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Masculism or masculinism may variously refer to advocacy of the rights or needs of men and boys; and the adherence to or promotion of attributes (opinions, values, attitudes, habits) regarded as typical of men and boys.^[1]^[2]^[3] The terms may also refer to the men's rights or men's movement.^[a]

Terminology

Early history

According to the historian Judith Allen, Charlotte Perkins Gilman coined the term masculism in 1914,^[6] when she gave a public lecture series in New York entitled "Studies in Masculism". Apparently the printer did not like the term and tried to change it. Allen writes that Gilman used masculism to refer to the opposition of misogynist men to women's rights and, more broadly, to describe "men's collective political and cultural actions on behalf of their own sex",^[7] or what Allen calls the "sexual politics of androcentric cultural discourses".^[8] Gilman referred to men and women who opposed women's suffrage as masculists—women who collaborated with these men were "Women Who Won't Move Forward"^[9]—and described World War I as "masculism at its worst".^[10]

Definition and scope

The Oxford English Dictionary (2000) defines masculinism, and synonymously masculism, as: "Advocacy of the rights of men; adherence to or promotion of opinions, values, etc., regarded as typical of men; (more generally) anti-feminism, machismo."^[11]^[b] According to Susan Whitlow in The Encyclopedia of Literary and Cultural Theory (2010), the terms are "used interchangeably across disciplines".^[13] Sociologist Robert Menzies wrote in 2007 that both terms are common in men's rights and anti-feminist literature: "The intrepid virtual adventurer who boldly goes into these unabashedly mascul(in)ist spaces is quickly rewarded with a torrent of diatribes, invectives, atrocity tales, claims to entitlement, calls to arms, and prescriptions for change in the service of men, children, families, God, the past, the future, the nation, the planet, and all other things non-feminist."^[14]

The gender-studies scholar Julia Wood describes masculinism as an ideology asserting that women and men should have different roles and rights owing to fundamental differences between them, and that men suffer from discrimination and "need to reclaim their rightful status as men".^[15] Sociologists Arthur Brittan and Satoshi Ikeda describe masculinism as an ideology justifying male domination in society.^[c]^[17] Masculinism, according to Brittan, maintains that there is "a fundamental difference" between men and women and rejects feminist arguments that male–female relationships are political constructs.^[16]

According to Ferrel Christensen, a Canadian philosopher and president of the former Alberta-based Movement for the Establishment of Real Gender Equality,^[18] "Defining 'masculism' is made difficult by the fact that the term has been used by very few people, and by hardly any philosophers." He differentiates between "progressive masculists", who welcome many of the societal changes promoted by feminists, while believing that some measures to reduce sexism against women have increased it against men, and an "extremist version" of masculism that promotes male supremacy. He argued that if masculism and feminism refer to the belief that men/women are systematically discriminated against, and that this discrimination should be eliminated, there is not necessarily a conflict between feminism and masculism, and some assert that they are both. However, many believe that one sex is more discriminated against, and thus use one label and reject the other.^[2]

The political scientist Georgia Duerst-Lahti distinguishes between masculism, which expresses the ethos of the early gender-egalitarian men's movement, and masculinism, which refers to the ideology of patriarchy.^[19]^[20] Sociologists Melissa Blais and Francis Dupuis-Déri equate masculist and masculinist, attributing the former to author Warren Farrell. The most common term, they argue, is the "men's movement"; they write that there is a growing consensus in the French-language media that the movement should be referred to as masculiniste.^[21] According to Bethany M. Coston and Michael Kimmel, members of the mythopoetic men's movement identify as masculinist.^[22]

Nicholas Davidson, in The Failure of Feminism, calls masculism "virism": "To grasp the inherent inadequacy of feminism as a universal philosophy, it is helpful to consider its mirror image, a point of view that can be termed 'masculism', or with greater etymological precision, 'virism'." Arguing that this point of view was widespread in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, he wrote: "Where the feminist perspective is that social ills are caused by the dominance of masculine values, the virist perspective is that they are caused by a decline of those values. ..."^[23] Christensen calls virism "an extreme brand of masculism and masculinism".^[2]

Topic areas of interest

Custody

According to David Benatar, head of philosophy at the University of Cape Town, "Custody law is perhaps the best-known area of men's rights activism", as it is more likely in most parts of the world for the mother to obtain custody of children in case of divorce. He argues: "When the man is the primary care-giver his chances of winning custody are lower than when the woman is the primary care-giver. Even when the case is not contested by the mother, he's still not as likely to get custody as when the woman's claim is uncontested".^[24]

Education and employment

Many masculists oppose co-educational schooling, believing that single-sex schools better promote the well-being of boys.^[25]

Data from the U.S. in 1994 reported that men suffer 94% of workplace fatalities. Farrell has argued that men do a disproportionate share of dirty, physically demanding, and hazardous jobs.^[3]

Violence and suicide

Masculists cite higher rates of suicide in men than women.^[25] Farrell expresses concern about violence against men being depicted as humorous, in the media and elsewhere.^[26]

They also express concern about violence against men being ignored or minimized in comparison to violence against women,^[25]^[27] asserting gender symmetry in domestic violence.^[25] Another of Farrell's concerns is that traditional assumptions of female innocence or sympathy for women, termed benevolent sexism, may lead to unequal penalties for women and men who commit similar crimes,^[26] to lack of sympathy for male victims in domestic violence cases when the perpetrator is female, and to dismissal of female-on-male sexual assault and sexual harassment cases.^{[citation needed]}

South African masculinist evangelical movements

In the wake of the abolition of apartheid, South Africa saw a resurgence of masculinist Christian evangelical groups, led by the Mighty Men Conference and a complementary Worthy Women Conference. The latter saw the development of "formenism": "Formenism, like masculinism, subscribes to a belief in the inherent superiority of men over women (in other words, only men can be leaders), but unlike masculinism, it not an ideology developed and sustained by men, but one constructed, endorsed and sustained by women."^[28] The Mighty Men movement harkens back to the Victorian idea of Muscular Christianity. Feminist scholars argue that the movement's lack of attention to women's rights and the struggle for racial equality makes it a threat to women and to the stability of the country.^[29]^[30] Scholar Miranda Pillay argues that the Mighty Men movement appeal lies in its resistance to gender equality as incompatible with Christian values, and in raising patriarchy to a "hyper-normative status", beyond challenge by other claims to power.^[31]

The Worthy Women movement is a auxiliary to Mighty Men in advocating menism, a belief in the inherent superiority of men over women.^[28] Their leader, Gretha Wiid, blames South Africa's disorder on the liberation of women, and aims to restore the nation through its families, making women again subservient to men.^[32] Her success is attributed to her balancing claims that God created the gender hierarchy, but that women are no less valuable than men,^[33] and that restoration of traditional gender roles relieves existential anxiety in post-apartheid South Africa.^[28]

Gender studies

Gender studies, which have frequently focused on woman-based or feminist approaches, have also examined oppression of men within a masculist society and from a masculist perspective.^[34]

Notes

^ Melissa Blais and Francis Dupuis-Déri (Social Movement Studies, 2012): "In English, they [masculinist and masculinism] generally designate either a way of thinking whose referent is the masculine or simply a patriarchal ideology (Watson, 1996), rather than a component of the antifeminist social movement. In English, 'men's movement' is the most common term, though some, like Warren Farrell, use 'masculist' or the more restrictive 'fathers' rights movement'."^[4]

Wendy McElroy (Fox News, 3 June 2003): "Gender issues are being rocked by masculinism—sometimes called men's rights or the Men's Movement."^[5]
^ The OED offers a second, obsolete, definition of masculism: "masculism, n. †1. The possession of masculine physical traits by a woman. Obselete. rare. Apparently an isolated use, completely superseded by masculinization (see n. 2). 2. masculinism n."^[12]
^ Brittan calls masculinism "the ideology that justifies and naturalizes male domination ... the ideology of patriarchy".^[16]

References

^ Bunnin, Nicholas; Yu, Jiyuan (2004). The Blackwell Dictionary of Western Philosophy. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell Publishing. p. 411. ISBN 1-40-510679-4.
^ ^a ^b ^c Christensen, Ferrell (2005) [1995]. "Masculism". In Honderich, Ted (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Philosophy (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 562–563. ISBN 0-19-926479-1. LCCN 94-36914. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
^ ^a ^b Cathy Young (July 1994). "Man Troubles: Making Sense of the Men's Movement". Reason. Masculism (mas'kye liz*'em), n. 1. the belief that equality between the sexes requires the recognition and redress of prejudice and discrimination against men as well as women. 2. the movement organized around this belief. {{cite news}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
^ Blais, Melissa; Dupuis-Déri, Francis (2012). "Masculinism and the Antifeminist Countermovement". Social Movement Studies. 11 (1): (21–39), 22–23. doi:10.1080/14742837.2012.640532. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
^ McElroy, Wendy (3 June 2003). "Gender Issues Impacted by Masculinists". Fox News. Archived from the original on 13 May 2019. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
^ Allen, Judith A. (2009). The Feminism of Charlotte Perkins Gilman: Sexualities, Histories, Progressivism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 353. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
^ Allen 2009, p. 152.
^ Allen 2009, p. 353.
^ Allen 2009, pp. 136–137.
^ Allen 2009, p. 127.
^ masculinism, n (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. 2000. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
^ masculism, n (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. 2000. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
^ Whitlow, Susan (2010). "Gender and Cultural Studies". The Encyclopedia of Literary and Cultural Theory. doi:10.1002/9781444337839.wbelctv3g003.
^ Menzies, Robert (2007). "Virtual Backlash: Representations of Men's 'Rights' and Feminist 'Wrongs' in Cyberspace". In Chunn, Dorothy E.; Boyd, Susan; Lessard, Hester (eds.). Reaction and Resistance: Feminism, Law, and Social Change. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. pp. 65, 91, note 2. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
^ Wood, Julia T. (2014). Gendered Lives: Communication, Gender, & Culture. Stamford, Conn.: Cengage Learning. p. 89. ISBN 978-1-28-507593-8. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
^ ^a ^b Brittan, Arthur (1989). Masculinity and Power. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. p. 4. ISBN 0-63-114167-7.
^ Ikeda, Satoshi (2007). "Masculinity and masculinism under globalization". In Griffin-Cohen, M.; Brodie, J. (eds.). Remapping Gender in the New Global Order. Routledge. p. 112. ISBN 0-41-576997-3. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
^ Thorne, Duncan (20 June 2000). "Gender bias in pamphlet, says human rights officer". The Edmonton Journal. Archived from the original on 28 February 2001. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help); Menzies 2007, p. 91, note 7.
^ Duerst-Lahti, Georgia (2008), "Gender Ideology: masculinism and femininalism", in Goertz, Gary; Mazur, Amy G. (eds.), Politics, gender, and concepts: theory and methodology, Cambridge University Press, pp. 159–192, ISBN 9780521723428
^ Dupuis-Déri, Francis (2009). "Le 'masculinisme': une histoire politique du mot (en Anglais et en Français)" ['Masculinism': a political history of the term (in English and French)]. Recherches Féministes. 22 (2): 97–123. doi:10.7202/039213ar. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
^ Blais & Dupuis-Déri 2012, pp. 22–23.
^ Coston, Bethany M.; Kimmel, Michael (2013). "White Men as the New Victims: Reverse Discrimination Cases and the Men's Rights Movement". Nevada Law Journal. 13 (2): (368–385), 371.
^ Davidson, Nicholas (1988). The Failure of Feminism. Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books. pp. 274–275. ISBN 9780879754082.
^ de Castella, Tom (May 2, 2012). "Just who are men's rights activists?". BBC News Magazine. Retrieved May 3, 2012.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Blais & Dupuis-Déri 2012, p. 23.
^ ^a ^b Farrell, Warren (2001). The myth of male power: why men are the disposable sex. New York: Berkley Books. ISBN 9780425181447.
^ Mvulane, Zama (November 25, 2008). "Do men suffer spousal abuse?". Cape Times. South Africa. p. 12. Archived from the original on February 21, 2009 – via IOL. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
^ ^a ^b ^c Nadar, Sarojini; Potgieter, Cheryl (Fall 2010). "Liberated through submission?: The Worthy Woman's Conference as a case study of formenism". Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion. 26 (2): (141–151), 143. doi:10.2979/fsr.2010.26.2.141. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
^ Dube, Siphiwe (July 2015). "Muscular Christianity in contemporary South Africa: The case of the Mighty Men Conference". HTS Theological Studies/Teologiese Studies. 71 (3). AOSIS OpenJournals: 1–9. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
^ Dube, Siphiwe (November 2016). "Race, whiteness and transformation in the Promise Keepers America and the Mighty Men Conference: A comparative analysis". HTS Theological Studies/Teologiese Studies. 72 (1). AOSIS OpenJournals: 1–8. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
^ Pillay, Miranda (2015). "Mighty Men, Mighty Families: A pro-family Christian movement to (re)enforce patriarchal control?", in Conradie, Ernst M.; Pillay, Miranda, eds. (2015). Ecclesial reform and deform movements in the South African context. Stellenbosch, South Africa: African SUN MeDIA. pp. 61–77. ISBN 9781920689766.
^ Nortjé-Meyer, Lilly (2015). "A movement seeking to embody support of patriarchal structures and patterns in church and society: Gertha Wiid's Worthy Women movement", in Conradie, Ernst M.; Pillay, Miranda, eds. (2015). Ecclesial reform and deform movements in the South African context. Stellenbosch, South Africa: African SUN MeDIA. pp. 86–93. ISBN 9781920689766.
^ Nortjé-Meyer, Lilly (November 2011). "A critical analysis of Gretha Wiid's sex ideology and her biblical hermeneutics". Verbum et Ecclesia. 32 (1). AOSIS OpenJournals: 1–7. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
^ Hoogensen, Gunhild; Solheim, Bruce O. (2006). "2. Women in Theory and Practice". Women in Power: World Leaders Since 1960. Praeger Publishers. p. 21. ISBN 0-275-98190-8. LCCN 2006015398 – via Google Books.

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 {{masculism sidebar}}
-'''Masculism''' is the advocacy of the [[men's rights|rights]] and [[men's issues|interests]] of [[men]] and [[boy]]s, and is considered to be the [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] and ideological counterpart to [[feminism]].<ref name=OCP>{{cite book |last1=Christensen |first=Ferrell |editor1-last=Honderich |editor1-first=Ted |editor1-link=Ted Honderich |title=[[The Oxford Companion to Philosophy]] |year=2005 |orig-year=1995 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=0-19-926479-1 |pages=562-563 |chapter=Masculism |edition=2nd |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WbkSDAAAQBAJ |lccn=94-36914|via=[[Google Books]] |quote=In its most general meaning, the word *'feminism' refers to the promotion of the interests or rights of women, and a reasonable definition of 'masculism' would have it refer to promoting the interests or rights of men. |ref=harv}}</ref><ref name="Ceasefire">{{cite book |last1=Young |first1=Cathy |authorlink1=Cathy Young |title=Ceasefire!: Why Women and Men Must Join Forces to Achieve True Equality |date=1999 |publisher=[[Free Press (publisher)|Free Press]] |isbn=0-684-83442-1 |pages=230-236,241-242 |lccn=96-49653 |quote=[masculism] is already a small-scale mirror image of feminism}}</ref><ref name="Penelope">{{cite journal |last1=Penelope |first1=Julia |authorlink1=Julia Penelope |title=Language and the Transformation of Consciousness |journal=[[Law and Inequality]] |date=1986 |volume=4 |issue=22 |pages=379+ |url=http://scholarship.law.umn.edu/lawineq/vol4/iss2/6 |accessdate=20 May 2019 |publisher=[[University of Minnesota Libraries]] |quote=Masculist, rather than masculinist, is the appropriate antonym of Feminist, for it refers to the cultural, rather than biological, differences between the sexes that rationalize the subordination of wemyn.}}</ref><ref name="Robinson">{{cite book |last1=Robinson |first1=Douglas |authorlink1=Douglas Robinson (academic) |title=No Less a Man: Masculist Art in a Feminist Age |date=1994 |publisher=[[Bowling Green State University Popular Press]] |isbn=0879726385 |pages=25-26 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v1Ij7_NbCeAC&pg=PA26 |accessdate=20 May 2019 |lccn=93-72885 |via=[[Google Books]] |quote=[masculism] is the precise morphological equivalent of feminism ... currently in use is "masculi''ni''sm," a term of contempt used of patriarchal masculinity by some feminist; ... Masculism would be the positive counterpart to feminism: a movement dedicated to the liberation of men from patriarchal gender programming.}}</ref><ref name="Davidson">{{cite book |last1=Davidson |first1=Nicholas |title=The Failure of Feminism |date=1988 |publisher=[[Prometheus Books]] |isbn=9780879754082 |page=274 |quote=To grasp the inherent inadequacy of feminism as a universal philosophy, it is helpful to consider its mirror image, a point of view that can be termed 'masculism', or with greater etymological precision, 'virism'.}}</ref>
+'''Masculism''' or '''masculinism''' may variously refer to advocacy of the rights or needs of [[Man|men]] and [[boy]]s; and the adherence to or promotion of attributes (opinions, values, attitudes, habits) regarded as typical of men and boys.<ref name=BunninYu2008>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LdbxabeToQYC&pg=PA411&dq=masculinism |last1=Bunnin |first1=Nicholas |last2=Yu |first2=Jiyuan |title=The Blackwell Dictionary of Western Philosophy |page=411 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |location=Malden, Mass. |year=2004 |isbn=1-40-510679-4}}</ref><ref name=OCP>{{cite book |last1=Christensen |first=Ferrell |editor1-last=Honderich |editor1-first=Ted |editor1-link=Ted Honderich |title=The Oxford Companion to Philosophy |date=2005 |orig-year=1995 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-926479-1 |pages=562-563 |chapter=Masculism |edition=2nd |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WbkSDAAAQBAJ&q=masculism |lccn=94-36914|ref=harv}}</ref><ref name=reason>{{cite news|publisher=''[[Reason magazine|Reason]]''|title=Man Troubles: Making Sense of the Men's Movement|author=[[Cathy Young]]|date=July 1994|url=http://reason.com/archives/1994/07/01/man-troubles|quote=Masculism (mas'kye liz*'em), n. 1. the belief that equality between the sexes requires the recognition and redress of prejudice and discrimination against men as well as women. 2. the movement organized around this belief.}}</ref> The terms may also refer to the [[Men's rights movement|men's rights]] or [[men's movement]].{{efn|Melissa Blais and Francis Dupuis-Déri ([[Social Movement Studies]], 2012): "In English, they [''masculinist'' and ''masculinism''] generally designate either a way of thinking whose referent is the masculine or simply a patriarchal ideology (Watson, 1996), rather than a component of the antifeminist social movement. In English, 'men's movement' is the most common term, though some, like Warren Farrell, use 'masculist' or the more restrictive 'fathers' rights movement'."<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Blais | first1 = Melissa | last2 = Dupuis-Déri | first2 = Francis | title = Masculinism and the Antifeminist Countermovement | journal = [[Social Movement Studies]] | volume = 11 | issue = 1 | pages = (21–39), 22–23 | doi = 10.1080/14742837.2012.640532 | date = 2012 | ref = harv }}</ref>{{pb}}
+[[Wendy McElroy]] ([[Fox News]], 3 June 2003): "Gender issues are being rocked by masculinism—sometimes called men's rights or the Men's Movement."<ref>{{cite news |last1=McElroy |first1=Wendy |authorlink=Wendy McElroy |title=Gender Issues Impacted by Masculinists |url=https://www.foxnews.com/story/gender-issues-impacted-by-masculinists |work=Fox News |date=3 June 2003|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190513042400/https://www.foxnews.com/story/gender-issues-impacted-by-masculinists|archivedate=13 May 2019|deadurl=no}}</ref>}}
-Masculists believe that both women and men have historically been [[discrimination|discriminated]] against, and that discrimination should come to an end. This view is shared by some feminists, and so one might consider themselves both a masculist and a feminist, or, if they believe that one sex is subject to a greater degree of discrimination, may accept one label and reject the other.<ref name="OCP"/> Masculists promote equality between the sexes and believe that such equality can be achieved if the discrimination against men, as well as women, is recognized and resolved.<ref name=reason>{{cite news |last1=Young|first1=Cathy|authorlink=Cathy Young |title=Man Troubles: Making Sense of the Men's Movement |publisher=''[[Reason magazine|Reason]]'' |date=July 1994 |url=http://reason.com/archives/1994/07/01/man-troubles |quote=Masculism (mas'kye liz*'em), n. 1. the belief that equality between the sexes requires the recognition and redress of prejudice and discrimination against men as well as women. 2. the movement organized around this belief. References Warren Farrell, Jack Kammer, and others activists in the men's movement.}}</ref>{{sfn|Christensen|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=WbkSDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA562 562 ¶4]|ps=: "Thus both forms of contemporary masculism promote equality between men and women as its adherents envision it."}}
-[[Masculinism]] is a similar term and sometimes used in association or interchangeable with masculism, but more specifically refers to the appreciation or promotion of [[masculinity]] or "manliness", and is the direct counterpart to [[femininism]].{{sfn|Christensen|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=WbkSDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA562 562 ¶1]|ps=: "This is very different, it must be noted, from promoting attributes of womanliness or manliness, as they might be construed, which could be labelled femininism and masculinism."}}<ref name="CostonKimmel">{{cite journal |last1=Coston |first1=Bethany M. |last2=Kimmel |first2=Michael |authorlink2=Michael Kimmel |title=White Men as the New Victims: Reverse Discrimination Cases and the Men's Rights Movement |journal=[[Nevada Law Journal]] |date=2013 |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=368-385 |url=https://scholars.law.unlv.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1465&context=nlj |accessdate=21 May 2019 |publisher=[[William S. Boyd School of Law]] |location=[[University of Nevada, Las Vegas]] |format=pdf |quote=Mythopoets were largely gender separatists, neither feminist nor anti-feminist in their politics; rather, they said, they were "masculinists"—of men, by men, and for men}} (see pg. 371, note 17 as well)</ref> The term has also been used to describe aspects of the [[Men's rights movement|men's rights]] or [[men's movement]].{{efn|[[Wendy McElroy]] ([[Fox News]], 3 June 2003): "Gender issues are being rocked by masculinism—sometimes called men's rights or the Men's Movement."<ref>{{cite news |last1=McElroy |first1=Wendy |authorlink=Wendy McElroy |title=Gender Issues Impacted by Masculinists |url=https://www.foxnews.com/story/gender-issues-impacted-by-masculinists |work=Fox News |date=3 June 2003|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190513042400/https://www.foxnews.com/story/gender-issues-impacted-by-masculinists|archivedate=13 May 2019|deadurl=no}}</ref>}}
 ==Terminology==
@@ Line 18: / Line 15: @@
 According to Ferrel Christensen, a Canadian philosopher and president of the former Alberta-based Movement for the Establishment of Real Gender Equality,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Thorne |first1=Duncan |title=Gender bias in pamphlet, says human rights officer |url=https://www.fact.on.ca/news/news0006/ej000620.htm |work=The Edmonton Journal |date=20 June 2000 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20010228064228/https://www.fact.on.ca/news/news0006/ej000620.htm |archivedate=28 February 2001|deadurl=no}}; {{harvnb|Menzies|2007|p=91, note 7}}.</ref> "Defining 'masculism' is made difficult by the fact that the term has been used by very few people, and by hardly any philosophers." He differentiates between "progressive masculists", who welcome many of the societal changes promoted by feminists, while believing that some measures to reduce sexism against women have increased it against men, and an "extremist version" of masculism that promotes male supremacy. He argued that if masculism and feminism refer to the belief that men/women are systematically discriminated against, and that this discrimination should be eliminated, there is not necessarily a conflict between feminism and masculism, and some assert that they are both. However, many believe that one sex is more discriminated against, and thus use one label and reject the other.<ref name=OCP/>
-The political scientist Georgia Duerst-Lahti distinguishes between ''masculism'', which expresses the ethos of the early gender-egalitarian [[men's movement]], and ''masculinism'', which refers to the ideology of [[patriarchy]].<ref>{{citation | last = Duerst-Lahti | first = Georgia | contribution = Gender Ideology: masculinism and femininalism |pages=159&ndash;192 |editor1-last=Goertz |editor1-first=Gary |editor2-last=Mazur |editor2-first=Amy G. |title=Politics, gender, and concepts: theory and methodology |year=2008 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521723428}}</ref><ref name="Dupuis-Déri2009">{{cite journal|last1=Dupuis-Déri|first1=Francis|title=Le 'masculinisme': une histoire politique du mot (en Anglais et en Français)| trans-title = 'Masculinism': a political history of the term (in English and French) |journal=Recherches Féministes |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=97&ndash;123 |date=2009 |doi=10.7202/039213ar | ref = harv }}</ref> Sociologists Melissa Blais and Francis Dupuis-Déri equate ''masculist'' and ''masculinist'', attributing the former to author [[Warren Farrell]]. The most common term, they argue, is the "men's movement"; they write that there is a growing consensus in the French-language media that the movement should be referred to as ''masculiniste''.{{sfn|Blais|Dupuis-Déri|2012|pp=22–23}} Bethany M. Coston and [[Michael Kimmel]] identified the [[mythopoetic men's movement]] as masculinist.<ref name="CostonKimmel"/>
+The political scientist Georgia Duerst-Lahti distinguishes between ''masculism'', which expresses the ethos of the early gender-egalitarian [[men's movement]], and ''masculinism'', which refers to the ideology of [[patriarchy]].<ref>{{citation | last = Duerst-Lahti | first = Georgia | contribution = Gender Ideology: masculinism and femininalism |pages=159&ndash;192 |editor1-last=Goertz |editor1-first=Gary |editor2-last=Mazur |editor2-first=Amy G. |title=Politics, gender, and concepts: theory and methodology |year=2008 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521723428}}</ref><ref name="Dupuis-Déri2009">{{cite journal|last1=Dupuis-Déri|first1=Francis|title=Le 'masculinisme': une histoire politique du mot (en Anglais et en Français)| trans-title = 'Masculinism': a political history of the term (in English and French) |journal=Recherches Féministes |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=97&ndash;123 |date=2009 |doi=10.7202/039213ar | ref = harv }}</ref> Sociologists Melissa Blais and Francis Dupuis-Déri equate ''masculist'' and ''masculinist'', attributing the former to author [[Warren Farrell]]. The most common term, they argue, is the "men's movement"; they write that there is a growing consensus in the French-language media that the movement should be referred to as ''masculiniste''.{{sfn|Blais|Dupuis-Déri|2012|pp=22–23}} According to Bethany M. Coston and [[Michael Kimmel]], members of the [[mythopoetic men's movement]] identify as masculinist.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Coston |first1=Bethany M. |last2=Kimmel |first2=Michael |authorlink2=Michael Kimmel |title=White Men as the New Victims: Reverse Discrimination Cases and the Men's Rights Movement |journal=Nevada Law Journal |date=2013 |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=(368–385), 371 |url=https://scholars.law.unlv.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1465&context=nlj}}</ref>
 Nicholas Davidson, in ''The Failure of Feminism'',  calls ''masculism'' "virism": "To grasp the inherent inadequacy of feminism as a universal philosophy, it is helpful to consider its mirror image, a point of view that can be termed 'masculism', or with greater etymological precision, 'virism'." Arguing that this point of view was widespread in [[Ancient Greece]] and [[Ancient Rome]], he wrote: "Where the feminist perspective is that social ills are caused by the dominance of masculine values, the virist perspective is that they are caused by a decline of those values.&nbsp;..."<ref>{{cite book | last = Davidson | first = Nicholas | title = The Failure of Feminism |pages=274–275 | publisher = Prometheus Books | location = Buffalo, NY | year = 1988 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=pf8pAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA274 | isbn = 9780879754082 }}</ref> Christensen calls virism "an extreme brand of masculism and masculinism".<ref name=OCP/>