Regency of Algiers

This article is about Algeria 1516-1830. For other uses, see Algeria (disambiguation).

The Regency of Algiers دولة الجزائر (Arabic)
1516–1830
Top: Early Ottoman Algerian flag Bottom: Late Ottoman Algerian flag Coat of arms
Map of the Regency of Algiers (in light blue) and all Barbary Coast in 1824
Status	See Political status
Capital	Algiers
Official languages	Arabic
Common languages	Algerian Arabic Berber languages Ottoman Turkish Sabir (used in trade)
Religion	Official, and majority: Sunni Islam (Maliki and Hanafi) Minorities: Ibadi Islam Shia Islam Judaism Christianity
Demonym(s)	Algerian or Algerine
Government	1516-1518: Sultanate 1518-1659: Imperial Estate 1659-1830: Mlilitary Republic See Political status
Beylerbey, Pasha, Agha and Dey
• 1516-1518	Oruç Reis
• 1710-1718	Baba Ali Chaouch
• 1818-1830	Hussein Dey
History
• Established	1516
• Invasion of Algiers in 1830	1830
Population
• 1830	3,000,000—5,000,000
Preceded by Succeeded by Hafsid dynasty Kingdom of Tlemcen French Algeria Beylik of Oran Beylik of Constantine Beylik of Titteri
Today part of	Algeria

The Regency of Algiers (Arabic: دولة الجزائر, romanized: Dawlat al-Jaza'ir) was a state in North Africa lasting from 1516 to 1830, until it was conquered by the French. Situated between the regency of Tunis in the east, the Sultanate of Morocco (from 1553) in the west and Tuat as well as the country south of In Salah in the south (and the Spanish and Portuguese possessions of North Africa), the Regency originally extended its borders from La Calle in the east to Trara in the west and from Algiers to Biskra, and afterwards spread to the present eastern and western borders of Algeria.

It had various degrees of autonomy throughout its existence, in some cases reaching complete independence, recognized even by the Ottoman sultan. The country was initially governed by governors appointed by the Ottoman sultan (1518–1659), rulers appointed by the Odjak of Algiers (1659–1710), and then Deys elected by the Divan of Algiers from (1710-1830).

Toponymy

"Algeria" page in the Civitates Orbis Terrarium of 1575

The establishment of the current areas of the Maghreb goes back to the installation of the three regencies in the sixteenth century: Algiers, Tunis and Tripoli. Algiers becomes the capital of its State and it is this term which in the international acts will apply at the same time to the city and the country which it orders: الجزائر (El-Djazâ'ir). However the distinction is made in the spoken language between, on the one hand, El-Djazâ'ir which indicates the space which is neither the Extreme Maghreb, nor the regency of Tunis, and, on the other hand, the city commonly designated by the contraction دزاير (Dzayer) or in a more classic register الجزائر العاصمة (El-Djazâ'ir El 'âçima, Algiers the Capital).

This presence of the regency which extends over three centuries will shape the contours of what Arab geographers designate as جزيرة المغرب (Djazirat El Maghrib). This period sees the installation of a political and administrative organization which will participate in the establishment of the Algerian entity: وطن الجزائر (watan el djazâïr, country of Algiers) and the definition of borders with neighboring entities on the 'east and west.

In European languages, El Djazâïr will derive to give Algiers, Argel, Algiers, Algeria... In English a progressive distinction is made between Algiers, the city, and Algeria, the country whereas in French, Algiers designates both city and under the forms "Kingdom of Algiers" or "Republic of Algiers" the country. “Algerians” is attested in writing in French as early as 1613 and its uses have been constant since that date. In the lexicology of the time, Algerian is Algerine, which refers to the political entity that was the future Algeria. A French document from 1751 describes “patriots or Algerians properly so called” and adds that “the King does not complain of the Algerian nation but only of the Dey as an offender of the treaties”. The terms "Algerian patriots" and "Algerian nation" are to be taken in their use of the 18th century. The expression “Algerian patriots” designates the inhabitants of the country (indigenous). The term "Algerian nation" refers to all the inhabitants of the country that the French report of the time wanted to differentiate from the leaders of Turkish origin, however the Spanish King Charles IV of Spain refers to the Dey of Algiers as a representative of the "Algerian nation" in the peace treaty of 1791.

History

The Central Maghreb in the early 16th century

Conquest of Oran, by Francisco Jover y Casanova.

After the fall of Emirate of Granada in 1492, Spain was significantly strengthened economically and militarily. This historical context contributed to a gradual rise in the growth of Spain and Portugal as two rising powers that completed the construction of their entities, and benefited from the geographical discoveries in the continent of America and the “Cape of Good Hope” to shift to the implementation of expansionary imperial projects aimed at controlling the ports in the countries of the Maghreb to secure and repair ships heading towards India. And planning to make them primary stations for incursion into the depths of Africa. And through their opening of sea routes in the Atlantic Ocean, the Portuguese were able to reach directly to the coasts of West Africa and benefit directly from the gold trade, which reduced the importance of the desert trade routes that linked the Maghreb and Europe.

The Spanish imperial project took shape by dominating the cities of the Maghreb, many of which were stations for desert trade caravans coming from western Sudan, from Tripoli and Tunis in the east to Ceuta and Melilla in the west, passing through Bejaia, Algiers, Oran and Tlemcen, tightening control over the resources of this trade and its two main commodities, gold and slaves , which later became important resources for the Spanish treasury. In addition, controlling the two shores of the Mediterranean would give the Spanish Empire, which included present-day Italy, the ability to control and monopolize maritime trade between the western and eastern Mediterranean, and control especially the trade resources in Naples and wheat in Sicily.

These conditions led to post-Almohad Maghreb with its three states, and in the heart of it the central Maghreb or present-day Algeria, in a major economic crisis, characterized by economic stagnation, a decline in trade resources and the deterioration of crafts in its two intermediate historical capitals, Bejaia and Tlemcen, due to its loss of the function of the commercial mediator through which Commercial exchanges took place between Europe and Africa for various commodities, especially gold. The country entered a state of political fragmentation and weak centralization of the state and its system because the Iberian monopoly of trade in the Mediterranean affected revenues from tax collection, and the role of the merchant class associated with the state, which had a great influence on its stability And its continuity in the central Maghreb throughout the Middle Ages.

The three countries of the Maghreb became more likely to fall as a ripe fruit at the first invasion coming from the northern bank of the Mediterranean, the first decade of the sixteenth century had hardly passed until the Spanish imperial project entered into force, the Moroccan coasts fell under Spanish hegemony. Melilla in 1497 and the Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera in 1508 followed the fate of Ceuta in the far north of Morocco and is still occupied to this day, the cities of Mers El Kébir in 1505 and Oran, which represented, effectively, the most important sea port directly linked to Tlemcen, the capital of Zayyanid Kingdom at the time, fell in 1509, while Bejaia in eastern Algeria and Tripoli in Libya were conquered in 1510, other coastal cities, such as Algiers, Tunis, and others, chose to submit to Spanish sovereignty through humiliating agreements.

Establishment

Oruç Reis, Sultan of Algiers

The Barbarossa Brothers arrival in 1512

Beginning in 1512, the Turkish privateer brothers Oruç and Hayreddin—both known to Europeans as Barbarossa, or "Red Beard"—were operating successfully off Tunisia under the Hafsids, the star of the Turkish brothers began to penetrate the horizons, and people began to hear about their victories against the Spanish naval vessels at sea and on the shores of Andalusia itself. Therefore, scholars and notables of Bejaia contacted them along with the Hafsid Emir of Constantine, Abu Bakr, in the same year, and cried out to them for help in hope to remove the Spaniards from Bejaia. But they did not meet success because of the strong fortifications of the Spaniards and the cooperation of the princes of the castle of Bani Abbas with the Spaniards. Oruç was wounded while trying to storm the city, so the supervisors of his treatment had to cut off his arm after it eluded them to treat it.

The disappointment in Bejaia affected Oruç, and he realized that the concentration of his troops in the vally of La goulette distanced them from the battlefield and did not help them to outperform the Spaniards. Therefore, they decided to search for a new position that would be close to Bejaia, and they found that Jijel was the best place for them to station and prepare for a new attack. The city of Jijel was occupied by the Genoese since 1260 and acted as a trading center between Africa and Italy, then it was attacked by Andrea Doria, who was in the service of the King of France in 1513, then opportunity came for Oruç when he reveived requests of help from of its inhabitants, so he took Jijel in 1514 and moved his center to it from La Goulette and became close to Bejaia. After settling in the city of Jijel, Oruç and his brothers took care of the persecuted Muslims in Andalusia, so they began frequenting their fleets on the shores of Andalusia and were transported to North Africa. In view of the success achieved by Oruç in Jijel, its inhabitants pledged allegiance to him as their prince, and the tribal elders and the Emir of Mount Kuku Ahmed bin al-Qadi urged him to attack the Spaniards in Bejaia, so he joined a campaign against them in 1514 with a land army and besieged it for nearly three months to no avail, he then had to lift the siege, and repeated the attempt in The spring of the following year with a large force, but the war ammunition ran out and the Hafsid Emir of Tunis refused to provide him with ammunition, forcing him to withdraw after capturing several hundred Spanish prisoners.

The capture of Algiers in 1516

Old Algiers, 17th century

The castle and the military fort built by the Spaniards on the rocks facing the city of Algiers in 1510 turned into a den of spies and sabotage from which the Spaniards always launched raids on the city, which made the inhabitants live in a constant state of alert. As a result, a delegation of the city's residents went to Jijel in 1516 and complained to Oruç about the distress and danger they were constantly facing in their city, and he and his brother were preparing for a fatal blow against the Spaniards in Bejaia. So he bypassed Bejaia and decided to help the inhabitants of the city of Algiers, Oruç went out at the head of a land force, at the head of 5,000 Kabyles, 1,500 Turks, followed by 800 arquebusiers, while Khair al-Din led a naval fleet of 16 galliots in the same direction and they met together in the city of Algiers where the population hailed them as heroes and they immediately began to bomb the Spanish fort with their cannons, meanwhile, Oruç went to Cherchell, which was subject to another Turkish captain named Qara Hassan, who was cooperating with some Andalusian immigrants, Oruç eliminated him, then took control of the city before returning to the city of Algiers, Oruç's help was sought to dislodge the Spaniards from their commanding position in the island, and although it was popular clamour which led to his intervention, the ruler of Algiers at that time "Salem al-Tumi" concurred in it. But Oruç did not possess the means to recover the Peñon immediately, and as his presence tended to rob al-Thumi of his power, the latter sought Spanish help to drive him out, So Oruç used force to bring the Algerine leaders to accept his authority and he arrested Salem al-Toumi and assassinated him in his house, and it was said in the bathroom on a Friday, then he proclaimed himself "Sultan of Algiers", while his banners in green, yellow, and red were raised in the forts of the city. The Spaniards considered the settling of Oruç and his two brothers in the city of Algiers a severe threat to them and their future, not only in this city, but in all of North Africa, and therefore they resolved to resist them, destroy their authority and expel them, so they allied with the Emir of Ténès subject to them and wooed the followers of Salem al-Toumi and some of the leaders of the neighboring tribes of the city through their agents and spies, then They sent a great campaign from Oran Led by its Spanish governor (Diego de Vera), it arrived in Algiers in late September 1516 and landed near Bab al-Oued. Oruç left them until they landed. Then he began to fight them to deplete their strength and energy, and he took advantage of their retreat and the emergence of a north wind, so he crawled with his forces against them, drowning many of them, killing some, and capturing others. It was a total defeat for the Spaniards, and a great victory for Oruç and his brothers and for the residents and its surroundings who did not hide their joy, which prompted the residents of Blida, Miliana, Médéa, Dellys and Kabylia to pledge allegiance to Oruç and declare submission and obedience to him, so his influence expanded further as a result.

Campaign of Tlemcen and the death of Oruç in 1518

Inside palace El Mechouar, Tlemcen

Since the Prince of Ténès was a subject of the Spaniards and cooperated actively with them, Oruç decided to take revenge on him and subjugate his city, so he went to Ténès at the head of large force and stormed it in June 1517 before killing the Prince and expelling the Spaniards stationed there, then he divided his new kingdom into two parts. an eastern part based at Dellys ruled by his brother Khair al-Din, and a western part centered on the city of Algiers ruled by himself. And while Oruç was in Ténès organizing its affairs, a delegation from the city of Tlemcen came to him to complain about the bad conditions of their country and the threat of the Spaniards to occupy their city because of the differences between the princes of the Zayyanids over the throne. Abu Ahmed III seized the throne in Tlemcen by force after he expelled his nephew, Abu Zian III, and put him in prison. Oruç met the wish of the delegation with approval and appointed his brother Khair al-Din as a ruler over the city of Algiers and its surroundings. He then headed to Tlemcen, and passed the Bani Rashid castle near a camp, where he placed a large Turkish garrison under the command of his brother Isaac to protect his back. Oruç along with his troops, entered the city, removed Abu Zayan from prison, and seated him on his throne again. But this Sultan soon conspired against Oruç and tried to assassinate him or expel him from the country, which prompted Oruç to arrest and assassinate him. As for Abu Hamo III, he went to Oran to ask for help from his old enemies, the Spaniards. Thus, the Spaniards and Abu Hammou cooperated with some of the allies in the country and launched a campaign against the Bani Rashid castle, occupied it and expelled its owner, Isaac the brother of Oruç, then killed him on the way in late January 1518, and continued marching to Tlemcen before they imposed a severe siege on it. Oruç was forced to sit in the counsel for several days to avoid a hostile populace which opened the gates for the Spanish troops. Oruç left Tlemcen at night in the direction of Bani Yazanasin near the sea coast, but the Spaniards were aware of his exit, they followed him, and killed him along with this turkish companions between Al-Maleh (Riosalado) and the corner of Sidi Musa in the same year. Then they sent his head to Spain, where it was paraded in most of its cities and other cities in Europe. They also sent his robes, which he was wearing, to the Church of St. Jerome in Cordoba, where they took it as a badge for them.

Algiers joins the Ottoman Empire in 1519

Hayreddin Barbarossa, first Beylerbey of Algiers

Kheireddine Barberousse is proclaimed “Sultan of Algiers”; between the end of October and the beginning of November 1519, an assembly made up of Algerine notables and Ulemas instructed a delegation to submit to the Ottoman Sultan Selim I a proposal for the attachment of Algiers to the Ottoman Empire. Indeed, at the Following of the disastruous attempt of the Spanish Empire to take Algiers in 1519, where Hayreddin Barbarossa successfully routed the Spanish-Italian attack led by Hugo de Moncada, resulting in shipwreck and the capture of 3,036 soldiers who were later all massacred, Hayreddin Barbarossa became aware of the need to rely on Ottoman aid. He also faces difficulty internally because of the reversal of the alliance of the kingdom of Kuku which joined forces with the Hafsids to inflict a severe defeat on Hayreddin Barbarossa in the Isser wadi in 1519 as well as the heavy defeat against the Zayyanid and the Spaniards in the West years prior. The loss of his various supports on the internal level led to the need for "external" support to maintain his possessions around Algiers. The delegation is responsible for making the strategic importance of Algiers in Western Mediterranean understood to the Ottoman Sultan. The proposal was not initially welcomed with enthusiasm by Constantinople, which found it difficult to integrate a territory so distant and so close to Spain into its sphere of influence. The idea was even considered perilous and would only be definitively accepted under Suleiman in 1521. Hayreddin Barbarossa was then named beylerbey (equivalent of Emir of emirs). The important role of the regency fleet in the Ottoman maritime campaigns and this voluntary membership gave a particular character to the relations between Algiers and Constantinople. The regency is considered not as a simple province but as a “Imperial Estate”. This state was very important in the eyes of the Turks, because it was the spearhead of Ottoman power in the western Mediterranean.

The Revolt of Ahmed Belkadi and the conequest of the Peñón of Algiers

After the defeat at Isser against the joined KuKu-Hafsid forces then the capture of Algiers in 1520. the conquest of the Kabyles of Koukou opens a period of reign of the Sultan of Kuku Belkadi over Algiers for five to seven years (1520-1525/1527). Qara Hasan, former Agha of Hayreddin, concludes an agreement with Belkadi, settles in Cherchell and reigns over the western province: the coast from Tipaza to Cherchell. This period marked the toponymy of Algiers where a mountain is called Djebel Koukou. Hayreddin will only return to Algeria in 1521 by landing at Jijel from where he puts himself in correspondence with the new principality of Kalaa des Beni Abbès, a rival of Koukou. Kheirredine continued his progress in the East with Abdelaziz Amokrane: he took Collo in 1521, Annaba and Constantine in 1523; then with the support of the Beni Abbès, crosses their stronghold of the Babors and the Soummam. The Djurdjura is crossed without incident, but at Iflissen they have to face a detachment of Belkadi which is defeated. Belkadi then withdrew to Tizi Naït Aicha (Thénia) to block the main access roads to Algiers. Kheirredine succeeded by a detour to enter the Mitidja plain. Before the final battle, Belkadi was killed by one of his soldiers. The debacle caused by the assassination opens the way to Algiers where the population which complained about the government of Belkadi opens the doors to Hayreddin around 1525 or 1527. Hayreddin restores the Odjack of the Janissaries, takes the road to Cherchell and defeats Qara Hassan. He also contacted the Zayyanid sultan Moulay Abdallah to tell him that he intended to collect the tribute due as a vassal of Algiers.

Hayreddin Barbarossa had finally succeeded in re-establishing his authority in Algiers, Mitidja, in Cherchell and in Ténès. But Algiers was still threatened by the Spaniards installed at the Peñon, from where they controlled the movements of the port. This "thorn in the back" of the city had to be removed at all costs. Hayreddin summoned the Spanish commander of the position,Don Martin de Vargas, to surrender with his garrison of two hundred soldiers, with this ultimatum rejected, he attacked and bombarded the Peñon which was completely destroyed on May 27, 1529. With the Materials salvaged, the island was attached to the land, hence the "Kheir ad Dine jetty" which today connects the Admiralty to the land. This was the starting point for the development of the port of El-Djazair, which will be continued by the elevation of the enclosure and the construction of the main bordj on the north and south islets. The capture of the Peñon had a huge impact in Europe and Africa. The Ottomans were firmly established in Algiers; their power eclipsed that of the Spaniards, both in the Mediterranean and in Europe, where they threatened Austria and Hungary. A new destiny was about to open up in the central Maghreb, a new state to be founded there. Called in 1533 by the Sultan to exercise the function of captan pasha, Hayreddin left in Algiers as his successor Hassan Agha. The government then organized itself empirically with the successors of Oruç and Hayreddin Barbarossa.

Last speech of Hayreddin Barbarossa to the Algerians... From an Arabic manuscript quoted by Venture de Paradis, Algiers in the xvi century, Algiers 1898.

“Now that there is nothing left to do for your happiness and the safety of the city, I have resolved to leave you; other works, other combats call me; I am leaving places where Christians will no longer dare to reappear and I am going to seek, under the glorious and invincible banners of the sultan, new opportunities to fight the infidels. When I came among you, you were weak, without money, without guns, without warriors; I leave you today a troop of brave men who will know how to make the Algerian name respected, and ships, munitions of war to attempt new enterprises. Your ramparts are guarded by more than four hundred pieces of cannon, which your enemies themselves brought to you and which Allah caused to fall into your hands at the moment when they were about to crush you. So here I am at peace with your fate: the time when I can leave you has finally come. Choose among you the one whom you will believe the most worthy to command and swear to obey him faithfully!”. To the notables and the mufti who proposed to him, on behalf of the population, to stay in El-Djazair to continue his work, Kheir ad Dine declared: “In such a situation I see only one course to take: Algiers (the victorious city) must be put under the protection of Allah; and after him, under that of my sovereign and master, the powerful and redoubtable Emperor of the Ottomans. Victory directs his steps everywhere, and if he deigns to receive us as subjects, he will provide us with relief in money, men and munitions of war, which will allow us to brave and defeat our enemies”.

the city, the port and the mole of Algiers in 1690

Ottoman Algeria in 1560.

In 1551 Hasan Pasha, the son of Hayreddin defeated the Spanish-Moroccan armies during a campaign to recapture Tlemcen, thus cementing Ottoman control in western and central Algeria.

After that, the conquest of Algeria sped up. In 1552 Salah Rais, with the help of some Kabyle kingdoms, conquered Touggourt, and established a foothold in the Sahara.

In the 1560s eastern Algeria was centralized, and the power struggle which had been present ever since the Emirate of Béjaïa collapsed came to an end.

During the 16th, 17th, and early 18th century, the Kabyle Kingdoms of Kuku and Ait Abbas managed to maintain their independence repelling Ottoman attacks several times, notably in the First Battle of Kalaa of the Beni Abbes. This was mainly thanks to their ideal position deep inside the Kabylia Mountains and their great organisation, and the fact that unlike in the West and East where collapsing kingdoms such as Tlemcen or Béjaïa were present, Kabylia had two new and energetic emirates.

Base in the war against Spain

Hayreddin Barbarossa established the military basis of the regency. The Ottomans provided a supporting garrison of 2,000 Turkish troops with artillery. He left Hasan Agha in command as his deputy when he had to leave for Constantinople in 1533. The son of Barbarossa, Hasan Pashan was in 1544 when his father retired, the first governor of the Regency to be directly appointed by the Ottoman Empire. He took the title of beylerbey. Algiers became a base in the war against Spain, and also in the Ottoman conflicts with Morocco.

Beylerbeys continued to be nominated for unlimited tenures until 1587. After Spain had sent an embassy to Constantinople in 1578 to negotiate a truce, leading to a formal peace in August 1580, the Regency of Algiers was a formal Ottoman territory, rather than just a military base in the war against Spain. At this time, the Ottoman Empire set up a regular Ottoman administration in Algiers and its dependencies, headed by Pashas, with 3-year terms to help considate Ottoman power in the Maghreb.

Mediterranean privateers

Purchase of Christian slaves by French friars (Religieux de la Mercy de France) in Algiers in 1662

Despite the end of formal hostilities with Spain in 1580, attacks on Christian and especially Catholic shipping, with slavery for the captured, became prevalent in Algiers and were actually the main industry and source of revenues of the Regency.

In the early 17th century, Algiers also became, along with other North African ports such as Tunis, one of the bases for Anglo-Turkish piracy. There were as many as 8,000 renegades in the city in 1634. (Renegades were former Christians, sometimes fleeing the law, who voluntarily moved to Muslim territory and converted to Islam.) Hayreddin Barbarossa is credited with tearing down the Peñón of Algiers and using the stone to build the inner harbor.

A contemporary letter states:

"The infinity of goods, merchandise jewels and treasure taken by our English pirates daily from Christians and carried to Algire and Tunis to the great enriching of Mores and Turks and impoverishing of Christians"

— Contemporary letter sent from Portugal to England.

Privateers and slavery of Christians originating from Algiers were a major problem throughout the centuries, leading to regular punitive expeditions by European powers. Spain (1567, 1775, 1783), Denmark (1770), France (1661, 1665, 1682, 1683, 1688), England (1622, 1655, 1672), all led naval bombardments against Algiers. Abraham Duquesne fought the Barbary pirates in 1681 and bombarded Algiers between 1682 and 1683, to help Christian captives.

Franco-Algerian war (1681-1689)

German engraving of Mezzomorto Hussein Pacha, 1687

Portrait of Abraham Duquesne by Antoine Graincourt

Faced with the desires and threats from European countries, Algiers reacted by launching its fleet into the corso. The deys had to face the claims of European countries. They negotiated numerous treaties with them, often thereby asserting their autonomy in matters of foreign policy, without taking into account sovereignty of Istanbul. Very cleverly, they tried to deal with each country separately, negotiating with the French to better attack the English or the Dutch, and vice versa. For their part, the European countries endeavored to obtain advantages or economic privileges and favorable conditions for the release of their captives. They sometimes used negotiation, going so far as to supply arms to the deys, and sometimes they used intimidation like the bombardment of towns for example. The main relations were established and maintained with France: Louis XIV sought both to have the French flag respected in the Mediterranean, to preserve the economic advantages already obtained and to play the role of "Most Christian King"(Rex Christianissimus) against islamic powers, while seeing to the maintenance of the French alliance with the Sublime Porte. European countries tried to obtain commercial advantages from the dey Hadj Mohamed Trick (1671-1682). France tried to settle the question of the Bastion, the Spaniards of Oran tried to occupy Tlemcen and the English fleet threatened Algiers. The diwan did not yield to these intimidations: any concession was refused to the French, the Spaniards had to turn around and return to Oran in 1675, and the raïs dispersed the English ships which, in 1678, threatened the city of Algiers.

In 1677, following an explosion in Algiers and several attempts on his life, dey Mohammed Trick escaped to Tripoli leaving Algiers to Baba Hassan. Just one years into his rule he was already at war with one of the most powerful countries in Europe, the Kingdom of France. In 1682 France bombarded Algiers for the first time. The Bombardment was inconclusive, and the leader of the fleet Abraham Duquesne failed to secure the submission of Algiers. The next year, Algiers was bombarded again, this time liberating a few slaves. Before a peace treaty could be signed though, Baba Hassan was deposed and killed by a Rais called Mezzo Morto Hüseyin. Continuing the war against France, The bombardments resumed, killing many victims. Mezzomorto threatened, if the firing did not cease, to put the Christian captives at the mouths of the cannons, still the bombardments continued, So he carried out his threats. Despite this, the bombardments continued until October, but the defenders of Algiers held firm, and Duquesne had to return to Toulon. In 1684, Louis XIV sent Duquesne, then Dussault to find an agreement; he had written to the sultan, who dispatched a delegation to the French squadron. After almost a month of negotiations, a treaty was signed in April 1684 which provided for numerous provisions: freedom of trade between the two countries, liberation of slaves, respect of the free passage for naval vessels, free exercise of the Christian religion, establishment of lists of products that are negotiable between the two countries, and assurance given to the dey that his ambassador in Paris could ensure compliance with the treaty. But the agreement was not respected: French corsairs, encouraged by Marseille merchants, again attacked Algerian ships. The dey retaliated by arresting French nationals and even the consul, without however denouncing the treaty in 1686. The King of France supported the Marseillais and sent Marshal d'Estrées to Algiers with more than forty ships in June 1688. The bombardment lasted several days, a good part of the city was destroyed, yet the Algerian artillery sank several french ships. Hadj Hassan Mezzomorto killed more than forty Christians by cannon. The French responded by executing Muslim hostages on board. Resistance in Algiers forced Marshal d'Estrées to withdraw his fleet. The great sultan, at the request of the king of France, sent a new pasha to Algiers, but Mezzomorto did not let him disembark. In the end, however, the Janissaries revolted against Mezzomorto, whom they held responsible for the misfortunes of Algiers, forced him to flee. The pasha Hadj Chabane who replaced him (1688-1695) sent a plenipotentiary to Versailles: a peace treaty was finally signed in 1690.

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  The French fleet in front of Algiers in 1682.
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  Bombardment of Algiers by the squadron of Abraham Duquesne in 1682.
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  Alger que les Français bombardent en 1682. Dutch engraving from 1689.
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  Torment of the consul of Algiers, Jean Le Vacher, in retaliation for the bombardment of Algiers by Duquesne on July 26, 1683.
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  Liberation of Christian captives in 1683 after the bombardment of Duquesne:m

Danish–Algerian War

Main article: Danish–Algerian War

In the mid-1700s Dano-Norwegian trade in the Mediterranean expanded. In order to protect the lucrative business against piracy, Denmark–Norway had secured a peace deal with the states of Barbary Coast. It involved paying an annual tribute to the individual rulers and additionally to the States.

In 1766, Algiers had a new ruler, dey Baba Mohammed ben-Osman. He demanded that the annual payment made by Denmark-Norway should be increased, and he should receive new gifts. Denmark–Norway refused the demands. Shortly after, Algerian pirates hijacked three Dano-Norwegian ships and allowed the crew to be sold as slaves.

They threatened to bombard the Algerian capital if the Algerians did not agree to a new peace deal on Danish terms. Algiers was not intimidated by the fleet, the fleet was of 2 frigates, 2 bomb galiot and 4 ship of the line.

Algerian-Sharifian War

Main article: Algerian-Sharifian conflicts

In the west, the Algerian-Cherifian conflicts shaped the western border of Algeria.

There were numerous battles between the Regency of Algiers and the Sharifian Empires for example: the campaign of Tlemcen in 1551, the campaign of Tlemcen in 1557, the Battle of Moulouya and the Battle of Chelif. The independent Kabyle Kingdoms also had some involvement, the Kingdom of Beni Abbes participated in the campaign of Tlemcen in 1551 and the Kingdom of Kuku provided Zwawa troops for the capture of Fez in 1576 in which Abd al-Malik was installed as an Ottoman vassal ruler over the Saadi Dynasty. The Kingdom of Kuku also participated in the capture of Fez in 1554 in which Salih Rais defeated the Moroccan army and conquered Morocco up until Fez, adding these territories to the Ottoman crown and placing Ali Abu Hassun as the ruler and vassal to the Ottoman sultan. In 1792 the Regency of Algiers managed to take possession of the Moroccan Rif and Oujda, which they then abandoned in 1795 for unknown reasons.

War with Spain in the 18th century

The capture of Oran in 1708

Commemorative inscription for the construction of a store by order of Mustapha Bouchelaghem bey, preserved in the museum of Oran

The inhabitants of Oran and its surroundings were still crying out to the governors and leaders of Algiers and urging them to save them from the yoke of the Spaniards until the Dey Mohamed Bektash came to their aid with an army of 8500 regular soldiers and a number of volunteers that exceeded that of regular soldiers many times over. It was distinguished by the participation of students of institutes and Zawiyas, between 700 and 1000 students joined the conquering army. The battalions went out on board the ships, led by (Hassan Uzun), the son-in-law of the Dey in 2 June 1707. At the head of the army was the Bey "Bouchelaghem" Mustafa bin Youssef Al-Masrati, the ruler of Mazuna, and he was the first ruler to combine the military and civil authorities in his Beylik, and when the Algerian fleet reached the waters of Oran, it turned to the coast of Arzew, so it anchored there, and the tents were struck on the beach, and there were about 320 tents, and in each tent 25 soldiers, and they began to direct their cannons towards the enemy barracks there. Leading the defending side was Spanish generals "Melchor Avellaneda", despite the help and the garrison that joined him from Malta, he was defeated after the turks smashed the irrigation canal and demolished the dams, and they entered the fort of "Burj al-Ayoun" in which there were about 540 soldiers, in 10 December 1707. The Algerian army moved again after two weeks and layed siege to the fort of "Merjajou" which was conquered after three days, two months later the fort "Zahra" fell to the Algerians. The city of Oran was now open for Bouchelaghem bey's forces and the two towers defending it were overrun in 20 january 1708 after the 400 spanish soldiers defending them surrendered.The Algerian assault kept the pressure on the spaniards this time in Mers El Kebir which was the last bastion of the spanish forces in Algiers supported by few allied tribes, despite heavy fighting the Algerians captured the city and took 2000 captives, among them french officiers and maltese volonteers. This military success of the Algerians surprised the Spanish government but also the whole of the European states at that time, in the muslim world it was seen as a victory over Christianity. The city of Oran was repopulated with people from all over the Western Beylik with an influx, in particular, of craftsmen and traders. It opens a first period, from 1708 to 1732, where the city will be in the hands of the regency of Algiers before its recovery by the Spaniards in 1732.

Spnish reconquest of Oran in 1732

Don José Carrillo de Albornoz, Duke of Montemar, leader of the expedition against Oran

The Spanish fleet took off on June 15, 1732, heading for the Oran region, and reached it after ten days, the entire Spanish campaign was under the leadership of José Carrillo de Albornoz, 1st Duke of Montemar. The Bey, Sheikh Mustafa Bouchelaghem, the conqueror of Oran and its emir since the year 1707, was preparing to defend with the forces in his hands, and more than 20000 fighter gathered around him, among them about 2500 Janissaries, and Oran was armed with more than 138 cannons. The Spaniards chose to land in Ain al-Turk Square west of Oran on June 28, then sent a detachment to confront the Algerian battalions, after few engagements, the Algerines withdrew to the heights, where a group of allied forces was based.

As soon as the sun rose on the 30th of June, the Spanish army had joined hands in a massive battle with the Algerians, during which the Spanish commander who was leading this battle was killed. When the leadership of the Spaniards saw that the Algerian pressure had intensified, it ordered the entire army forward and it defeated the Algerian army, which occupied other positions on both sides of a deep ravine descending from the mountain, which is the corridor of the Spanish army. The Bey, Mustafa Bushlaghem, decided to withdraw from the city and evacuate it from its inhabitants and its defenders, as he saw that the means of defense in his hands could not at all enable him to confront this huge Spanish number, and what he had of equipment, and he sought to continue the resistance from behind the city until circumstances enable him to recover it. Thus, the Bey and the men of his administration went out, and the Spaniards entered the city on the eve of the first of July 1732.

The Dey, Baba Abdi Pasha, had quickly sent reinforcements from Algiers, amounting to two thousand men, under the leadership of his son, but he arrived after the city had been evacuated before the Spaniards, so the army joined the defense forces that The city was surrounded on all sides. As soon as the news of the fall of the city reached the city of Algiers, a wave of grief and worry gripped it, and the Day Abdi Pasha took refuge in his house, having reached a very old age, and refrained from eating out of grief and distress, until he passed away at the age of 88 year. The Algerians were stationed in the mountains encamped on the city, straitening the siege on it, the Spaniards could not move into the interior, and returned most of their forces to Spain, leaving the two cities with enough men to defend them, and the fierce battle continued for a period of about a year. The Algerians attacked the city, and the Bey, Mustafa Bushlaghem, at the head of his division, arrived at the gates, and clashed with the Spaniards in a fierce battle during which his son was killed. New attacks ensued On the 12th of December then on June 10 in 1733 without notable sucess from the Algerians. In 1734, Bouchlaghem attacked the center of El-Ayoun around Oran and reached the gates of the city, but he was unable to occupy it, thus, Oran and Mers-el-Kebir remained under a tight siege for more than fifty years.

Spanish–Algerian war (1775–1792)

Map of the Spanish attack on Algiers in 1775

In 1775, a Spanish Expedition intended to reduce the pirates of the Mediterranean was ordered by the Irish admiral Alejandro O'Reilly, but results in a heavy failure of the attackers, 8000 Spaniards were killed, the Algerians lost 300 soldiers. The Spanish forces departed Cartagena in 1775 and sailed towards Algiers. On the coast, near the city, O'Reilly ordered the Spanish forces to land on the shores and capture the city, while the Spanish and Tuscan warships would protect the landing craft as they landed on the shore. However, the landing was flawed from the start, as the area chosen by the Spanish for the landing was not the one the pilots of the landing craft sailed towards, with the new landing site being totally unsuitable for bringing ashore the heavy artillery meant to bombard the city walls of Algiers. Most of the guns became stuck in the wet sand resulting in their absence from the ensuing fight. Despite this, the Spanish forces assaulted Algerian forces, who proceeded to draw back to positions further inland. The Spanish chose to pursue, but walked into a carefully set trap and suffered massive casualties, losing a quarter of their total force compared with light casualties on the Algerian side. Forced to retreat back to their boats waiting offshore, the assault ended in a spectacular failure and the campaign proved to be a humiliating blow to the Spanish military reorganisation, notably due to a brilliant cavalry charge led by the western contingent commanded by Mohammed el Kebir bey. Overwhelmed, the Spaniards took advantage of the night to embark and abandoned 17 copper guns and equipment.

Map of Algiers' Bombardment of 1783 by Antonio Barceló.

From August 1 to August 9, 1783, the bombardment of Algiers took place by a Spanish squadron of twenty-five ships, this expedition ended in a Spanish failure against the defense of the city of Algiers. The Spanish squadron composed of 4 ships of the line and 6 frigates did not inflict significant damage to the city and had to withdraw.

The commander of this fleet and that of 1784 is the Spanish Admiral Antonio Barceló. A European league uniting the Spanish Empire, the Kingdom of Portugal, the Republic of Venice and the Order of Saint John of Jerusalem and composed of one hundred and thirty ships begins the bombardment of Algiers on July 12, 1784, this bombardment was a failure, and the Spanish squadron fell back against the defense of the city. The Dey Mohamed ben-Osman thus asked for an indemnity of 1,000,000 pesos to conclude a peace in 1785. This was followed by a first period of negotiation (1785-87) to achieve a lasting peace between Algiers and Madrid.

The Spanish expeditions having almost all experienced a catastrophic outcome, the Algerians use the term "Spagnolata" in Lingua franca to designate a poorly conceived military enterprise, executed without art and without energy.

In 1792, the Reconquest of Oran and Mers el-Kébir began. The city of Oran, then under Spanish domination, was a concern of the Spanish court. In the 18th century, the policy of popular resistance of the Algerians to the Spanish presence and the hostility of the Beylik of the West created a climate of permanent insecurity around Oran and Mers el-Kébir. The Spaniards swing between two imperatives: the preservation of their presidency and the maintenance of a fragile peace with Algiers.

Spain is torn between its desire not to give in to the threats of the Bey of Mascara and that of maintaining peace with Algiers. However, the military operations gradually turned to the advantage of the bey, and the will to stand up to the bey of Mascara gradually crumbled. The Spanish representative asked the dey for a truce while he consulted the Council of State in Madrid, in order to study a proposal for the transfer of the two cities. A truce of one month was granted in March 20, 1791. However certain guarantees requested by the Spaniards (concerning the corso and the demolition of the Spanish forts) are considered as an offense by Algiers which orders the resumption of hostilities to the bey in May 1791. Mohamed el Kebir needed artillery to remove the Spanish defences, so the dey of Algiers dispatches his mehalla as reinforcements.

The Spanish reinforcements flow in but they are clearly outplayed in the battle. The death of Mohamed Ben-Osman, and the election of Sidi Hassan, his first Secretary of State, as Dey once again gave Spain some respite. Under the reign of the latter, reputed to be a friend of Spain, negotiations then began which ended with Count Floridablanca. The Spaniards then undertooke to restore "freely and voluntarily" the two cities, the restrictions of access to the Algerian ports are also lifted for Spanish merchants and they retain the monopoly of trade in the two restored cities. The convention was signed in Algiers on September 12, and on December 12, 1791 in Madrid. On February 12, 1792, the Spanish soldiers evacuated the city.

Hassan Pasha decorates Mohamed el-Kebir with the feather badge, intended for those who have triumphed over the "infidels" and which none of the previous beys of the West had obtained. He attached Oran to his western beylik domain and made him bey of Oran (instead of the title of bey of Mascara).

This confrontation marks the end of the Spanish-Algerian wars.

Barbary Wars

The Bombardment of Algiers in 1816, by Martinus Schouman

During the early 19th century, Algiers again resorted to widespread piracy against shipping from Europe and the young United States of America, mainly due to internal fiscal difficulties, and the damage caused by the Napoleonic Wars. This in turn led to the First Barbary War and Second Barbary War, which culminated in August 1816 when Lord Exmouth executed a naval bombardment of Algiers, the biggest, and most successful one. The Barbary Wars resulted in a major victory for the American, British, and Dutch Navy.

French invasion

Main article: Invasion of Algiers in 1830

During the Napoleonic Wars, the Regency of Algiers had greatly benefited from trade in the Mediterranean, and of the massive imports of food by France, largely bought on credit by France. In 1827, Hussein Dey, Algeria's ruler, demanded that the restored Kingdom of France pay a 31-year-old debt contracted in 1799 by purchasing supplies to feed the soldiers of the Napoleonic Campaign in Egypt.

The French consul Pierre Deval refused to give answers satisfactory to the dey, and in an outburst of anger, Hussein Dey hit the consul with his fan. King Charles X used this as an excuse to break diplomatic relations and to start a full-scale invasion of the Algerian Regency on 14 June 1830: Algiers capitulated to the French on 5 July 1830 and Hussein Dey went into exile to Naples. The Regency was subsequently dismantled and its territory directly annexed to the Kingdom of France.

Charles X was overthrown a few weeks later by the July Revolution; however, the new monarch Louis Philippe I chose to continue the efforts of colonization of Algeria.

Political status

Complete affiliation: The Beylerbey period (1518-1587)

Uluç Ali Pasha(Occhiali), beylerbey of Algiers

In between 1518 and 1659, the rulers of the Regency of Algiers were chosen by the Ottoman sultan. During the first few decades, Algiers was completely aligned with the Ottoman Empire since the full authority of the country and the management of its affairs are in the hands of the beylerbey(Prince of princes in turkish) whom is directly linked to Istanbul. These beylerbeys are from the sect of "Riyas al-Bahr" or the Corsairs, most of whom were companions of Hayreddin Barbarossa himself, and it was the Ottoman Sultan who appointed them over whomever the corsairs suggested by virtue of Algeria’s subordination to the Ottoman Empire, and often one of them remains in power for several years due to their ability to rule the country. Also, a number of them were transferred to Constantinople to assume the position of Captain Pasha or the Ministry of the Navy because of their competence in commanding the naval fleets, such as Hayreddin Barbarossa, his son Hassan Pasha, and Uluj Ali Pasha. In this period, Algiers achieved its regional and political unity because the beylerbeys were interested in extending their influence and control to all its sides in the east, west and south, as they eliminated all the emirates and local sultanates such as the Zayyanid state in Tlemcen and the Hafsid emirates in the castle of Bani Abbas, Constantine, Annaba, and subjugated the emirate of Mount Kuku in Kabylia. Saleh Rais is considered the hero for achieving this unity. Algiers later gained a certain level of autonomy in 1567 when Muhammad I Pasha unified the corsairs and the janissaries into a single military institution as Algiers was the westernmost province of the Ottoman Empire, and administering it directly would have been problematic. However, by end of the 16th century, the situation has changed because of:

-The weakness and deterioration of the Ottoman fleet after the defeat in the battle of "Lepanto" in 1571

-The preoccupation of the Ottoman Empire with the war against the Safavids.

-The Spanish threat to Algiers diminished due to Spain's preoccupation with the war with France, the Netherlands and England.

The Ottoman Empire had to change the system of government in Algiers, Tunis and Tripoli, fearing the independence of the rulers of Algiers and the establishment of an independent north African Islamic state, and for these considerations, in the year 1587, it abolished the belerbeyat system and established in its place the system of pashas, as it divided the maghreb countries in its dominion into three separate regencies.

Tension with Ottoman empire: The Pasha period (1587-1659)

The rule of the pashas lasted nearly 72 years, during which twenty-seven pashas successively ruled, some of whom returned to power four times. This period was known for a lot of turmoil, chaos and political instability, the conflict intensified between the corsairs and the Odjak, the latter was looking forward to rule by various means, so Pasha Khidr tried to get rid of the Odjak with the help of the population who sufferred from its tyranny and its control of money, so people revolted against it in the city of Algiers, and the anger spread to neighboring towns, but their attempt failed. Despite the introduction of the Pasha system, the Diwan of the Odjak began to strengthen and expand its influence and control, and worked to get rid of the Ottoman hegemony, as his efforts converged with the efforts of the Pashas to materialize this trend because of their need for loyalty, so their concern was to collect the largest amount of money while waiting for the end of their three years term in office, and as long as this was the main goal of the pasha, governance became a secondary issue, and little by little the actual rule was transferred to the Janissary army divisions. With this behavior followed by the pashas in Algiers, they lost all influence and respect, and these pashas were constantly lost between the demands of the corsairs and the Odjak, or with the population, so they tried not to anger any of the parties because they feared for their lives and for their treasures, which they were working to multiply as quickly as possible. At this stage, aversion with the Sublime Porte increased in Algiers, and this was evident when Pasha Khidr encouraged the corsairs to attack the French commercial center(Bastion de France) in the coast of El-Kala and Annaba and enslave the families of the people in it, and when the Ottoman Empire intervened and demanded the rebuilding of Bastion de France and the release of the French captives, the diwan strongly opposed the orders of the Sultan, thus the prestige of the Ottoman sultan in Algiers weakened, and the crisis was at its peak and intensified even more when Ibrahim Pasha took a deduction from the money that the sultan sent to the corsairs to motivate them to join the Ottoman fleet. This caused a major riot in Algiers that reached the point of kidnapping the Pasha and threatening him with death, and ended up being put in prison.

De facto independent Military Republic of Algiers (1659-1830)

The Janissary Revolution: the Agha regime in 1659

After being at first a unit of the Ottoman army, the Odjak of Algiers emerged after 1659 as a self-perpetuating ruling group. In this year the Agha(commander-in-chief) of the Janissaries stationed in Algiers usurped supreme authority there under the excuse that the Pashas sent from Istanbul had been mostly corrupt and their conduct of government hampered the regency's dealings with European countries. The janissaries effectively eliminated the authority of the Pasha, whose position became only ceremonial, and they agreed to assign the executive authority to the Agha, provided that the period of his rule should not exceed two months only, so that another Agha would come after him, then they made the legislative power in the hands of the Diwan Council and forced the Sultan to accept this under duress, but he stipulated that the Diwan pay the salaries of the Turkish soldiers. Thus began the era of the Aghas. During this period a form of dual leadership was in place, The Pasha continued to keep both his honorary titles and his private income; but his intervention in the government had to be limited to a sort of control most often fictitious; his presence in the diwan or council of government was no longer required except on great occasions, and he scarcely appeared there except to sanction, by his approval, measures to which, in fact, he remained almost completely foreign.

The Corsair coup: the Deys rise to power in 1671

Mohammed Trik, first dey of Algiers

The government of the regency underwent another change in 1671 when the destruction of seven of the best Algerine ships by a British squadron commanded by Sir Edward Spragge occasioned a rebellion of the Corsairs and the assassination of Agha Ali (1664–71), the last of four Janissary chiefs to rule the country since 1659, all of whom were massacred. In place of the agha of the Janissaries the Corsairs chose as ruler of the regency an officer to whom they gave the title of 'Dey' (maternal uncle), which was used in Tunisia since the rebellion of the Ottoman troops there in 1591 for the officers chosen by them to rule the country, thus, after 1671, the Deys became the main leaders of the country. Although by 1695 the dey came to be elected by the militia, the rebellion of the Corsairs in 1671 meant that the Agha was no longer ex officio the ruler of the country. It also meant that Ottoman Algeria became a military republic, ruled in the name of the Ottoman sultan by officers chosen by and in the interest of the Odjak. Pashas continued to be sent from Istanbul after 1659 and they retained nominal authority as governors of Algiers.

The Deys-Pashas in the 18th century (1710-1830)

Djenina Palace in Algiers, former residence of the Deys

From 1710, the Deys themselves assumed the title of Pasha and no longer accepted a representative of the sultan at their side, They also imposed their authority on the rais and the janissaries. The territorial unity of Algeria was acheived, its limits to the West and East are definitively fixed with the resumption of Oran and Mers el Kebir from the Spanish and the establishment of the borders with Morocco and with Tunisia. Endowed with a well-defined territory and a well-organized government, both at the central and provincial levels, the Algerian State constituted during this period a military Republic practically independent of the Sublime Porte and administered according to the primacy of the Algerian interests. The dey Baba Ali Chaouch (1710-1718) established a new diwan, from which he eliminated all the turbulent janissaries. This council took a fundamental decision: Algiers would no longer receive a pasha sent by Istanbul, the dey himself was to be considered as a pasha, a measure which consolidated the authority of Algiers without breaking ties with the Sublime Porte. thus confirming their independence vis-à-vis the Sublime Porte. The sultan was obliged to ratify the decision of the diwan. The deys would henceforth govern without being constrained by Istanbul's own policies. Thus, in 1719, the Dutch having complained to the sultan about the attacks of the raïs of Algiers, he delegated a capidji to the dey Mohamed Ben Hassen (1718-1724) but he obtained nothing: the dey undertook to sign a treaty with the Dutch, on condition that the sultan paid the pay of the militia of Algiers . Similarly in 1725, the dey Kurd Abdi (1724-1732) refused to respect the agreements relating to the race made between the sultan and the European countries. In 1730 again, the dey dismissed the delegates of the Sublime Porte who had come to present him with a new pasha. Algiers thus displayed its sovereignty in matters of foreign policy. When an Ottoman envoy claimed that the Ottoman Padishah was the king of Algiers, Dey Kurd Abdi shouted at the envoy "King of Algiers? King of Algiers? If he is the King of Algiers then who am I?".. The deys reinforced their authority over the corsairs and the janissaries. The former did not approve of the provisions which restricted racing, their source of income; the latter did not admit military defeats and delays in the payment of their pay. But the deys ended up triumphing over their revolts. The raïs lost the importance they had had in the 17th century, when the race prospered. European reactions, new treaties guaranteeing the safety of navigation and the slowdown in shipbuilding considerably reduced its activity. The rais were obviously very unhappy with this situation, but they no longer had the strength to oppose the government. Their revolt of 1729 failed. They had risen up against the Dey Mohamed ben Hassan whom they accused of favoring the Janissaries to their detriment and killed him; but the new dey, Kurd Abdi (1724-1732), quickly restored order and severely punished the conspirators. The deys succeeded in establishing their authority on the rais and the janissaries; the former remained attached to the external prestige of the kingdom, the latter to the payment of their wages. As revenue from the corso diminished, recourse was had to tax increases, hence the discontent of the tribes and their revolts.

The Janissary unrests

Dey Ali Khoja, surrounded by the severed heads of vanquished enemies after the bombardment of 1816

The Janissaries were more turbulent than the corsairs, In 1713, they wanted to assassinate the dey Ali Chaouch, but the plotters were arrested and strangled. Nearly one thousand seven hundred Janissaries perished. In 1728, the dey Kurd Abdi succeeded in breaking another plot hatched by the Agha and the militia. In 1754, following internal difficulties and a big explosion of powder magazine in Algiers and an epidemic of plague, seven Arnauts (Albanians) of the militia planned to kill the dey Baba Mohamed Torto and to install in his place their chief. Venture de Paradis tells that they succeeded in killing the dey and the khaznadji and in raising the leader of their conspiracy to the throne. But the new dey was killed by the great cook of the Djenina Palace, aided by slaves who had been supplied with arms. The seven conspirators were all eliminated. Ali Baba Bousbaa, Agha commander of the cavalry, was appointed dey and reigned for ten years. In 1805, the Janissaries, following a popular riot, attacked the Jews. Busnach and Bacri's company had large stocks of wheat as the famine raged. A Janissary killed Busnach: this was the signal for the attack against the Jews. Dey Mustapha Pasha (1798-1805) exiled Jewish families and seized their property. These measures being judged insufficient, the janissaries seized the dey and put him to death. In 1808, a new revolt: the Janissaries were dissatisfied with the evolution of Tunisian affairs, Napoleonic demands, the intention of the Dey to punish the survivors, the release of Italian captives and the installation of the Dey's wife in the Djenina. Dey Ahmed was killed, and replaced by Ali al Ghassal. The latter was himself strangled following a new riot. The diwan was thereafter completely eclipsed by the authority of the deys under Hadj Ali dey. In 1817, the Janissaries accused the Dey Omar Pasha of treason and cowardice, for having agreed, under pressure from the local population and the Coulouglis and even from some of them, to negotiate with Lord Exmouth. He was seized and killed, and replaced by Ali Khodja (1817-1818). Suddenly, the new dey saw fit to leave the Djenina for the Kasbah above the city and to settle there under the protection of Koulouglis and Kabyle soldiers. With this support, he imposed himself on the Janissaries, sent the most turbulent on an expedition to Kabylia or encouraged their return to Turkey. There was however a new revolt, which was put down by the new guard of the dey. The Janissaries returning from Kabylia were attacked in their barracks, and had to give up avenging theirs. The militia finally found itself reduced to obedience.

Relations with Ottoman empire

In some cases Algiers participated in the Ottoman Empire's wars, such as the Russo-Turkish War of 1787-1792. However, this was not common, The Ottomans having no influence in Algiers, and Algiers often ignored orders from the Ottoman sultan, such as in 1784. Similarly, in 1798, Algiers sold wheat, through two Jewish traders, to the French forces campaigning in Egypt against the Ottomans.

In some cases, Algiers was declared to be a country rebelling against the holy law of Islam by the Ottoman Caliph. This usually meant a declaration of war by the Ottomans against the Deylik of Algiers. This could happen due to many reasons. For example, under the rule of Haji Ali Dey, Algerian pirates regularly attacked Ottoman shipments, and Algiers waged war against the Beylik of Tunis, despite several protests by the Ottoman Porte, which resulted in a declaration of war.

It can be thus said that the relationship between the Ottoman Empire and Algiers mainly depended on what the Dey at the time wanted. While in some cases, if the relationship between the two was favorable, Algiers did participate in Ottoman wars, Algiers otherwise remained completely autonomous from the rest of the Empire similar to the other Barbary States.

Administration

Territorial management

The Regency was composed of various beyliks (provinces) under the authority of beys (vassals):

• The Beylik of Constantine in the east, with its capital in Constantine
• The Beylik of Titteri in the centre, with its capital being Médéa
• The Beylik of the West, with its capital being Mascara and then Mazouna and then Oran

Beyliks of Algiers.

Each beylik was divided into outan (counties) with at their head the caïds directly under the bey. To administer the interior of the country, the administration relied on the tribes called makhzen. These tribes were responsible for securing order and collecting taxes on the tributary regions of the country. It was through this system that, for three centuries, the State of Algiers extended its authority over the north of Algeria. However, society was still divided into tribes and dominated by maraboutic brotherhoods or local djouads (nobles). Several regions of the country thus only lightly recognised the authority of Algiers. Throughout its history, they formed numerous revolts, confederations, tribal fiefs or sultanates that fought with the regency for control. Before 1830, out of the 516 political units, a total of 200 principalities or tribes were considered independent because they controlled over 60% of the territory in Algeria and refused to pay taxes to Algiers.

Diwan

The Divan of Algiers was started in the 16th century by the Odjak. It was seated in the Jenina Palace. This assembly, initially led by a Janissary Agha would soon go from a way to administer the Odjack to a central part of the country's administration. This change started in the 17th century, and the Diwan became an important part of the state, albeit it was still dominated by the Janissaries. Around 1628 the Divan was expanded to include 2 subdivisions. One called the private (Janissary) Divan (diwan khass), and the Public, or Grand Diwan (diwan âm). The latter was composed of Hanafi scholars and preachers, the raïs, and native notables. It numbered between 800 and 1500 people, but it was still less important than the Private Divan used by the Janissaries. During the period when Algiers was ruled by Aghas, the leader of the Divan was also the leader of the country. The Agha called himself the Hakem. In the 18th century, following the coup of Baba Ali Chaouche, the Divan was reformed. The grand divan was now the dominant one, and it was the main body of the government which elected the leader of the country, the Dey-Pacha. This new reformed Divan was composed of:

• Officials
• Ministers
• Tribal elders
• Moorish, Arab, and Berber Nobles
• Janissary commanders (Kouloughlis, and Turks)
• Rais (Pirate captains)
• Ulema

The Janissary Divan remained completely under the control of the Turkish Janissary commanders, albeit it lost all authority other than decisions in the affairs of Janissaries.

This Divan normally met once a week, albeit this wasn't always true, since if the Dey felt powerful enough he could simply stop the Divan's functions. At the beginning of their mandate, the deys consulted the divan on all important questions.

However, as the Deys became stronger, the Divan became weaker. By the 19th century, the Divan was mostly ignored, especially the private Janissary Divan. The dey's council, (also called Divan by the British) became more and more powerful. Dey Ali Khodja weakened the Janissary Divan to the point where they held no power. This angered the Turkish Janissaries, who launched a coup against the Dey. The coup failed, since the Dey successfully raised an army of Kabyle Zwawa cavalry, Arab infantry and Kouloughli troops. Many of the Turkish Janissaries were executed, while the rest fled. The Janissary Divan was abolished, and the Grand Divan was moved to the citadel of the Casbah.

Ministries

The Dey, along with the Diwan, also relied and appointed 5 ministers to govern Algiers. These were the:

• Khaznadji, similar to the position of Prime minister, the Khaznadji also took care of the treasury
• Agha al-Mahalla, or supreme chief of the army, minister of internal affairs, and was also responsible for governing the Dar as-Soltan region of Algiers
• Khodjet al-Khil, was responsible for managing fiscal responsibilities, and collecting taxes. They also had the ceremonial role of "secretary of horses". They were assisted by a "Khaznadar".
• Wakil al-Kharaj, or minister of the navy of Algiers and foreign affairs.
• Bait al-Maldji, who was responsible for managing the tribes of the Makhzen of Algiers

These ministers were picked by the Dey of Algiers.

Armed forces

Corsairs

Inside the Palais des Rais(Palace of the Corsairs) in Algiers

Besides the Turkish Janissary troops "the Odjak" included an ethnically mixed group, this being the ta'ifa of reïs (community of seamen) or the Corsairs in short. In the days of Khayr al-Din and his immediate successors the reïs were an integral part of the army, but in the seventeenth century they had become a distinct group. By this time the holy war against the Christians had degenerated into piracy, although it continued to be described as al-jihad fi'l-bahr (holy war at sea), and the community of seamen had become penetrated by adventurers from many parts of the Mediterranean area. Non-Turks who came to Algiers as captives of the Algerine corsairs gained admittance to the ta'ifa of reïs through conversion to Islam and by virtue of their knowledge of the areas which the corsairs raided. Unlike in Ottoman Tunisia, where privateers were allowed to equip their own piratical ships, piracy in Ottoman Algeria was a monopoly of the state. The captan-reïs, “admiral, hierarchical chief of all the reïs”, or captains of vessels, was often, after the Pasha, the most important personage of the diwan The Muslim corso, organized at its beginnings as a self-defence to fight against that of the Christian knights who continued the work of the crusades, became a permanent institution in the regency of Algiers; its main income, included in the state budget. Enriching those who cared for it and returning to the treasury one-fifth of the catch; it was essential to the existence of Algiers, which all the efforts of the government tended to develop. It was also the activity upon which the prosperity of the Odjak as well as its religious prestige to a great extent depended. That is why the legendary heroes of Ottoman Algeria were ra'ises (captains of piratical ships) such as Murat Reis the Elder in the 1580s and Hamidou Raïs at the turn of the nineteenth century. These were men who distinguished themselves through audacious attacks on Christian ships and bringing important prizes to Algiers.

In 1529, Hayreddin Barbarossa seized the Peñon facing the city of Algiers from the Spanish and linked the rock to the port by building the pier. These works allow Algiers to become a secure port for naval and corsair companies in the Mediterranean. The city quickly became the main base for corsairs in the Mediterranean. This domination enabled him to repel several attacks from a certain number of European countries, in particular, in October 1541, that of Charles V, whose troops were defeated by the forces of the regency under the command of Hassan Agha, well aided by the storm which destroyed a good part of the enemy fleet. Other attacks were unsuccessfully carried out by the Spaniards in the 16th and 17th centuries. The Algerians armed in war those of the captured merchant ships which seemed fit for the corso, and also bought ships in Europe. They also had construction sites, located in Bab-el-Oued for large buildings, in Bab-Azoun for those of smaller dimensions. Christian slaves were employed on these shipyards, the management of which was often entrusted to renegades, even to free Christians, captains of armament or engineers of naval constructions, who hired their services for a time, without being for that put in the obligation to change religion. The masts, yards, sails, ropes, powder, ammunition, artillery pieces, were supplied by the government of the Ottoman Porte and by certain minor powers of Europe, the latter in the form of tribute.

Authentic 200 years old Pirate flag at the Åland Maritime Museum orginating from the North African coast

According to Diego de Haedo, the fleet of Algiers (including the buildings based at Cherchell) consisted, in 1581, of 35 galliotes - including 2 of 24 benches, 1 of 23 benches, 11 of 22 benches, 8 of 20 benches, 10 of 18 benches, 1 of 19 benches, and 2 of 15 benches — and about 25 frigates (small rowing and undecked vessels), from 8 to 13 benches. More than two thirds of the Algiers galiotes are commanded by European renegades (6 Genoese, 2 Venetians, 2 Albanians, 3 Greeks, 2 Spaniards, 1 French, 1 Hungarian, 1 Sicilian, 1 Neapolitan, 1 Corsican and 3 of their sons). All these renegades occupy the key positions, after the founder of the regency of Algiers, Hayreddin Barbaroassa, it is the Sardinian renegade Hassan Agha (1535-1543), the Corsican Hassan Corso (1549-1556), the Calabrian Uluj Ali Pasha (1568-1571) who ended up with the title of admiral of the fleet, then the Venetian Hassan Veneziano (1577-1580 and 1582-1583). They also take part in the armies of occupation of the subjected zones like local governments before the creation of the three beyliks; of the 23 territorial bosses, thirteen are renegades or sons of renegades. Haedo would be able to say "in them, reside almost all the power, the influence, the government and the wealth of Algiers and of this regency". At the beginning of the 17th century, the introduction of round ships by the Flemish corsair Simon Dansa and the arrival of Moriscos expelled from Spain contributed strongly to the development of the fleet of Algiers, which, in 1625, would have been modernized and enlarged, including six galleys, a large number of brigantines and a hundred privateers, more than sixty of them with 24 to 40 guns.

The rank of reïs or commander of a racing vessel, was obtained only after an examination passed before the council of reïs, chaired by the captan (admiral) position reserved for the oldest of the reïs, who no longer sailed. Another captan, chosen by the council, commanded the fleet. The reis was absolute master on board, where the most rigorous discipline reigned. Until the use of round boats in the 17th century, which did away with oars, the reis composed the crews of their galleys, generally very low on the water, with slaves whom they bought for this purpose, or whom they were procured by capture at sea, or by descent on the Christian coast. The rowers were tied to their benches; there were as many as three hundred on a single building. When, at the beginning of the sixteenth century, navigation was practiced entirely by sail, the employment of slaves on racing ships diminished in notable proportions; but the reïs always employed some for the works of strength: turning with the capstan, the towing of the boats, care of cleanliness of the ships, etc. In 1625, Algiers' pirate fleet numbered 100 ships and employed 8,000 to 10,000 men. The piracy "industry" accounted for 25 percent of the workforce of the city, not counting other activities related directly to the port. The fleet averaged 25 ships in the 1680s, but these were larger vessels than had been used the 1620s, thus the fleet still employed some 7,000 men.

An Algerine Ship off a Barbary Port by Andries van Eertvelt

In the year 1630, there were about seventy boats in the port of the capital, with what the Algerians owned from the French years ago, and in the year 1632, 13 galleys were found in the port, all of which were driven by oars, and seventy others with sails, and 23 boats of thirty to fifty cannons. In the year 1634, the Algerian fleet consisted of 70 pieces, each of which was armed with between 25 and 40 cannons. Then, in 1657, this number decreased to 23 ship, and each ship included 30 to 50 cannons. In 1662, there were 22 barges and nine galleys in the capital, and in 1681 there were only 17 barges in the port of Algiers and two large ships with heavy weapons of 112 cannons. These 17 ships were mentioned by their names in the report of sieur hayet, among them: the Golden Mare, the Rose, the little Rose, the city of Algiers, the Marzouk, the Canaria. On the consul’s report, Fiolle says that in 1686: "The ship called "the Golden Rose" was armed with forty cannons, the “Seven Stars” with thirty cannons, the “Golden Lion” equipped with thirty-two cannons, and that there were also on this date, 10 ships with two bridges, each containing 30 cannons, and ten single-barreled ships, each containing 14 cannons, sometimes reaching 20. There were also two ships with two bridges containing 45 cannons and a fire equipped with 20 cannons, and five other ships, two of them with 50 cannons, two with thirty cannons, and besides that, there were 39 ships for transport and trade". And it came in the report of Dr. (Duke de Grafton) dated on October 14th, 1687, that the number of Algerian ships in the diversity of their forms and the difference in weight and their cargo amounted to sixty ships, which had seventy and five hundred cannons.

In the 18th century the number of Algerian ships diminished and was varying from 20 to 30 ships and were mostly xebecs armed with 12 to 32 cannons. During the Barbary Wars the said number increased in 1802 to 66 barges, each with between 25 and 80 long-range cannons, then in 1815 it began to decrease to 41 ships, and there were only five battleships, four barges and 30 ships in 1816, Gouthrot says on that date only two battleships of 50 to 60 cannons, two corvettes with five cannons, two barges of 80 cannons, four galleys of 15 to 26 cannons, and one shp of 20 cannon type "polacre", and 35 ship, the General Consul of the United States of America William Shaler tells about the Algerian Navy in 1815: "The Algerian fleet was composed of five frigates with 38 to 50 cannons and five corvettes", among those ships were the well-known "Al-Marikana", and the Portuguesa also known as "Mashouda", the latter was captured by Rais Hamidou from the Portugese navy in May 1802 and there were 282 prisoners on its deck, then it was lost and others were burned when Lord admiral Edward Pellew, 1st Viscount Exmouth attacked Algiers in 1816. There are also names for other ships, such as Miftah al-Salam, Dik al-Marsa, Guide to Alexandria, and others from what the Algerian Navy seized, so it left them with the names known by them before. Two important attacks were the American expedition of 1815, which forced the regency to accept a right of navigation from the Americans, and that of the British and Dutch navies on Algiers in August 1816. The latter suffered great losses and were prevented from landing, but the Algerian armada also loses a very large number of ships including 4 frigates and 8 corvettes, this marked the de facto end of the Algerian Corso.

Odjak of Algiers

Main article: Odjak of Algiers

The Odjak of Algiers was a faction in the country which encompassed all janissaries. They often also controlled the country, for example during the period of Aghas from 1659 to 1671. They usually formed the main part of the army as one of the only regular unit they possessed.

The Odjak was initially mainly composed of foreigners as local tribes were deemed unreliable and their allegiance would often shift. Thus Janissaries were used to patrol rural tribal areas, and to garrison smaller forts in important locations and settlements (bordjs).

With the emancipation of Algiers from direct Ottoman control, and the worsening of relations with the Ottoman porte, the Odjak of Algiers became much less prominent. From there on, they only numbered in the thousands. A lot of the Janissaries, possibly the majority at some point albeit it is not clear, were recruited among Kouloughlis (mixed Algerian-Turks). Despite the fact that previously all locals were barred from joining the Odjak, Arabs, Berbers, and Moors were allowed to join it after 1710, as a way to replenish the unit. In 1803, 1 in 17 troops of the Odjak were Arabs and Berbers, and by 1830 the Odjak of Algiers possessed at least 2,000 native Algerian janissaries mainly from the Zwawa tribes. According to historian Daniel Panzac about 10-15% of the Odjak was composed of native Algerians and renegades (not counting Kouloughlis). By the 1820s, even Jewish people were allowed to join the Odjak of Algiers, although this was a highly controversial choice, and denounced by several members of the Algerian society.

The exact size of the Odjak varied greatly, and they were usually divided into several hundred smaller units (ortas). These units were mostly stationed in Algiers, Constantine, Mascara, Medea etc. although usually every town with a few thousand inhabitants had at least 1 orta stationed in it. Unlike the noubachis, regular units, and tribal levy, the Odjak had their own system of leadership, and they operated freely from the Beys and Deys.

Spahis of Algiers

Not much is known about the Spahis of Algiers, other than the fact that they were a regular standing unit, and were mainly composed of locals (although there were Turks amongst them). They differed greatly from the traditional Ottoman Sipahis, in both military equipment, and organization, and hardly had anything in common with them other than their names, and both being cavalry units. The Dey also periodically possessed several thousand spahis in his service acting as a personal guard. Other than the Dey's guard, Spahis were not recruited or stationed in Algiers, instead being usually recruited by the Beys. They were usually more organized than the irregular tribal cavalry, although far less numerous.

The French Spahi units were based on the Algerian spahis, and they were both mainly light cavalry.

Levy warriors

The levy militia composed from Arab-Berber warriors numbered in the tens of thousands, being overwhelmingly the largest part of the Algerian army. They were called upon from loyal tribes and clans, usually Makhzen ones. They numbered up to 50,000 in the Beylik of Oran alone. The troops were armed with muskets, usually moukahlas, and swords, usually either Nimchas or Flyssas, both of which were traditional local swords. The weaponry wasn't supplied by the state, and instead it was self-supplied. As nearly every peasant and tribesman owned a musket, it was expected from the soldiers to be equipped with one. As many of these tribes were traditionally warrior ones, many of these troops were trained since childhood, and thus were relatively effective especially in swordsmanship, albeit they were hampered by their weak organization, and by the 19th century their muskets became outdated.

Modern style units

Algiers hardly possessed units based on Napoleonic or post-Napoleonic warfare, and many of their units, including the Odjak of Algiers were organized on outdated 17th and 18th century Ottoman standards. The only two main units which existed as Modern-style units were the small Zwawa guard established by Ali Khodja Dey in 1817 to counter-balance the influence of the Odjak, and the small army of Ahmed Bey ben Mohamed Chérif, the last Bey of Constantine, who organized his army on the lines of Muhammad Ali's Egyptian Army. Ahmed Bey's army was composed of 2,000 infantry, and 1,500 cavalry. His entire army was composed of native Algerians, and he also built a complex system of manufactories to support the army and invited several foreigners to train technicians and other specialists.

Leadership, and commanders

Main units

The army was divided into 4 regions, the exact same regions as the administrational ones (Beyliks).

• Western Army, headed by the Beys of Mascara/Oran
• Central Army, headed by the Bey of Titteri
• Eastern Army, headed by the Bey of Constantine
• Dar as-Soltan army, headed by the Dey and the Agha.

These troops were headed by the Beys, and a Khalifa (general) appointed by them. The supreme commander of the army was the Agha al-Mahalla Levying these troops was the job of the Bey. The Odjak was headed by an Agha elected by the Odjak itself. When Algiers came under attack, the Beyliks would send their troops to help the besieged city, such as in 1775 during the Spanish Invasion of Algiers. As the Beys were regional commanders, they also fought the wars in their own region, occasionally reinforced by troops from the Dar as-Soltan army. For example, in 1792, during the reconquest of Oran the Bey of Oran, Mohamed el-Kébir (Bey of Oran) was the one to besiege the city using the army of the Beylik of the West, numbering up to 50,0000 with some additional reinforcements from Algiers. During the Algerian-Tunisian war of 1807 the Eastern army fought the war against the Tunisian armies. Its composition was 25,000 levy warriors from Constantine, and 5,000 reinforcements from Algiers. Sub-commanders usually included powerful tribal Sheiks, djouads, or caids.

Command structure of the Odjak of Algiers

The command structure of the Odjak relied on several tiers of military commanders. Initially based on basic Janissary structures, after the 17th century it was slightly changed to better fit the local warfare styles and politics. The main ranks of the Odjak were:

• Agha, or marshall of the Odjak. Elected by the Odjak until 1817, after which the Dey appointed the Aghas.
• Aghabashi, which was equal to the rank of General in western armies
• Bulukbashi, or senior officer
• Odabashi, or officer
• Wakil al-Kharj, a non-commissioned officer or supply clerk
• Yoldash, or regular soldier

Economy

Monetary system

Algerian money, and some copper household items

Initially using various forms of Ottoman and old Zayyanid and Hafsid coins such as the Mangır (a sub-unit of the Akçe), Algiers soon developed its own monetary system, minting its own coins in the Casbah of Algiers and Tlemcen. The "central bank" of the state was located in the capital, and was known locally as the "Dâr al-Sikka".

In the 18th century the main categories of currencies produced locally and accepted in Algiers were:

• Algerian mahboub (Sultani), a gold coin weighing about 3.2g, with an inscription detailing the year it was produced and the year it will be decommissioned. Its production was discontinued under the reign of Baba Ali Bou Sebâa (1754-1766)
• Algerian budju, and the Algerian piastre, two types of silver coinage, the most widely used types of currency in Algeria. A budju was worth 24 mazounas and 48 kharoubs and was further divided into "rube'-budju" (1/4 boudjous), "thaman-budju" (1/8 budju)
• minor conversion coins made of copper or billon, such as mazounas or kharoubs
• minor coins of small value such as the saïme or pataque-chique

Algiers also had some European (mainly Spanish) and Ottoman coins in circulation.

Agriculture

The agricultural production of the country was mediocre, although fallowing and crop rotation were the most common way of production, techniques and tools were obsolete by the 18th and 19th century. Agricultural products were varied: wheat, corn, cotton, rice, tobacco, watermelon and vegetables were the most commonly grown things. In and around towns grapes and pomegranates were cultivated. In mountainous areas of the country, fruit trees, figs and olive trees were grown. The main agricultural export of the country was wheat.

Milk was not often consumed and did not form a major part of the Algerian cuisine. The price of meat was low in Algeria before 1830, and many tribes brought in large amounts of income solely through the sale of cattle leather, although after the collapse of the Deylik and the arrival of the French the demand for cattle meat rapidly increased. Wool and lamb meat were also produced in very high numbers.

The majority of the western population south of the Tell Atlas and the people of the Sahara were pastoralists whose main produce was wool which was sometimes exported to be sold on the markets of the north, while the population in the north and east were settled in villages and did agriculture. The state and urban notables (mainly Arabs, Berbers, and Kouloughlis) owned lands near the main towns of the country which were cultivated by tenant farmers under the "khammas" system.

Manufacturing and craftsmanship

Manufacturing was poorly developed and restricted to shipyards, but craftsmanship was rich and was present throughout the country. Cities were the seat of great craft and commercial activity. The urban people were mostly artisans and merchants, notably in Nedroma, Tlemcen, Oran, Mostaganem, Kalaa, Dellys, Blida, Médéa, Collo, M'Sila, Mila and Constantine. The most common forms of craftmanship were weaving, woodturning, dyeing and production of ropes, and various tools. In Algiers, a very large number of trades were practiced, and the city was home to many establishments: foundries, shipyards, various workshops, shops, and stalls. Tlemcen had more than 500 looms in it. Even in the small towns where the link with the rural world remained important, there were many craftsmen.

Despite this, Algerian products were severely outcompeted by European products especially after the start of the industrial revolution in the 1760s.

In the 1820s modern industry was first introduced by Ahmed Bey ben Mohamed Chérif who built and opened large numbers of manufactories in the east of the country mainly focused around military production.

Infrastructure

The road system throughout Algeria was poorly developed, and often used neglected Roman roads. Generally transport and trade happened on the back of mules, donkeys, and camels. Rural roads controlled by autonomous Makhzen sheikhs were often unpredictable and sometimes dangerous thanks to bandits, although a few main roads often based on old roman ones were regularly policed and protected by authorities, such as the main road passing along the coast all the way to Tunis, and another one passing through the main cities of the inland regions.

Algiers possessed its own, very well developed sewage system based on ones found in Constantinople and Iberia.

Trade

Internal trade was extremely important, especially thanks to the Makhzen system, and large amounts of products needed in cities such as wool were imported from inner tribes of the country, and needed products were exported city to city. Foreign trade was mainly conducted through the Mediterranean Sea and land exports to other neighbouring countries such as Tunisia and Morocco. When it came to land trade (both internal and external) transport was mainly done on the backs of animals, but carts were also used. The roads were suitable for vehicles, and many posts held by the Odjak and the Makhzen tribes provided security. In addition, caravanserais (known locally as fonduk) allowed travelers to rest.

Although control over the sahara was often loose, Algiers's economic ties with the sahara were very important, and Algiers and other Algerian cities were one of the main destinations of the Trans-Saharan slave trade.

Healthcare

Captain Walter Croker visiting a hospital at Algiers in 1816

Several hospitals were present throughout the bigger cities in Algeria, especially Algiers. There existed hospitals in Algeria before the establishment of the Regency, and the first hospital built by the authorities of Algiers was built by Hassan Veneziano in the 1570s to treat military personnel. Just before the French invasion, the city of Algiers itself housed two Military hospitals one known as the "Hospital of the Dey" capable of housing 2,000 sick, and another called the "Mustapha hospital" capable of housing 800. When under Algerian rule from 1708 to 1732, several hospitals were built in Oran by Mustapha Bouchelaghem Bey. Cities known to have hospitals were Algiers, Oran, Constantine, Tlemcen, Médéa, Béjaïa, and many more.

The Algerian administration donated under charities to existing small infirmaries and hospices. it designated several lands in cities under the law of Waqf (known as hubous locally), for use of public baths, water fountains, schools and hospices and asylums for the sick and vulnerable, along with sometimes distributing corsair loot to such establishments. Many infirmaries, hospitals and hospices were directly tied to mosques under waqf designation, operating next to them, or sometimes inside of them. There also existed some charitable hospices maintained directly by the state made for taking care of the poor and infirm, the largest of which was the Sidi Ouali Dada hospice in Algiers, which was directly tied to the Sidi Ouali Dada mosque.

There existed a Christian hospital operated by the Lazarist society used to treat Christians in Algeria and European diplomats, along with a small hospital financed by the Kings of Spain and Portugal and operated by priests for treating, taking care of, and burying Christian slaves. The authorities of Algiers allowed this institution to exist for a sum of $40,000/year (approximately $1,270,800 in modern-day dollars adjusted for inflation), although they personally never invested into the building of edifices made for taking care of Christians. Algiers was not the only city possessing hospitals for taking care of Christians, both free and enslaved. The city of Tlemcen possessed 12 hospitals in total, 4 of which were "Moor" hospitals (some of which were built by the Zayyanid dynasty) made for taking care of the urban Muslim population, 2 of which were Christian hospitals maintained by the Venetians and the Republic of Genoa, and 6 of which were smaller hospitals for "foreigners" (such as merchants, local tribesmen, etc.) and Jews.

Education

Letter of invitation from Salah Bey ben Mostefa to teacher Ibn al Fara al Baghaoui to teach in the university (madrasa) of Constantine

Education in Algeria was done mainly through small primary schools focused on teaching reading, writing, religious basics and other such skills, while in rural areas especially, most of education was done by local Imams, zawiyas, marabouts, and elders. Secondary and tertiary education could be pursued in various madrasas located mainly in bigger cities of the country, often maintained through waqf and Islamic donations from the central government. The levels of these madrasas varied, and the biggest madrasas functioned as both places of secondary and tertiary learning. Algiers alone had several madrasas, zawiyas, and midrashims (Jewish schools), and also having very famous bookstores "warraqates" located throughout the city. The state of these madrasas depended mainly on the stance of the local authorities at the time. Initially, western Algeria, especially the city of Tlemcen was the main center of learning in the country, but thanks to negligence, these schools and universities declined with some, mainly Abu Hammu II's madrasa falling into complete ruin. The decline was only stopped when Mohammed el Kebir, Bey of Oran made a significant investment into the complete renovation and rebuilding of several places of education throughout the region, although many of these centuries old madrasas, such as the Tashfiniya Madrasa fell into ruin and neglect under French rule, and many were demolished by the French. Most major mosques of the country also possessed Quranic schools in them.

Demography

Map of the Regency of Algiers in 1829.

The total population of the Regency of Algiers is a highly debated subject. The best estimates put it between 3,000,000 and 5,000,000, although Algerian dignitary Hamdan Khodja estimated the total population of Algeria to be about 10,000,000 before the French invasion in his book written in 1833. In 1830, there were about 10,000 'Turks' (including people from Kurdish, Greek and Albanian ancestry) and 5,000 Kouloughli civilians (from the Turkish kul oğlu, "son of slaves (Janissaries)", i.e. creole of Turks and local women). By 1830, more than 17,000 Jews were living in the Regency. According to Moritz Wagner, the Arabs formed the great majority of the population of the Regency of Algiers.

Architecture

The New Mosque (Djama' el-Djedid) in Algiers (1660)

Further information: Architecture of Algeria § Ottoman rule

During this period Algiers developed into a major town and witnessed regular architectural patronage, and as such most of the major monuments from this period are concentrated there. By contrast, the city of Tlemcen, the former major capital of the region, went into relative decline and saw far less architectural activity. Mosque architecture in Algiers during this period demonstrates the convergence of multiple influences as well as peculiarities that may be attributed to the innovations of local architects. Domes of Ottoman influence were introduced into the design of mosques, but minarets generally continued to be built with square shafts instead of round or octagonal ones, thus retaining local tradition, unlike contemporary architecture in Ottoman Tunisia and other Ottoman provinces, where the "pencil"-shaped minaret was a symbol of Ottoman sovereignty. The oldest surviving mosque from this era is the Ali Bitchin (or 'Ali Bitshin) Mosque in Algiers, commissioned by Ali Bitchin in 1622. The most significant mosque of this era is the New Mosque (Djamaa el-Djedid) in Algiers, built in 1660–1661 by al-Hajj Habib, which became one of the most important Hanafi mosques in the city.

Algiers was protected by a wall about 3.1 kilometres (1.9 mi) long with five gates. A citadel, the qasba (origin of the name "Casbah"), occupied the highest point of the town. By the end of the 18th century the city had over 120 mosques, including over a dozen congregational mosques. The lower part of the city, near the shore, was the center of the Ottoman and Regency administration, containing the most important markets, mosques, wealthy residences, Janissary barracks, government buildings (like the mint), and palaces. The residential palace of the ruler in Algiers, the Janina or Jenina ('Little Garden'), was situated at the center of a larger palatial complex known as the Dar al-Sultan in the lower part of the city. This complex served as the ruling palace until 1816, when the Dey moved to the qasba following a British bombardment of the city that year. The only example of architecture from the Dar al-Sultan complex that is still preserved today is the Dar 'Aziza Bint al-Bey, believed to have been built in the 16th century.

See also

• List of Ottoman governors of Algiers
• Conflicts between the Regency of Algiers and the Cherifian Dynasties

Bibliography

• Konstam, Angus (2016). The Barbary Pirates. 15th–17th Centuries. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4728-1543-9.
• Pierre Boyer, « Le problème Kouloughli dans la régence d'Alger», Revue de l'Occident musulman et de la Méditerranée, vol. 8, n^o 1, 1970, p. 79-94 (ISSN 0035-1474, DOI 10.3406/remmm.1970.1033)
• Koulakssis, Ahmed; Meynier, Gilbert (1987). L'emir Khaled: premier zaʼîm? Identité algérienne et colonialisme français. L'Harmattan. ISBN 978-2-85802-859-7.
• Panzac, Daniel (1995). Histoire économique et sociale de l'Empire ottoman et de la Turquie (1326-1960): actes du sixième congrès international tenu à Aix-en-Provence du 1er au 4 juillet 1992. Peeters Publishers. ISBN 978-9-068-31799-2.