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blade in harsh working environments long-term performance, SP Company specializes in the development of resistance to UV radiation new epoxy resin systems to meet the requirements of wind turbine |
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blades durability. |
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By the end of 2014, the world's new wind power capacity nearly 370GW, wind turbine blades in service reached hundreds of thousands of pieces. In the next decade, the rapid development of still more than 10% growth rate. Composite wind turbine blades of life is generally 20–30 years. Although the original wooden structure leaves, but the vast majority of service leaves composite structures. In the next ten years, these blades will gradually retire, retired after handling the blade will also become a reality problem material scientists and environmental |
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workers must face. |
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== Wind turbines on public display == |
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{{Main|Wind turbines on public display}} |
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[[File:Lamma wind turbine.jpg|thumb|The [[Nordex SE|Nordex]] N50 wind turbine and visitor centre of [[Lamma Winds]] in [[Hong Kong]], [[China]]]] |
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A few localities have exploited the attention-getting nature of wind turbines by placing them on public display, either with visitor centers around their bases, or with viewing areas farther away.<ref name="wind_farm_tourism">{{cite web |
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|url=http://www.canada.com/edmontonjournal/news/business/story.html?id=63a5438a-ae99-4b76-9629-b7b59d238932 |
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|title=Canada wind farms blow away turbine tourists |
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|publisher=[[Edmonton Journal]] |
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|accessdate=2008-09-06 |
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|last=Young |
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|date=2007-08-03 |
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|first=Kathryn |
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}}</ref> The wind turbines are generally of conventional horizontal-axis, three-bladed design, and generate power to feed electrical grids, but they also serve the unconventional roles of technology demonstration, public relations, and education. |
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== Small wind turbines == |
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{{Main|Small wind turbine}} |
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[[File:Quietrevolution Bristol 3513051949.jpg|thumb|upright|A small [[Quietrevolution wind turbine|Quietrevolution QR5]] [[Gorlov helical turbine|Gorlov type]] vertical axis wind turbine in Bristol, England. Measuring 3 m in diameter and 5 m high, it has a nameplate rating of 6.5 kW to the grid.]] |
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Small wind turbines may be used for a variety of applications including on- or off-grid residences, telecom towers, offshore platforms, rural schools and clinics, remote monitoring and other purposes that require energy where there is no electric grid, or where the grid is unstable. Small wind turbines may be as small as a fifty-watt generator for boat or [[Travel trailer|caravan]] use. Hybrid solar and wind powered units are increasingly being used for traffic signage, particularly in rural locations, as they avoid the need to lay long cables from the nearest mains connection point.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.solar-wind.co.uk/solar_powered_sign_lights.html|title=Solar & Wind Powered Sign Lighting|last=Anon|work=Energy Development Cooperative Ltd|publisher=Energy Development Cooperative Ltd|accessdate=19 October 2013}}</ref> The [[National Renewable Energy Laboratory|U.S. Department of Energy's National Renewable Energy Laboratory]] (NREL) defines small wind turbines as those smaller than or equal to 100 kilowatts.<ref>[http://www.nrel.gov/wind/smallwind/ Small Wind], U.S. Department of Energy National Renewable Energy Laboratory website</ref> Small units often have direct drive generators, [[direct current]] output, aeroelastic blades, lifetime bearings and use a vane to point into the wind. |
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Larger, more costly turbines generally have geared power trains, alternating current output, flaps and are actively pointed into the wind. Direct drive generators and aeroelastic blades for large wind turbines are being researched. |
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== Wind turbine spacing == |
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On most horizontal windturbine farms, a spacing of about 6-10 times the rotor diameter is often upheld. However, for large wind farms distances of about 15 rotor diameters should be more economically optimal, taking into account typical wind turbine and land costs. This conclusion has been reached by research<ref>[http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/we.469/full J. Meyers and C. Meneveau, "Optimal turbine spacing in fully developed wind farm boundary layers" (2012), Wind Energy 15, 305-317] {{DOI|10.1002/we.469}}</ref> conducted by Charles Meneveau of the Johns Hopkins University,<ref>{{cite web|author=Print version |url=http://gazette.jhu.edu/2011/01/18/new-study-yields-better-turbine-spacing-for-large-wind-farms/ |title=Optimal spacing for wind turbines |publisher=Gazette.jhu.edu |date=2011-01-18 |accessdate=2013-11-06}}</ref> and Johan Meyers of Leuven University in Belgium, based on computer simulations<ref>{{cite web|url=http://link.aip.org/link/?PHFLE6/22/015110/1/ |title=M. Calaf, C. Meneveau and J. Meyers, "Large Eddy Simulation study of fully developed wind-turbine array boundary layers" (2010), Phys. Fluids 22, 015110 |publisher=Link.aip.org |date= |accessdate=2013-11-06}}</ref> that take into account the detailed interactions among wind turbines (wakes) as well as with the entire turbulent atmospheric boundary layer. Moreover, recent research by John Dabiri of Caltech suggests that vertical wind turbines may be placed much more closely together so long as an alternating pattern of rotation is created allowing blades of neighbouring turbines to move in the same direction as they approach one another.<ref>[http://scitation.aip.org/content/aip/journal/jrse/3/4/10.1063/1.3608170 Dabiri, J. Potential order-of-magnitude enhancement of wind farm power density via counter-rotating vertical-axis wind turbine arrays (2011), J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 3, 043104]</ref> |
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==Repowering== |
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{{main|Repowering}} |
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Installation of new wind turbines can be controversial. An alternative is repowering, where existing wind turbines are replaced with bigger, more powerful ones. |
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== Records == |
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[[File:Windkraftanlage Laasow.jpg|thumb|upright|Fuhrländer Wind Turbine Laasow, in [[Brandenburg]], Germany, among the world's tallest wind turbines]] |
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[[File:Quebecturbine.JPG|thumb|upright|Éole, the largest [[vertical axis wind turbine]], in [[Cap-Chat, Quebec]], [[Canada]]]] |
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; Largest capacity conventional drive: The [[Vestas V164]] has a rated capacity of 8.0 MW,<ref>Wittrup, Sanne. "[http://ing.dk/artikel/saa-producerer-vestas-gigantmoelle-stroem-165903 Power from Vestas' giant turbine]" (in Danish. [http://translate.google.com/translate?hl=da&sl=da&tl=en&prev=_dd&u=http%3A%2F%2Fing.dk%2Fartikel%2Fsaa-producerer-vestas-gigantmoelle-stroem-165903 English translation] ). ''[[Ingeniøren]]'', 28 January 2014. Accessed: 28 January 2014.</ref> has an overall height of {{convert|220|m|ft|0|abbr=on|sp=us}}, a diameter of {{convert|164|m|ft|0|abbr=on|sp=us}}, is for offshore use, and is the world's largest-capacity wind turbine since its introduction in 2014. The conventional drive train consist of a main gearbox and a medium speed PM generator. Prototype installed in 2014 at the National Test Center Denmark nearby Østerild. Series production starts end of 2015. |
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; Largest capacity direct drive: The [[Enercon E-126]] with 7.58MW and 127m rotor diameter is the largest direct drive turbine. It's only for onshore use. The turbine has parted rotor blades with 2 sections for transport. |
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; Largest vertical-axis: Le Nordais wind farm in [[Cap-Chat, Quebec]] has a [[vertical axis wind turbine]] (VAWT) named Éole, which is the world's largest at 110 m.<ref name="">{{cite web | url=http://www.eolecapchat.com/e_1b-grande.html | title=Visits : Big wind turbine | accessdate=2010-04-17 }}</ref> It has a [[nameplate capacity]] of 3.8 MW.<ref name="canada_wind">{{cite web | url=http://www.industcards.com/wind-canada.htm | title=Wind Energy Power Plants in Canada – other provinces | accessdate=2010-08-24 | date=2010-06-05 }}</ref> |
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; Largest 1 bladed turbine: Riva Calzoni M33 was a Single Bladed Wind Turbine with 350 kW, designed and built In Bologna in 1993 |
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; Largest 2 bladed turbine: Today's biggest 2 bladed turbine is build by [[Mingyang Wind Power]] in 2013. It is a SCD6.5MW offshore downwind turbine, designed by [[aerodyn Energiesysteme]]<ref>http://www.windpoweroffshore.com/article/1207686/close---aerodyns-6mw-offshore-turbine-design</ref><ref>http://www.windpowermonthly.com/article/1188373/ming-yang-install-65mw-offshore-turbine</ref><ref>David Weston. "[http://www.windpowermonthly.com/article/1337932/ewea-offshore-aerodyn-6mw-connected-grid?HAYILC=TOPIC Aerodyn 6MW connected to grid]" 12 March 2015. [http://web.archive.org/web/20150314214932/http://www.windpowermonthly.com/article/1337932/ewea-offshore-aerodyn-6mw-connected-grid?HAYILC=TOPIC Archive]</ref> |
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; Largest swept area: The [[turbine]] with the largest swept area is the Samsung S7.0-171, with a diameter of 171 m, giving a total sweep of 22966 m<sup>2</sup>. |
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; Tallest: [[Vestas V164]] is the tallest wind turbine, standing in [[Østerild]], [[Denmark]], 220 meters tall, constructed in 2014. |
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; Tallest Hybrid Towers: [[Vestas]] installed turbines V112 3MW on 140m hybrid towers in the Lodzkie region of Poland in 2015 "[http://www.greentechlead.com/wind/vestas-secures-36-mw-wind-turbine-supply-poland-21022' hybrid tower]" |
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; Most rotors: [[Lagerwey Wind|Lagerwey]] has build Four-in-One, a multi rotor wind turbine with one tower and four rotors near Maasvlakte |
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; Highest tower: [[Fuhrländer]] installed a 2.5MW turbine on a 160m lattice tower in 2003 (see [[Fuhrländer Wind Turbine Laasow]] and [[Nowy Tomyśl Wind Turbines]]) |
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; Most productive: Four turbines at Rønland [[wind farm]] in Denmark share the record for the most productive wind turbines, with each having generated 63.2 GWh by June 2010.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.energynumbers.info/surpassing-matilda-record-breaking-danish-wind-turbines | accessdate=2010-07-26 | title=Surpassing Matilda: record-breaking Danish wind turbines }}</ref> |
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; Highest-situated: Since 2013 the world's highest-situated wind turbine was made and installed by WindAid and is located at the base of the [[Pastoruri Glacier]] in [[Peru]] at {{convert|4877|m|sp=us}} above sea level.<ref>http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/highest-altitude-wind-generator</ref> The site uses the WindAid 2.5 kW wind generator to supply power to a small rural community of micro entrepreneurs who cater to the tourists who come to the Pastoruri glacier.<ref>http://www.lehighvalleylive.com/bethlehem/index.ssf/2013/08/northampton_community_college_53.html</ref> |
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; Largest floating wind turbine: The world's largest—and also the first operational deep-water ''large-capacity''—[[floating wind turbine]] is the 2.3 MW [[Hywind]] currently operating {{convert|10|km|sp=us}} offshore in 220-meter-deep water, southwest of [[Karmøy]], Norway. The turbine began operating in September 2009 and utilizes a [[Siemens Wind Power|Siemens]] 2.3 MW turbine.<ref name=Patel2009>{{cite news |last= Patel|first=Prachi |title= Floating Wind Turbines to Be Tested |publisher= [[IEEE Spectrum]] |date=2009-06-22 |url= http://www.spectrum.ieee.org/green-tech/wind/floating-wind-turbines-to-be-tested |quote=will test how the 2.3-megawatt turbine holds up in 220-meter-deep water. |accessdate=2011-03-07 }}</ref><ref name=BBC20090908>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8235456.stm?ls |title=Floating challenge for offshore wind turbine |last=Madslien|first=Jorn |date=8 September 2009 |work=BBC News |publisher=BBC |accessdate=2011-03-07 |quote=world's first full-scale floating wind turbine}}</ref> |
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== See also == |
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{{portal|Renewable energy|Sustainable development}} |
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{{div col}} |
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* [[Compact wind acceleration turbine]] |
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* [[Environmental impact of wind power]] |
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* [[Éolienne Bollée]] |
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* [[Renewable energy]] |
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* [[Tidal stream generator]] |
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* [[Windbelt]] |
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* [[Windpump]] |
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{{div col end}} |
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== References == |
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{{reflist|30em}} |
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== Further reading == |
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* Tony Burton, David Sharpe, Nick Jenkins, Ervin Bossanyi: ''Wind Energy Handbook'', John Wiley & Sons, 2nd edition (2011), ISBN 978-0-470-69975-1 |
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* Darrell, Dodge, [http://telosnet.com/wind/early.html Early History Through 1875], TeloNet Web Development, Copyright 1996–2001 |
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* Ersen Erdem, [http://www.asadshop.com/industrial.html Wind Turbine Industrial Applications] |
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* Robert Gasch, Jochen Twele (ed.), ''Wind power plants. Fundamentals, design, construction and operation'', Springer 2012 ISBN 978-3-642-22937-4. |
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* Erich Hau, ''Wind turbines: fundamentals, technologies, application, economics '' Springer, 2013 ISBN 978-3-642-27150-2 (preview on Google Books) |
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* Siegfried Heier, ''Grid integration of wind energy conversion systems'' John Wiley & Sons, 3rd edition (2014), ISBN 978-1-119-96294-6 |
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* Peter Jamieson, ''Innovation in Wind Turbine Design''. Wiley & Sons 2011, ISBN 978-0-470-69981-2 |
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* J. F. Manwell, J. G. McGowan, A. L. Roberts, ''Wind Energy Explained: Theory, Design and Application'', John Wiley & Sons, 2nd edition (2012), ISBN 978-0-47001-500-1 |
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* David Spera (ed,) ''Wind Turbine Technology: Fundamental Concepts in Wind Turbine Engineering'', Second Edition (2009), ASME Press, ISBN 9780791802601 |
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* Alois Schaffarczyk (ed.), ''Understanding wind power technology'', John Wiley & Sons, (2014), ISBN 978-1-118-64751-6 |
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* Hermann-Josef Wagner, Jyotirmay Mathur, ''Introduction to wind energy systems. Basics, technology and operation''. Springer (2013), ISBN 978-3-642-32975-3 |
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* GA Mansoori, N Enayati, LB Agyarko (2016), [http://www.worldscientific.com/worldscibooks/10.1142/9699 Energy: Sources, Utilization, Legislation, Sustainability, Illinois as Model State] |
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== External links == |
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{{Commons|Wind turbine}} |
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* [https://netfiles.uiuc.edu/mragheb/www/NPRE%20475%20Wind%20Power%20Systems/ Harvesting the Wind (45 lectures about wind turbines by professor Magdi Ragheb)] |
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* [http://www.projectfreepower.com/ Wind Projects] |
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* [http://www.windpower.org/en/knowledge/guided_tour.html Guided tour on wind energy] |
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* [https://opencrs.com/document/R42023/ U.S. Wind Turbine Manufacturing: Federal Support for an Emerging Industry] [[Congressional Research Service]] |
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* [http://www.wwindea.org/ Wind Energy Technology World Wind Energy Association] |
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* [http://environment.nationalgeographic.com/environment/global-warming/wind-power-interactive.html Wind turbine simulation, National Geographic] |
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* [http://www.aweia.org/ Airborne Wind Industry Association international] |
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* [http://ongreentech.com/10-biggest-wind-turbines/ Top 10 biggest wind turbines in the world] |
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* [http://tethys.pnnl.gov/ The Tethys database seeks to gather, organize and make available information on potential environmental effects of offshore wind energy development] |
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{{Wind power|state=expanded}} |
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{{Authority control}} |
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[[Category:Aerodynamics]] |
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[[Category:Electric power]] |
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[[Category:Electrical generators]] |
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[[Category:Electromechanical engineering]] |
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[[Category:Energy conversion]] |
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[[Category:Wind turbines| ]] |
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A wind turbine is a device that converts kinetic energy from the wind into electrical power. The term appears to have migrated from parallel hydroelectric technology (rotary propeller). The technical description for this type of machine is an aerofoil-powered generator.
The result of over a millennium of windmill development and modern engineering, today's wind turbines are manufactured in a wide range of vertical and horizontal axis types. The smallest turbines are used for applications such as battery charging for auxiliary power for boats or caravans or to power traffic warning signs. Slightly larger turbines can be used for making contributions to a domestic power supply while selling unused power back to the utility supplier via the electrical grid. Arrays of large turbines, known as wind farms, are becoming an increasingly important source of renewable energy and are used by many countries as part of a strategy to reduce their reliance on fossil fuels.
History
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/James_Blyth%27s_1891_windmill.jpg/220px-James_Blyth%27s_1891_windmill.jpg)
Windmills were used in Persia (present-day Iran) about 500-900 A.D.[1] The windwheel of Hero of Alexandria marks one of the first known instances of wind powering a machine in history.[2][3] However, the first known practical windmills were built in Sistan, an Eastern province of Iran, from the 7th century. These "Panemone" were vertical axle windmills, which had long vertical drive shafts with rectangular blades.[4] Made of six to twelve sails covered in reed matting or cloth material, these windmills were used to grind grain or draw up water, and were used in the gristmilling and sugarcane industries.[5]
Windmills first appeared in Europe during the Middle Ages. The first historical records of their use in England date to the 11th or 12th centuries and there are reports of German crusaders taking their windmill-making skills to Syria around 1190.[6] By the 14th century, Dutch windmills were in use to drain areas of the Rhine delta. Advanced wind mills were described by Venetian inventor Fausto Veranzio. In his book Machinae Novae (1595) he described vertical axis wind turbines with curved or V-shaped blades.
The first electricity-generating wind turbine was a battery charging machine installed in July 1887 by Scottish academic James Blyth to light his holiday home in Marykirk, Scotland.[7] Some months later American inventor Charles F. Brush was able to build the first automatically operated wind turbine after consulting local University professors and colleagues Jacob S. Gibbs and Brinsley Coleberd and successfully getting the blueprints peer-reviewed for electricity production in Cleveland, Ohio.[7] Although Blyth's turbine was considered uneconomical in the United Kingdom[7] electricity generation by wind turbines was more cost effective in countries with widely scattered populations.[6]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Wind_turbine_1888_Charles_Brush.jpg/220px-Wind_turbine_1888_Charles_Brush.jpg)
In Denmark by 1900, there were about 2500 windmills for mechanical loads such as pumps and mills, producing an estimated combined peak power of about 30 MW. The largest machines were on 24-meter (79 ft) towers with four-bladed 23-meter (75 ft) diameter rotors. By 1908 there were 72 wind-driven electric generators operating in the United States from 5 kW to 25 kW. Around the time of World War I, American windmill makers were producing 100,000 farm windmills each year, mostly for water-pumping.[9]
By the 1930s, wind generators for electricity were common on farms, mostly in the United States where distribution systems had not yet been installed. In this period, high-tensile steel was cheap, and the generators were placed atop prefabricated open steel lattice towers.
A forerunner of modern horizontal-axis wind generators was in service at Yalta, USSR in 1931. This was a 100 kW generator on a 30-meter (98 ft) tower, connected to the local 6.3 kV distribution system. It was reported to have an annual capacity factor of 32 percent, not much different from current wind machines.[10]
In the autumn of 1941, the first megawatt-class wind turbine was synchronized to a utility grid in Vermont. The Smith-Putnam wind turbine only ran for 1,100 hours before suffering a critical failure. The unit was not repaired, because of shortage of materials during the war.
The first utility grid-connected wind turbine to operate in the UK was built by John Brown & Company in 1951 in the Orkney Islands.[7][11]
Despite these diverse developments, developments in fossil fuel systems almost entirely eliminated any wind turbine systems larger than supermicro size. In the early 1970s, however, anti-nuclear protests in Denmark spurred artisan mechanics to develop microturbines of 22 kW. Organizing owners into associations and co-operatives lead to the lobbying of the government and utilities and provided incentives for larger turbines throughout the 1980s and later. Local activists in Germany, nascent turbine manufacturers in Spain, and large investors in the United States in the early 1990s then lobbied for policies that stimulated the industry in those countries. Later companies formed in India and China. As of 2012, Danish company Vestas is the world's biggest wind-turbine manufacturer.
Resources
A quantitative measure of the wind energy available at any location is called the Wind Power Density (WPD). It is a calculation of the mean annual power available per square meter of swept area of a turbine, and is tabulated for different heights above ground. Calculation of wind power density includes the effect of wind velocity and air density. Color-coded maps are prepared for a particular area described, for example, as "Mean Annual Power Density at 50 Metres". In the United States, the results of the above calculation are included in an index developed by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory and referred to as "NREL CLASS". The larger the WPD calculation, the higher it is rated by class. Classes range from Class 1 (200 watts per square meter or less at 50 m altitude) to Class 7 (800 to 2000 watts per square m). Commercial wind farms generally are sited in Class 3 or higher areas, although isolated points in an otherwise Class 1 area may be practical to exploit.[12]
Wind turbines are classified by the wind speed they are designed for, from class I to class IV, with A or B referring to the turbulence.[13]
Class | Avg Wind Speed (m/s) | Turbulence |
---|---|---|
IA | 10 | 18% |
IB | 10 | 16% |
IIA | 8.5 | 18% |
IIB | 8.5 | 16% |
IIIA | 7.5 | 18% |
IIIB | 7.5 | 16% |
IVA | 6 | 18% |
IVB | 6 | 16% |
Efficiency
Not all the energy of blowing wind can be used, but some small wind turbines are designed to work at low wind speeds.[14]
Conservation of mass requires that the amount of air entering and exiting a turbine must be equal. Accordingly, Betz's law gives the maximal achievable extraction of wind power by a wind turbine as 59% of the total kinetic energy of the air flowing through the turbine.[15]
Further inefficiencies, such as rotor blade friction and drag, gearbox losses, generator and converter losses, reduce the power delivered by a wind turbine. Commercial utility-connected turbines deliver 75% to 80% of the Betz limit of power extractable from the wind, at rated operating speed.[16][17]
Efficiency can decrease slightly over time due to wear. Analysis of 3128 wind turbines older than 10 years in Denmark showed that half of the turbines had no decrease, while the other half saw a production decrease of 1.2% per year.[18]
Types
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/HAWT_and_VAWTs_in_operation_medium.gif/220px-HAWT_and_VAWTs_in_operation_medium.gif)
Wind turbines can rotate about either a horizontal or a vertical axis, the former being both older and more common.[19] They can also include blades (transparent or not)[20] or be bladeless.[21]
Horizontal axis
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Scout_moor_gearbox%2C_rotor_shaft_and_brake_assembly.jpg/220px-Scout_moor_gearbox%2C_rotor_shaft_and_brake_assembly.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Turbine_Blade_Convoy_Passing_through_Edenfield.jpg/220px-Turbine_Blade_Convoy_Passing_through_Edenfield.jpg)
Horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT) have the main rotor shaft and electrical generator at the top of a tower, and must be pointed into the wind. Small turbines are pointed by a simple wind vane, while large turbines generally use a wind sensor coupled with a servo motor. Most have a gearbox, which turns the slow rotation of the blades into a quicker rotation that is more suitable to drive an electrical generator.[22]
Since a tower produces turbulence behind it, the turbine is usually positioned upwind of its supporting tower. Turbine blades are made stiff to prevent the blades from being pushed into the tower by high winds. Additionally, the blades are placed a considerable distance in front of the tower and are sometimes tilted forward into the wind a small amount.
Downwind machines have been built, despite the problem of turbulence (mast wake), because they don't need an additional mechanism for keeping them in line with the wind, and because in high winds the blades can be allowed to bend which reduces their swept area and thus their wind resistance. Since cyclical (that is repetitive) turbulence may lead to fatigue failures, most HAWTs are of upwind design.
Turbines used in wind farms for commercial production of electric power are usually three-bladed and pointed into the wind by computer-controlled motors. These have high tip speeds of over 320 km/h (200 mph), high efficiency, and low torque ripple, which contribute to good reliability. The blades are usually colored white for daytime visibility by aircraft and range in length from 20 to 40 meters (66 to 131 ft) or more. The tubular steel towers range from 60 to 90 meters (200 to 300 ft) tall.
The blades rotate at 10 to 22 revolutions per minute. At 22 rotations per minute the tip speed exceeds 90 meters per second (300 ft/s).[23][24] A gear box is commonly used for stepping up the speed of the generator, although designs may also use direct drive of an annular generator. Some models operate at constant speed, but more energy can be collected by variable-speed turbines which use a solid-state power converter to interface to the transmission system. All turbines are equipped with protective features to avoid damage at high wind speeds, by feathering the blades into the wind which ceases their rotation, supplemented by brakes.
Year by year the size and height of turbines increase. Offshore wind turbines are built up to 8MW today and have a blade length up to 80m. Onshore wind turbines are installed in low wind speed areas and getting higher and higher towers. Usual towers of multi megawatt turbines have a height of 70m to 120m and in extremes up to 160m. All turbines are rotating with a speed, that the blade tip speed reach 80 m/s to 90 m/s. Higher tip speeds means more noise and blade erosion.
Two different types of turbines are common today: geared wind turbines or direct drive turbines. Direct drive turbines need a huge generator due to low rotation speed. Geared wind turbines are using a gear box used for stepping up the speed of the small generator. Some models operate at constant speed, but more energy can be collected by variable-speed turbines which use a solid-state power converter to interface to the transmission system. All turbines are equipped with protective features to avoid damage at high wind speeds, by feathering the blades into the wind which ceases their rotation, supplemented by brakes.
Vertical axis design
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Twisted_Savonius_wind_turbine_in_operation%4060rpm.gif)
Vertical-axis wind turbines (or VAWTs) have the main rotor shaft arranged vertically. One advantage of this arrangement is that the turbine does not need to be pointed into the wind to be effective, which is an advantage on a site where the wind direction is highly variable. It is also an advantage when the turbine is integrated into a building because it is inherently less steerable. Also, the generator and gearbox can be placed near the ground, using a direct drive from the rotor assembly to the ground-based gearbox, improving accessibility for maintenance.
The key disadvantages include the relatively low rotational speed with the consequential higher torque and hence higher cost of the drive train, the inherently lower power coefficient, the 360 degree rotation of the aerofoil within the wind flow during each cycle and hence the highly dynamic loading on the blade, the pulsating torque generated by some rotor designs on the drive train, and the difficulty of modelling the wind flow accurately and hence the challenges of analysing and designing the rotor prior to fabricating a prototype.[25]
When a turbine is mounted on a rooftop the building generally redirects wind over the roof and this can double the wind speed at the turbine. If the height of a rooftop mounted turbine tower is approximately 50% of the building height it is near the optimum for maximum wind energy and minimum wind turbulence. Wind speeds within the built environment are generally much lower than at exposed rural sites,[26][27] noise may be a concern and an existing structure may not adequately resist the additional stress.
Subtypes of the vertical axis design include:
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Wind_Turbines_%285132099985%29.jpg/220px-Wind_Turbines_%285132099985%29.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/%E8%A5%BF%E7%94%B8%E5%AD%90%E6%A2%81%E9%A3%8E%E8%BD%A6.jpg/220px-%E8%A5%BF%E7%94%B8%E5%AD%90%E6%A2%81%E9%A3%8E%E8%BD%A6.jpg)
- Darrieus wind turbine
- "Eggbeater" turbines, or Darrieus turbines, were named after the French inventor, Georges Darrieus.[28] They have good efficiency, but produce large torque ripple and cyclical stress on the tower, which contributes to poor reliability. They also generally require some external power source, or an additional Savonius rotor to start turning, because the starting torque is very low. The torque ripple is reduced by using three or more blades which results in greater solidity of the rotor. Solidity is measured by blade area divided by the rotor area. Newer Darrieus type turbines are not held up by guy-wires but have an external superstructure connected to the top bearing.[29]
- Giromill
- A subtype of Darrieus turbine with straight, as opposed to curved, blades. The cycloturbine variety has variable pitch to reduce the torque pulsation and is self-starting.[30] The advantages of variable pitch are: high starting torque; a wide, relatively flat torque curve; a higher coefficient of performance; more efficient operation in turbulent winds; and a lower blade speed ratio which lowers blade bending stresses. Straight, V, or curved blades may be used.[31]
- Savonius wind turbine
- These are drag-type devices with two (or more) scoops that are used in anemometers, Flettner vents (commonly seen on bus and van roofs), and in some high-reliability low-efficiency power turbines. They are always self-starting if there are at least three scoops.
- Twisted Savonius
- Twisted Savonius is a modified savonius, with long helical scoops to provide smooth torque. This is often used as a rooftop windturbine and has even been adapted for ships.[32]
Another type of vertical axis is the Parallel turbine, which is similar to the crossflow fan or centrifugal fan. It uses the ground effect. Vertical axis turbines of this type have been tried for many years: a unit producing 10 kW was built by Israeli wind pioneer Bruce Brill in the 1980s.[33][unreliable source?]
- Vortexis
- The most recent advancement in Vertical Axis Wind Turbines has been the Vortexis VAWT, utilizing a pre-swirled augmented vertical axis wind turbine (PA-VAWT) designed for the purpose of developing a high efficiency VAWT concept that keeps the advantages of VAWT’s compact size, lack of bias as to incoming wind direction, easy deployment and low radar cross section for use in mobile applications for the military, referred to in Special Operations as "Black Swan." [34][35]
Design and construction
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/EERE_illust_large_turbine.gif/220px-EERE_illust_large_turbine.gif)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/WKA_spannglieder.jpg/220px-WKA_spannglieder.jpg)
Wind turbines are designed to exploit the wind energy that exists at a location. Aerodynamic modeling is used to determine the optimum tower height, control systems, number of blades and blade shape.
Wind turbines convert wind energy to electricity for distribution. Conventional horizontal axis turbines can be divided into three components:
- The rotor component, which is approximately 20% of the wind turbine cost, includes the blades for converting wind energy to low speed rotational energy.
- The generator component, which is approximately 34% of the wind turbine cost, includes the electrical generator,[36][37] the control electronics, and most likely a gearbox (e.g. planetary gearbox),[38] adjustable-speed drive or continuously variable transmission[39] component for converting the low speed incoming rotation to high speed rotation suitable for generating electricity.
- The structural support component, which is approximately 15% of the wind turbine cost, includes the tower and rotor yaw mechanism.[40]
A 1.5 MW wind turbine of a type frequently seen in the United States has a tower 80 meters (260 ft) high. The rotor assembly (blades and hub) weighs 22,000 kilograms (48,000 lb). The nacelle, which contains the generator component, weighs 52,000 kilograms (115,000 lb). The concrete base for the tower is constructed using 26,000 kilograms (58,000 lb) of reinforcing steel and contains 190 cubic meters (250 cu yd) of concrete. The base is 15 meters (50 ft) in diameter and 2.4 meters (8 ft) thick near the center.[41]
Among all renewable energy systems wind turbines have the highest effective intensity of power-harvesting surface[42] because turbine blades not only harvest wind power, but also concentrate it.[43][dubious – discuss]
Unconventional designs
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Progressive_Field_Wind_Turbine.jpg/220px-Progressive_Field_Wind_Turbine.jpg)
One E-66 wind turbine at Windpark Holtriem, Germany, carries an observation deck, open for visitors. Another turbine of the same type, with an observation deck, is located in Swaffham, England. Airborne wind turbines have been investigated many times but have yet to produce significant energy. Conceptually, wind turbines may also be used in conjunction with a large vertical solar updraft tower to extract the energy due to air heated by the sun.
Wind turbines which utilise the Magnus effect have been developed.[44]
The ram air turbine is a specialist form of small turbine that is fitted to some aircraft. When deployed, the RAT is spun by the airstream going past the aircraft and can provide power for the most essential systems if there is a loss of all on–board electrical power.[citation needed]
The 2 bladed turbine SCD 6MW Offshore turbine designed by aerodyn Energiesysteme, built by MingYang Wind Power has a helideck for helicopter landing on top of nacelle. The prototype has been erected in 2014 in Rudong China.
Turbine monitoring and diagnostics
Due to data transmission problems, structural health monitoring of wind turbines is usually performed using several accelerometers and strain gages attached to the nacelle to monitor the gearbox and equipments. Recently, digital image correlation and stereophotogrammetry are used to measure dynamics of wind turbine blades. These methods usually measure displacement and strain to identify location of defects. Dynamic characteristics of non-rotating wind turbines have been measured using digital image correlation and photogrammetry.[45] Three dimensional point tracking has also been used to measure rotating dynamics of wind turbines.[46]
Materials and duration
![]() | This section may be very hard to understand. Sometimes this can be due to machine translation. (November 2015) |
Currently serving wind turbine blades are mainly composite blade. These blades are substantially made of a polyester resin, a vinyl resin, and epoxy thermosetting matrix resin and E-glass fibers, S- glass fibers and carbon fiber reinforced material, by manual placement or a composite resin injection molding process from to meet the requirements of different wind farms.[clarification needed] As the price of glass fibers is only about one tenth the price of carbon fiber, reinforced materials currently used in the manufacturing of blades is still largely glass fiber-based. For example, at 54 meters long large composite blade manufacturing still glass fiber reinforced materials, the lightest blade weighs only 13.4 tons.[clarification needed] With the advent of large blades, blade length increased, the blade on the reinforcing material strength and stiffness properties also put forward new demands, the glass fiber in the manufacture of large composite blade gradually emerging out of lack of performance.[47]
LM company in the manufacture of large composite blade 61.5m, in order to ensure that the blade can assume the wind and temperature and other external loads safely, simple glass fiber reinforced material has been difficult to meet the requirements for strength and stiffness blade. Thus, the blades made of glass fiber / carbon fiber hybrid composite structures, especially in the flange and other materials for higher strength and stiffness requirements of the site, the use of carbon fiber as a reinforcing material. Thus, not only can increase the carrying capacity of the blade, because the carbon fiber is conductive, can effectively prevent lightning damage to the blade.[48]
In the operation, composite blades only to withstand strong wind load, but also to withstand the gas erosion, sand particle impact erosion and strong ultraviolet radiation and other external conditions.[49] In order to give full play to enhance the role of reinforcing materials, increase the load to bear composite blades, corrosion and erosion items of property, LM companies and other composite blade manufacturers are also on the resin matrix system has been carefully designed and improved. Instead of using the excellent performance of epoxy resin unsaturated polyester resin to improve the adhesion properties of glass fiber and resin interface, improved blade capacity, expanding the glass fiber blades in a large range of applications. To improve the composite blade in harsh working environments long-term performance, SP Company specializes in the development of resistance to UV radiation new epoxy resin systems to meet the requirements of wind turbine blades durability.
By the end of 2014, the world's new wind power capacity nearly 370GW, wind turbine blades in service reached hundreds of thousands of pieces. In the next decade, the rapid development of still more than 10% growth rate. Composite wind turbine blades of life is generally 20–30 years. Although the original wooden structure leaves, but the vast majority of service leaves composite structures. In the next ten years, these blades will gradually retire, retired after handling the blade will also become a reality problem material scientists and environmental workers must face.
Wind turbines on public display
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Lamma_wind_turbine.jpg/220px-Lamma_wind_turbine.jpg)
A few localities have exploited the attention-getting nature of wind turbines by placing them on public display, either with visitor centers around their bases, or with viewing areas farther away.[50] The wind turbines are generally of conventional horizontal-axis, three-bladed design, and generate power to feed electrical grids, but they also serve the unconventional roles of technology demonstration, public relations, and education.
Small wind turbines
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Quietrevolution_Bristol_3513051949.jpg/170px-Quietrevolution_Bristol_3513051949.jpg)
Small wind turbines may be used for a variety of applications including on- or off-grid residences, telecom towers, offshore platforms, rural schools and clinics, remote monitoring and other purposes that require energy where there is no electric grid, or where the grid is unstable. Small wind turbines may be as small as a fifty-watt generator for boat or caravan use. Hybrid solar and wind powered units are increasingly being used for traffic signage, particularly in rural locations, as they avoid the need to lay long cables from the nearest mains connection point.[51] The U.S. Department of Energy's National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) defines small wind turbines as those smaller than or equal to 100 kilowatts.[52] Small units often have direct drive generators, direct current output, aeroelastic blades, lifetime bearings and use a vane to point into the wind.
Larger, more costly turbines generally have geared power trains, alternating current output, flaps and are actively pointed into the wind. Direct drive generators and aeroelastic blades for large wind turbines are being researched.
Wind turbine spacing
On most horizontal windturbine farms, a spacing of about 6-10 times the rotor diameter is often upheld. However, for large wind farms distances of about 15 rotor diameters should be more economically optimal, taking into account typical wind turbine and land costs. This conclusion has been reached by research[53] conducted by Charles Meneveau of the Johns Hopkins University,[54] and Johan Meyers of Leuven University in Belgium, based on computer simulations[55] that take into account the detailed interactions among wind turbines (wakes) as well as with the entire turbulent atmospheric boundary layer. Moreover, recent research by John Dabiri of Caltech suggests that vertical wind turbines may be placed much more closely together so long as an alternating pattern of rotation is created allowing blades of neighbouring turbines to move in the same direction as they approach one another.[56]
Repowering
Installation of new wind turbines can be controversial. An alternative is repowering, where existing wind turbines are replaced with bigger, more powerful ones.
Records
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Windkraftanlage_Laasow.jpg/170px-Windkraftanlage_Laasow.jpg)
- Largest capacity conventional drive
- The Vestas V164 has a rated capacity of 8.0 MW,[57] has an overall height of 220 m (722 ft), a diameter of 164 m (538 ft), is for offshore use, and is the world's largest-capacity wind turbine since its introduction in 2014. The conventional drive train consist of a main gearbox and a medium speed PM generator. Prototype installed in 2014 at the National Test Center Denmark nearby Østerild. Series production starts end of 2015.
- Largest capacity direct drive
- The Enercon E-126 with 7.58MW and 127m rotor diameter is the largest direct drive turbine. It's only for onshore use. The turbine has parted rotor blades with 2 sections for transport.
- Largest vertical-axis
- Le Nordais wind farm in Cap-Chat, Quebec has a vertical axis wind turbine (VAWT) named Éole, which is the world's largest at 110 m.[58] It has a nameplate capacity of 3.8 MW.[59]
- Largest 1 bladed turbine
- Riva Calzoni M33 was a Single Bladed Wind Turbine with 350 kW, designed and built In Bologna in 1993
- Largest 2 bladed turbine
- Today's biggest 2 bladed turbine is build by Mingyang Wind Power in 2013. It is a SCD6.5MW offshore downwind turbine, designed by aerodyn Energiesysteme[60][61][62]
- Largest swept area
- The turbine with the largest swept area is the Samsung S7.0-171, with a diameter of 171 m, giving a total sweep of 22966 m2.
- Tallest
- Vestas V164 is the tallest wind turbine, standing in Østerild, Denmark, 220 meters tall, constructed in 2014.
- Tallest Hybrid Towers
- Vestas installed turbines V112 3MW on 140m hybrid towers in the Lodzkie region of Poland in 2015 "hybrid tower"
- Most rotors
- Lagerwey has build Four-in-One, a multi rotor wind turbine with one tower and four rotors near Maasvlakte
- Highest tower
- Fuhrländer installed a 2.5MW turbine on a 160m lattice tower in 2003 (see Fuhrländer Wind Turbine Laasow and Nowy Tomyśl Wind Turbines)
- Most productive
- Four turbines at Rønland wind farm in Denmark share the record for the most productive wind turbines, with each having generated 63.2 GWh by June 2010.[63]
- Highest-situated
- Since 2013 the world's highest-situated wind turbine was made and installed by WindAid and is located at the base of the Pastoruri Glacier in Peru at 4,877 meters (16,001 ft) above sea level.[64] The site uses the WindAid 2.5 kW wind generator to supply power to a small rural community of micro entrepreneurs who cater to the tourists who come to the Pastoruri glacier.[65]
- Largest floating wind turbine
- The world's largest—and also the first operational deep-water large-capacity—floating wind turbine is the 2.3 MW Hywind currently operating 10 kilometers (6.2 mi) offshore in 220-meter-deep water, southwest of Karmøy, Norway. The turbine began operating in September 2009 and utilizes a Siemens 2.3 MW turbine.[66][67]
See also
References
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- ^ Dietrich Lohrmann, "Von der östlichen zur westlichen Windmühle", Archiv für Kulturgeschichte, Vol. 77, Issue 1 (1995), pp. 1–30 (10f.)
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- ^ Donald Routledge Hill, "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East", Scientific American, May 1991, p. 64-69. (cf. Donald Routledge Hill, Mechanical Engineering)
- ^ a b Morthorst, Poul Erik; Redlinger, Robert Y.; Andersen, Per (2002). Wind energy in the 21st century: economics, policy, technology and the changing electricity industry. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave/UNEP. ISBN 0-333-79248-3.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b c d Price, Trevor J. (2004). "Blyth, James (1839–1906)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/100957. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
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- ^ "Enercon E-family, 330 Kw to 7.5 Mw, Wind Turbine Specification"
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- ^ Exploit Nature-Renewable Energy Technologies by Gurmit Singh, Aditya Books, pp 378
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- ^ "Experimental Mechanics, Volume 18, Number 1 – SpringerLink" (PDF). Springerlink.com. 1978-01-01. Retrieved 2013-11-06.
- ^ Rob Varnon. Derecktor converting boat into hybrid passenger ferry, Connecticut Post website, December 2, 2010. Retrieved April 25, 2012.
- ^ "Modular wind energy device – Brill, Bruce I". Freepatentsonline.com. 2002-11-19. Retrieved 2013-11-06.
- ^ "Wind Power Systems". windpwrsys.com. 2015-05-15. Retrieved 2015-10-20.
- ^ "Special Operations Summit Little Creek - Wind Power: "Small and Micro Wind"…A Position of Power I". Tactical Defense Media’s DoD Power, Energy & Propulsion Q2 2012, tacticaldefensemedia.com. Retrieved 2015-10-20.
- ^ Navid Goudarzi (June 2013). "A Review on the Development of the Wind Turbine Generators across the World". International Journal of Dynamics and Control. 1 (2). Springer: 192–202. doi:10.1007/s40435-013-0016-y.
- ^ Navid Goudarzi, Weidong Zhu (November 2012). "A Review of the Development of Wind Turbine Generators Across the World". ASME 2012 International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition. 4 - Paper No: IMECE2012-88615. ASME: 1257–1265.
- ^ "Hansen W4 series". Hansentransmissions.com. Archived from the original on 15 March 2002. Retrieved 6 November 2013.
{{cite web}}
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/|archive-url=
timestamp mismatch; 15 March 2012 suggested (help) - ^ John Gardner, Nathaniel Haro and Todd Haynes (October 2011). "Active Drivetrain Control to Improve Energy Capture of Wind Turbines" (PDF). Boise State University. Retrieved 28 February 2012Template:Inconsistent citations
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help)CS1 maint: postscript (link) - ^ ""Wind Turbine Design Cost and Scaling Model", Technical Report NREL/TP-500-40566, December, 2006, page 35, 36" (PDF). Retrieved 2013-11-06.
- ^ [3] Template:Wayback
- ^ See Erich Hau: Windkraftanlagen: Grundlagen, Technik, Einsatz, Wirtschaftlichkeit. Berlin/ Heidelberg 2008, pp. 621. (German). (For the english Edition see Erich Hau, Wind Turbines: Fundamentals, Technologies, Application, Economics, Springer 2005)
- ^ "Innovation in Wind Turbine Design" (2011), Peter Jamieson
- ^ "Spiral Magnus|MECARO|Introducuction to Magnus". Mecaro.jp. Retrieved 2013-11-06.
- ^ Using Stereophotogrammetry to Predict Dynamic Strain on A Wind Turbine Rotor
- ^ Using Stereophotogrammetry to Measure Vibrations of a Rotating Wind Turbine
- ^ M B Weimann and Li V C, Drying Shrinkage and Crack width of an Engineered Cementitious Composite(ECC). Proceedings of The Seventh International Symposium on Brittle Matrix Composites(BMC). Eds. A. M. Brandt, V. C. Li and I. H. Marshall, 2003,(10):37~46
- ^ Spera D A. The Brush Wind Turbine Generator as Described in Scientific American[R]. Workshop on Wind Turbine Structural Dynamics. USA, 1977.
- ^ Engineered materials handbook volume 1: composites[M], ASM International, Materials Park, OH,1987:65-69.
- ^ Young, Kathryn (2007-08-03). "Canada wind farms blow away turbine tourists". Edmonton Journal. Retrieved 2008-09-06.
- ^ Anon. "Solar & Wind Powered Sign Lighting". Energy Development Cooperative Ltd. Energy Development Cooperative Ltd. Retrieved 19 October 2013.
- ^ Small Wind, U.S. Department of Energy National Renewable Energy Laboratory website
- ^ J. Meyers and C. Meneveau, "Optimal turbine spacing in fully developed wind farm boundary layers" (2012), Wind Energy 15, 305-317 doi:10.1002/we.469
- ^ Print version (2011-01-18). "Optimal spacing for wind turbines". Gazette.jhu.edu. Retrieved 2013-11-06.
- ^ "M. Calaf, C. Meneveau and J. Meyers, "Large Eddy Simulation study of fully developed wind-turbine array boundary layers" (2010), Phys. Fluids 22, 015110". Link.aip.org. Retrieved 2013-11-06.
- ^ Dabiri, J. Potential order-of-magnitude enhancement of wind farm power density via counter-rotating vertical-axis wind turbine arrays (2011), J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 3, 043104
- ^ Wittrup, Sanne. "Power from Vestas' giant turbine" (in Danish. English translation ). Ingeniøren, 28 January 2014. Accessed: 28 January 2014.
- ^ "Visits : Big wind turbine". Retrieved 2010-04-17.
- ^ "Wind Energy Power Plants in Canada – other provinces". 2010-06-05. Retrieved 2010-08-24.
- ^ http://www.windpoweroffshore.com/article/1207686/close---aerodyns-6mw-offshore-turbine-design
- ^ http://www.windpowermonthly.com/article/1188373/ming-yang-install-65mw-offshore-turbine
- ^ David Weston. "Aerodyn 6MW connected to grid" 12 March 2015. Archive
- ^ "Surpassing Matilda: record-breaking Danish wind turbines". Retrieved 2010-07-26.
- ^ http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/highest-altitude-wind-generator
- ^ http://www.lehighvalleylive.com/bethlehem/index.ssf/2013/08/northampton_community_college_53.html
- ^ Patel, Prachi (2009-06-22). "Floating Wind Turbines to Be Tested". IEEE Spectrum. Retrieved 2011-03-07.
will test how the 2.3-megawatt turbine holds up in 220-meter-deep water.
- ^ Madslien, Jorn (8 September 2009). "Floating challenge for offshore wind turbine". BBC News. BBC. Retrieved 2011-03-07.
world's first full-scale floating wind turbine
Further reading
- Tony Burton, David Sharpe, Nick Jenkins, Ervin Bossanyi: Wind Energy Handbook, John Wiley & Sons, 2nd edition (2011), ISBN 978-0-470-69975-1
- Darrell, Dodge, Early History Through 1875, TeloNet Web Development, Copyright 1996–2001
- Ersen Erdem, Wind Turbine Industrial Applications
- Robert Gasch, Jochen Twele (ed.), Wind power plants. Fundamentals, design, construction and operation, Springer 2012 ISBN 978-3-642-22937-4.
- Erich Hau, Wind turbines: fundamentals, technologies, application, economics Springer, 2013 ISBN 978-3-642-27150-2 (preview on Google Books)
- Siegfried Heier, Grid integration of wind energy conversion systems John Wiley & Sons, 3rd edition (2014), ISBN 978-1-119-96294-6
- Peter Jamieson, Innovation in Wind Turbine Design. Wiley & Sons 2011, ISBN 978-0-470-69981-2
- J. F. Manwell, J. G. McGowan, A. L. Roberts, Wind Energy Explained: Theory, Design and Application, John Wiley & Sons, 2nd edition (2012), ISBN 978-0-47001-500-1
- David Spera (ed,) Wind Turbine Technology: Fundamental Concepts in Wind Turbine Engineering, Second Edition (2009), ASME Press, ISBN 9780791802601
- Alois Schaffarczyk (ed.), Understanding wind power technology, John Wiley & Sons, (2014), ISBN 978-1-118-64751-6
- Hermann-Josef Wagner, Jyotirmay Mathur, Introduction to wind energy systems. Basics, technology and operation. Springer (2013), ISBN 978-3-642-32975-3
- GA Mansoori, N Enayati, LB Agyarko (2016), Energy: Sources, Utilization, Legislation, Sustainability, Illinois as Model State
External links
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png)
- Harvesting the Wind (45 lectures about wind turbines by professor Magdi Ragheb)
- Wind Projects
- Guided tour on wind energy
- U.S. Wind Turbine Manufacturing: Federal Support for an Emerging Industry Congressional Research Service
- Wind Energy Technology World Wind Energy Association
- Wind turbine simulation, National Geographic
- Airborne Wind Industry Association international
- Top 10 biggest wind turbines in the world
- The Tethys database seeks to gather, organize and make available information on potential environmental effects of offshore wind energy development