Colonization of Antarctica: Difference between revisions
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{{for|the territorial colonization|Territorial claims in Antarctica}} |
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]]{{Pie chart|value1=78.61|value2=16.15|value3=5.24|color1=orange|color2=gold|color3=blue|caption=The population of Antarctica |label1=All-year active research stations|label2=Summer-only active research stations|label3=All-civilian bases}} |
]]{{Pie chart|value1=78.61|value2=16.15|value3=5.24|color1=orange|color2=gold|color3=blue|caption=The population of Antarctica |label1=All-year active research stations|label2=Summer-only active research stations|label3=All-civilian bases}} |
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'''Colonization of Antarctica''' refers to the settlement of [[Antarctica]]. Exploration of the interior of Antarctica began at the end of the 19th century.<ref name="v100">{{cite web | title=Antarctica: A “European Invention” | website=Encyclopédie d’histoire numérique de l’Europe | date=1924-03-27 | url=https://ehne.fr/en/encyclopedia/themes/europe-europeans-and-world/colonial-expansion-and-imperialisms/antarctica-a-%E2%80%9Ceuropean-invention%E2%80%9D | access-date=2024-06-16}}</ref> |
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'''Colonization of Antarctica''' refers to the territorialization and settlement of the continent [[Antarctica]]. |
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The [[Polar regions of Earth#Antarctica and the Southern sea|Antarctic region]] has been a [[Territorial claims in Antarctica|region of sovereign claims]] since at least the 16th century. The harsh [[Southern Sea]] thwarted exploration of the region for hundreds of years, until the first half of the 19th century when [[Seal hunting|sealer]]s and explorers reported having found new southern lands. After [[Polar exploration|polar explorer]]s started venturing inland [[Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration|at the start of the 20th century]], reaching the [[South Pole]] in 1911, European and American states increasingly made claims over Antartic lands, supported by setting up [[Research stations in Antarctica|Antarctic bases]].<ref name="v100">{{cite web | title=Antarctica: A “European Invention” | website=Encyclopédie d’histoire numérique de l’Europe | date=1924-03-27 | url=https://ehne.fr/en/encyclopedia/themes/europe-europeans-and-world/colonial-expansion-and-imperialisms/antarctica-a-%E2%80%9Ceuropean-invention%E2%80%9D | access-date=2024-06-16}}</ref> |
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Contemporarily territorial claims and activities on Antarctica have been limited since the Antarctic Treaty (1959) by the [[Antarctic Treaty System]] and its [[Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty]].<ref>Joyner, Christopher C. (1992). ''Antarctica and the Law of the Sea'', p. 49. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. {{ISBN|0-7923-1823-4}}.</ref> |
Contemporarily territorial claims and activities on Antarctica have been limited since the Antarctic Treaty (1959) by the [[Antarctic Treaty System]] and its [[Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty]].<ref>Joyner, Christopher C. (1992). ''Antarctica and the Law of the Sea'', p. 49. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. {{ISBN|0-7923-1823-4}}.</ref> |
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At present the [[Demographics of Antarctica|population of Antarctica]] |
At present the [[Demographics of Antarctica|population of Antarctica]] comprises scientists and staff of approximate 4,000 people in summer and 1,000 in winter, from 30 countries staying at about 70 bases (40 year-round and 30 summer-only). Of those bases two are artificial civilian settlements,<ref>[https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/Esperanza-base Esperanza Base — Antarctica — Atlas Obscura]</ref><ref>[https://halintours.tripod.com/antarcticatrip/id5.html Esperanza Base: Antarctic Hospitality]</ref> the Argentinian-administered [[Esperanza Base]] and Chilean-administered [[Villa Las Estrellas]]. |
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==Past colonization speculation== |
==Past colonization speculation== |
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An idea |
An idea in the 1950s was to have Antarctic cities enclosed under glass domes. Power and temperature regulation of the domes would come from atomic driven generators outside of these domes. While the Soviets used [[radioisotope thermal generator]]s in some of their remote Arctic and Antarctic locations,<ref>{{cite report | url=https://inis.iaea.org/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/51/035/51035101.pdf?r=1|title=The Status of Work on RTGs Decommissioning and Activity of the International Coordination Group to Perform the Work |publisher=International Atomic Energy Agency | last1=Grigoriev |first1=Alexander |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220220133018/https://inis.iaea.org/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/51/035/51035101.pdf?r=1 |archive-date=2022-02-20}}</ref> the Americans experimented with nuclear fission, building on their Army nuclear power plant program. The [[Army Nuclear Power Program#List of plants|PM-3A nuclear power reactor]] at [[McMurdo Station]] was plagued with reliability issues (achieving an [[availability factor]] of only 74%)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2014/ph241/reid2/|title=Nuclear Power at McMurdo Station, Antarctica}}</ref> and was eventually deemed a pollution hazard and consequently shut down and dismantled.<ref>Elzinga, Aant (1993). "Antarctica: The Construction of a Continent by and For Science". In Elisabeth Crawford, Terry Shinn, & Sverker Sörlin (Eds.), ''Denationalizing Science: The Contexts of International Scientific Practice'', pp. 73-106. Dordrecht: Kluwer.</ref> |
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[[Buckminster Fuller]], the developer of the [[geodesic dome]], had raised the possibility of Antarctic [[domed city|domed cities]] that would allow a controlled climate and buildings erected under the dome.<ref>Marks, Robert W. (Aug. 23, 1959). "[https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1959/08/23/88813746.html?pageNumber=223 The Breakthrough of Buckminster Fuller]". ''The New York Times'', pp. SM14, SM15, SM42, SM44.</ref> His first specific published proposal for a domed city in 1965 discussed the Antarctic as a likely first location for such a project.<ref>Fuller, Buckminster (Sep. 26, 1965). "[http://www.waltlockley.com/manhattandome/domeappendix.htm The Case for Domed Cities] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928025417/http://www.waltlockley.com/manhattandome/domeappendix.htm |date=2007-09-28 }}". ''St. Louis Post-Dispatch''.</ref> The second base at [[Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station]] (operated 1975–2003) resembles a reduced version of this idea; it is large enough to cover only a few scientific buildings. |
[[Buckminster Fuller]], the developer of the [[geodesic dome]], had raised the possibility of Antarctic [[domed city|domed cities]] that would allow a controlled climate and buildings erected under the dome.<ref>Marks, Robert W. (Aug. 23, 1959). "[https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1959/08/23/88813746.html?pageNumber=223 The Breakthrough of Buckminster Fuller]". ''The New York Times'', pp. SM14, SM15, SM42, SM44.</ref> His first specific published proposal for a domed city in 1965 discussed the Antarctic as a likely first location for such a project.<ref>Fuller, Buckminster (Sep. 26, 1965). "[http://www.waltlockley.com/manhattandome/domeappendix.htm The Case for Domed Cities] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928025417/http://www.waltlockley.com/manhattandome/domeappendix.htm |date=2007-09-28 }}". ''St. Louis Post-Dispatch''.</ref> The second base at [[Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station]] (operated 1975–2003) resembles a reduced version of this idea; it is large enough to cover only a few scientific buildings. |
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Recently scientific surveys of an area near the South Pole have revealed high geothermal heat seeping up to the surface from below.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Dinar |first1=Athena |title=Discovery of high geothermal heat at South Pole |url=https://phys.org/news/2018-11-discovery-high-geothermal-south-pole.html|website=www.phys.org/news |publisher=British Antarctic Survey |access-date=July 9, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Fox |first1=Douglas |title=High Heat Measured under Antarctica Could Support Substantial Life |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/high-heat-measured-under-antarctica-could-support-substantial-life/ |website=www.scientificamerican.com/article |publisher=Scientific American |access-date=July 9, 2020}}</ref> |
Recently scientific surveys of an area near the South Pole have revealed high geothermal heat seeping up to the surface from below.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Dinar |first1=Athena |title=Discovery of high geothermal heat at South Pole |url=https://phys.org/news/2018-11-discovery-high-geothermal-south-pole.html|website=www.phys.org/news |publisher=British Antarctic Survey |access-date=July 9, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Fox |first1=Douglas |title=High Heat Measured under Antarctica Could Support Substantial Life |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/high-heat-measured-under-antarctica-could-support-substantial-life/ |website=www.scientificamerican.com/article |publisher=Scientific American |access-date=July 9, 2020}}</ref> |
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==Births in Antarctica== |
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{{Main|Demographics of Antarctica#Births}} |
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[[Emilio Palma|Emilio Marcos Palma]] (born January 7, 1978) is an Argentine citizen who is the first person known to be born on the continent of Antarctica. He was born in [[Fortín Sargento Cabral]] at the Esperanza Base near the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula and weighed {{convert|3.4|kg|lboz|abbr=on}}. Since his birth, about ten others have been born on the continent.{{Citation needed|date=November 2023}} |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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Revision as of 03:18, 17 June 2024
The population of Antarctica
All-year active research stations (78.61%)
Summer-only active research stations (16.15%)
All-civilian bases (5.24%)
Colonization of Antarctica refers to the settlement of Antarctica. Exploration of the interior of Antarctica began at the end of the 19th century.[1]
Contemporarily territorial claims and activities on Antarctica have been limited since the Antarctic Treaty (1959) by the Antarctic Treaty System and its Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty.[2]
At present the population of Antarctica comprises scientists and staff of approximate 4,000 people in summer and 1,000 in winter, from 30 countries staying at about 70 bases (40 year-round and 30 summer-only). Of those bases two are artificial civilian settlements,[3][4] the Argentinian-administered Esperanza Base and Chilean-administered Villa Las Estrellas.
Past colonization speculation
An idea in the 1950s was to have Antarctic cities enclosed under glass domes. Power and temperature regulation of the domes would come from atomic driven generators outside of these domes. While the Soviets used radioisotope thermal generators in some of their remote Arctic and Antarctic locations,[5] the Americans experimented with nuclear fission, building on their Army nuclear power plant program. The PM-3A nuclear power reactor at McMurdo Station was plagued with reliability issues (achieving an availability factor of only 74%)[6] and was eventually deemed a pollution hazard and consequently shut down and dismantled.[7]
Buckminster Fuller, the developer of the geodesic dome, had raised the possibility of Antarctic domed cities that would allow a controlled climate and buildings erected under the dome.[8] His first specific published proposal for a domed city in 1965 discussed the Antarctic as a likely first location for such a project.[9] The second base at Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station (operated 1975–2003) resembles a reduced version of this idea; it is large enough to cover only a few scientific buildings.
In 1971, a team led by German architect Frei Otto made a feasibility study for an air-supported city dome two kilometers across that could house 40,000 residents.[10] Some authors have recently tried to update the idea.[11]
Future conditions
Although today Antarctica's environment is very harsh, conditions may become better in the future. It has been suggested that, as a result of long-term effects of global warming, the beginning of the 22nd century will see parts of West Antarctica experiencing similar climate conditions to those found today in Alaska and Northern Scandinavia.[12] Even farming and crop growing could be possible in some of the most northerly areas of Antarctica.
It is suggested that plants and fungi find a favorable environment around Antarctica's volcanoes to grow, a hint as to where the first agricultural efforts could be led.[13] There are about 110 native species of moss in Antarctica, and two angiosperms (Deschampsia antarctica and Colobanthus quitensis). It is believed those native species will disappear with warmer weather and the arrival of stronger species. Humans are responsible for the introduction of 200 to 300 outside species on the continent.[14]
Recently scientific surveys of an area near the South Pole have revealed high geothermal heat seeping up to the surface from below.[15][16]
See also
- Antarctic field camps
- Colonialism
- Colonization
- Research stations in Antarctica
- Space colonization
- Territorial claims in Antarctica
References
- ^ "Antarctica: A "European Invention"". Encyclopédie d’histoire numérique de l’Europe. 1924-03-27. Retrieved 2024-06-16.
- ^ Joyner, Christopher C. (1992). Antarctica and the Law of the Sea, p. 49. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. ISBN 0-7923-1823-4.
- ^ Esperanza Base — Antarctica — Atlas Obscura
- ^ Esperanza Base: Antarctic Hospitality
- ^ Grigoriev, Alexander. The Status of Work on RTGs Decommissioning and Activity of the International Coordination Group to Perform the Work (PDF) (Report). International Atomic Energy Agency. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2022-02-20.
- ^ "Nuclear Power at McMurdo Station, Antarctica".
- ^ Elzinga, Aant (1993). "Antarctica: The Construction of a Continent by and For Science". In Elisabeth Crawford, Terry Shinn, & Sverker Sörlin (Eds.), Denationalizing Science: The Contexts of International Scientific Practice, pp. 73-106. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
- ^ Marks, Robert W. (Aug. 23, 1959). "The Breakthrough of Buckminster Fuller". The New York Times, pp. SM14, SM15, SM42, SM44.
- ^ Fuller, Buckminster (Sep. 26, 1965). "The Case for Domed Cities Archived 2007-09-28 at the Wayback Machine". St. Louis Post-Dispatch.
- ^ Walker, Derek (1998). Happold: The Confidence to Build, p. 63. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-419-24070-5.
- ^ Alexander Bolonkin and Cathcart, Richard B. (May 2007). "Inflatable ‘Evergreen’ dome settlements for Earth’s Polar Regions". Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy 9 (2), 125–132.
- ^ "How to survive the coming century". NewScientist.
- ^ "An ice age can make your home pretty inhospitable..." Science.org.au. 19 April 2018. Retrieved 18 November 2019.
- ^ Tom Hart (15 September 2015). "Polar invasion: how plants and animals would colonise an ice-free Antarctica". Theconversation.com. Retrieved 18 November 2019.
- ^ Dinar, Athena. "Discovery of high geothermal heat at South Pole". www.phys.org/news. British Antarctic Survey. Retrieved July 9, 2020.
- ^ Fox, Douglas. "High Heat Measured under Antarctica Could Support Substantial Life". www.scientificamerican.com/article. Scientific American. Retrieved July 9, 2020.
