Ayyubid dynasty

Ayyubid dynasty الأيوبيون
1174–1342¹
Flag
Greatest extent of the lands ruled by the Ayyubid dynasty (green).
Capital	Cairo
Common languages	Arabic (official) Kurdish
Religion	Islam
Government	Monarchy
Sultan
• 1174-1193	Saladin (first)
• 1331-1342	Al-Afdal (last reported)
History
• Established	1174
• Disestablished	1342¹
Area
5,000,000 km2 (1,900,000 sq mi)
Population
•	40,000,000
Currency	Dinar
Preceded by Succeeded by Fatimid Caliphate Zengid dynasty Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)
¹ The last reported Ayyubid sultan of Hamah died in 1342, but (unknown) Ayyubids remained in control of Hisn Kayfa till the 16th century

The Ayyubids (Arabic: الأيوبيون) were a Muslim dynasty of Kurdish origins which ruled Egypt, Syria, Yemen, Libya, southern Anatolia, the Hejaz and northern Iraq in the 12th and 13th centuries.

History

Establishment in Egypt

The Ayyubid dynasty receives its name from Najm ad-Din Ayyub, a Kurdish military commander in the service of Nur al-Din, head of the Zengid dynasty which ruled Syria and northern Mesopotamia. In 1164, Nur al-Din sent Ayyub's brother Shirkuh to head an expeditionary force to prevent Crusader dominance of an increasingly anarchical Egypt. Shirkuh, enlisted Ayyub's son, Saladin, as an officer under his command. They successfully drove out Dirgham, the vizier of Egypt, and reinstated Shiwar. After being reinstated, he ordered Shirkuh to withdraw his forces from Egypt, but Shirkuh refused, claiming it was Nur al-Din's will. For several years, the Shirkuh and Saladin would defeat the combined forces of the Crusaders and Shiwar's troops, first at Bilbais, then a site near Giza, and Alexandria where Saladin would stay to protect while Shirkuh pursued Crusader forces in Lower Egypt.

Shiwar died in 1169 and Shirkuh became vizier, but he too died later that year. After Shirkuh's death, Saladin was appointed vizier by the Fatimid caliph al-Adid because there was "no one weaker or younger" than him, and "not one of the emirs obeyed him or served him" according to chronicler Ibn al-Athir. Saladin soon found himself being more independent than ever before in his career, much to the dismay of Nur al-Din who attempted to influence events in Egypt. He allowed for Saladin's elder brother Turan-Shah to supervise Saladin in order to cause dissension in the Ayyubid family, undermining its position in Egypt. Nur al-Din satisfied Saladin's request that he be joined by his father, Najm ad-Din Ayyub to join Saladin. However, he was sent primarily to ensure that Abbasid suzerainty was proclaimed in Egypt which Saladin was reluctant to undertake since he was the vizier of the Fatimid Caliphate. Although Nur al-Din failed to provoke the Ayyubids into rivalry, the extended Ayyubid family was not necessarily behind Saladin, particularly a number of local governors in Syria.

Saladin consolidated his control in Egypt after he ordered Turan-Shah to put down a revolt in Cairo staged by the Fatimid army's 50,000-strong Sudanese regiments. After his success, Saladin began granting his family members high-ranking positions in the country and increased Sunni influence in Cairo by ordering the construction of a college for the Maliki branch of Sunni Islam in the city, as well as one for the Shafi'i denomination to which he belonged in al-Fustat. In 1171, al-Adid died and Saladin soon switched Egypt's allegiance to the Baghdad-based Abbasid Caliphate.

Expansion

Saladin went to Alexandria in 1171-72 and was troubled by having many followers in the city, but little money. A family council was held there by the Ayyubid emirs of Egypt where it was decided that Taqi al-Din, Saladin's nephew, would launch an expedition to the coastal region of Barqa (Cyrenaica) with a force of 500 cavalry. In order to justify the raid, a letter was sent to the Bedouin tribes of Barqa, rebuking them for the robberies of travelers and requiring them to pay the alms-tax (zakat). The latter was to be collected from their livestock.

In late 1172, Aswan was besieged by former Fatimid soldiers from Nubia and the governor of the city, Kanz al-Dawla—himself a former Fatimid—requested reinforcements from Saladin who complied with the request. The reinforcements had come after the Nubians departed, but under Turan-Shah they advanced and conquered northern Nubia after capturing the town of Ibrim. Ibrim was given to Turan-Shah and he and his Kurdish soldiers stayed there. From Ibrim, they raided the surrounding region, halting there operations after being presented with an armistice from the king of Nubia based in Danqla. Although Turan-Shah's initial response was militant, he later sent an envoy to Danqla who upon returning described the poverty of Nubia and the city itself. The Ayyubids required Nubia to guarantee the protection of Aswan and Upper Egypt, but like their Fatimid predecessors, were discouraged from further expansion by the poverty of the region.

In 1173, Saladin sent Turan-Shah to conquer Yemen and allocate it to the territories of the Ayyubids. Chroniclers Ibn al-Athir and later al-Maqrizi wrote that the reasoning behind the conquest of Yemen was an Ayyubid fear, that should Egypt fall to Nur al-Din, they could seek refuge in a faraway territory. Aden became the principal maritime port of the dynasty in the Indian Ocean and the principal city of Yemen. The advent of the Ayyubids marked the beginning of a period of renewed prosperity in the city which saw the improvement of its commercial infrastructure, the establishment of new institutions, and the minting of its own coins. That same year, Sharaf al-Din Qaraqush, a commander under Taqi al-Din, conquered Tripoli with an army of Turks and Bedouins. From Yemen, as from Egypt, the Ayyubids aimed to dominate the Red Sea trade routes which Egypt depended on and so sought to tighten their grip on the Hejaz, where an important trade stop, Yanbu, was located. The Ayyubids also aspired to establish their Islamic sovereignty over Mecca, to enhance their claim to supreme Islamic dominion.

Although still a vassal of Nur al-Din, he took an increasingly independent foreign policy, becoming openly so after the death of Nur al-Din in 1174. Saladin set out to conquer Syria from the Zengids and on November 23, he was welcomed in Damascus by the governor of the city. By 1175, he had taken control of Hama and Hims, but failed to take Aleppo in a siege. Saladin's successes alarmed Saif al-Din of Mosul, the current head of the Zengids at the time, who regarded Syria as his family's estate and was angered that it was being usurped by a former servant of Nur al-Din. He mustered an army to face Saladin near Hama. Although heavily outnumbered, Saladin and his veteran soldiers decisively defeated the Zengids. After his victory, he proclaimed himself kings and suppressed the name of as-Salih Ismail al-Malik (Nur al-Din's adolescent son) in Friday prayers and Islamic coinage, replacing it with his own name. The Abbasid caliph, al-Mustadi, graciously welcomed Saladin's assumption of power and gave him the title of "Sultan of Egypt and Syria".

In the spring of 1176, another major confrontation occurred between the Zengids and the Ayyubids, this time at the Sultan's Mound, Template:Km to mi from Aleppo. Saladin again emerged victorious, but Saif al-Din managed to narrowly escape. The Ayyubids proceeded to take other Syrian cities in the north, namely Ma'arat al-Numan, A'zaz, Buza'a, and Manbij, but failed to capture Aleppo after a second siege. An agreement was laid out, however, whereby Gumushtigin, the governor of Aleppo, and his Muslim allies at Hisn Kayfa and Mardin would recognize Saladin as the sovereign of his dominions in Syria while Saladin allowed for Gumushtigin and as-Salih to continue their rule of Aleppo.

While Saladin was in Syria, his brother al-Adil ruled Egypt, and in 1174-75, Kanz al-Dawla of Aswan revolted against the Ayyubids with the intention of restoring Fatimid rule. His main backers were the local Bedouins and Nubians, but he also enjoyed the support of a multitude of other groups, including the Armenian Christians. Coincidental or even in coordination, was an uprising by Abbas ibn Shadi who overran Qus along the Nile River in central Egypt. Both rebellions were crushed by al-Adil. For the rest of that year and in throughout early 1176, Qaraqush continued his raids in western North Africa, bringing the Ayyubids into conflict with the Almohads who ruled the Maghreb.

In 1177, Saladin led a force of some 26,000 soldiers according to William of Tyre into southern Palestine after hearing that most of the Kingdom of Jerusalem's soldiers were besieging Harim north of Aleppo. Suddenly attacked by the Templars under Baldwin IV of Jerusalem near Ramla, the Ayyubid army was defeated at the Battle of Montgisard, with the majority its troops being killed. Saladin encamped at Hims the following year and a few skirmishes between his forces under Farrukh-Shah and the Crusaders occurred. Undeterred, Saladin invaded the Crusader states from the west and won a victory over Baldwin at the Battle of Marj Ayyun in 1179. The following year, he destroyed the newly-built Crusader castle of Chastellet at the Battle of Jacob's Ford. In the campaign of 1182, he sparred with Baldwin again in the inconclusive Battle of Belvoir Castle in Kawkab al-Hawa. The na'ib ("deputy governor") of Yemen, Uthman al-Zandjili, conquered the greater part of Hadramaut in 1180, upon Turan-Shah's departure to Yemen.

In May 1182, Saladin finally captured Aleppo after a brief siege. The new governor of the city, Imad al-Din Zangi II, was unpopular with his subjects and surrendered Aleppo after Saladin agreed to restore his previous control over Sinjar, ar-Raqqah, and Nusaybin—which would act as vassal territories under the Ayyubids. Aleppo formally entered Ayyubid hands on June 12. The day after, Saladin marched to Harim, near the Crusader-held Antioch and took hold of the city when its garrison forced out their leader, Surhak, who was then briefly detained and released by Taqi al-Din. The surrender of Aleppo and Saladin's allegiance with Zangi had left Izz al-Din al-Mas'ud of Mosul the only major Muslim rival of the Ayyubids in the Middle East. Mosul had been subjected to a short siege in the autumn of 1182, but after mediation by the Abbasid caliph an-Nasir, Saladin withdrew his forces. Mas'ud attempted to align himself with the Artuqids of Mardin, but they became allies of Saladin instead. In 1183, Irbil too switched allegiance to the Ayyubids. Mas'ud then sought the support of Pahlawan bin Muhammad, the governor of Azerbaijan, and although he did not usually intervene in the region, the possibility of it induced Saladin to be cautious about attacking Mosul.

An arrangement was made where al-Adil was to administer Aleppo in the name of Saladin's son al-Afdal, while Egypt was given to Taqi al-Din who would hold it in the name of Saladin's other son Uthman. When the two sons were to come of age they would assume power in the two territories, but if any died, one of Saladin's brothers would take their place. In the summer of 1183, after ravaging the eastern Galilee, Saladin's raids there culminated in the Battle of al-Fule in the Jezreel Valley between him and the Crusaders under Guy of Lusignan. The mostly hand-to-hand fighting ended indecisively. The two armies withdrew to a mile from each other and while the Crusaders discussed internal matters, Saladin captured the Golan Heights, cutting the Crusaders off from their main supplies source. In October 1183 and then in August 13, 1184, Saladin and al-Adil besieged Kerak, but to no avail. Afterward, the Ayyubids raided Samaria, burning down Nablus. Saladin returned to Damascus in September 1184 and there was generally peaceful environment between the Crusader states and the Ayyubid empire in 1184-85.

Saladin launched his last offensive against Mosul in late 1185, hoping for an easy victory over a presumably demoralized Mas'ud, but failed due to city's unexpectedly tough resistance and a serious illness which caused him to withdraw to Harran. Upon Abbasid encouragement, Saladin and Mas'ud negotiated a treaty in March 1186 that left the Zengids in control of Mosul, but they would be obligated to supply the Ayyubids with military aid when demanded.

Saladin besieged Tiberias in the eastern Galilee on July 3, 1187 and the Crusader army attempted to attack the Ayyubids by way of Kafr Kanna. After hearing of the Crusader march, Saladin led his guard back to their main camp at Kafr Sabt, leaving a small detachment at Tiberias. Saladin with a clear view of the Crusader army ordered Taqi al-Din to block them from entering Hattin by taking a position near Lubya, while Gokbori and his troops were stationed at the hill near al-Shajara. On July 4, the Crusaders advanced toward the Horns of Hattin and charged against the Muslim forces, but were overwhelmed and defeated decisively. Four days after the battle, Saladin invited al-Adil to join him in the reconquest of Palestine. On July 8, Acre was captured by Saladin, while his brigades seized Nazareth and Saffuriya; others took Haifa and Caesarea, and another Ayyubid detachment took Sebastia and Nablus, while al-Adil conquered Mirabel and Jaffa. On July 26, Saladin returned to the coast, and next received the surrender of Sarepta, Sidon, Beirut, and Jableh. In August, the Ayyubids conquered Ramla, Darum, Gaza, Bayt Jibrin, and Latrun. Ascalon was taken on September 4. In September-October 1187, the Ayyubids besieged Jerusalem, taking possession of it on October 2 after negotiations with Balian of Ibelin.

Kerak and Mont Real in Oultrejordain soon fell, followed by Safad in the Galilee. By the end of that year the Ayyubids were in control of virtually the entire Crusader kingdom in the Levant with the exception of Tyre, which held out under Conrad of Montferrat. In December, an Ayyubid army consisting of the garrisons of Saladin and his brothers from Aleppo, Hama, and Egypt besieged Tyre. Half of the Muslim naval fleet was seized by Conrad's forces on December 29, followed by an Ayyubid defeat on the shoreline of the city. On January 1, 1188, Saladin held a war council afterward where a withdrawal was agreed. While they fought the Crusaders in the Levant, the Ayyubids under Sharaf al-Din wrested control of Kairouan from the Almohads in North Africa.

Pope Gregory VIII called for a Third Crusade against the Muslims in early 1189. Frederick Barbarossa of the Holy Roman Empire, Philip Augustus of France, and Richard the Lionhearted of England allied themselves to reconquer Jerusalem. Meanwhile, the Crusaders and the Ayyubids fought near Acre that year and were joined by the reinforcements in Europe. From 1189 to 1191, Acre was besieged by the Crusaders, and despite initial Muslim successes, it fell to Richard's forces. A massacre of 2,700 Turkish inhabitants ensued and the Crusaders then planned to take Ascalon in the south. The Crusaders, now under the unified command of Richard, defeated Saladin at the Battle of Arsuf, allowing for the Crusader conquest of Jaffa and much of coastal Palestine, but nonetheless, they were unable to recover the interior. Instead, Richard signed a treaty with Saladin in 1192, restoring the Kingdom of Jerusalem to a coastal strip between Jaffa and Beirut. It was the last major effort of Saladin's career, as he died the next year, in 1193.

Fight for the sultanate

Rather than establishing a centralized empire, Saladin had established hereditary ownership throughout his lands, dividing his empire among kinsmen, with family members receiving semi-autonomous fiefs and principalities. Although these princes owed allegiance to the Ayyubid sultan, with their own territories, they were relatively independent. Upon Saladin's death, az-Zahir took Aleppo from al-Adil per the arrangement and Uthman held Cairo, while his eldest son, al-Afdal retained Damascus—which also included Palestine and much of Lebanon. Al-Adil then acquired northern Mesopotamia, known as al-Jazira, where he held the Zengids of Mosul at bay and his son al-Mu'azzam took possession of Kerak and Transjordan.

Soon, however, Saladin's sons fell to squabbling over the division of the empire. Saladin had appointed al-Afdal the governorship of Damascus with the intention that his son should continue to see the city as his principal place of residence in order to emphasize the primacy of the jihad ("holy struggle") against the Crusader states. Al-Afdal, however, found that his attachment to Damascus contributed to his undoing. Several of his fathers subordinate emirs left the city for Cairo to lobby al-Adil to oust him on claims he was inexperienced and had the intent to sweep out the old Ayyubid guard. In 1194, Uthman openly demanded the sultanate—al-Adil encouraged him to act before al-Afdal's perceived incompetence put the Ayyubid empire in jeopardy. Uthman's claim to the thrown was settled in a series of assaults on Damascus in 1196, forcing al-Afdal to leave for a less high-profile post at Salkhad. Al-Adil established himself in Damascus as a lieutenant of Uthman, but wielded much influence in the empire.

When Uthman died in a hunting accident near Cairo, al-Afdal was again made sultan, al-Adil having been absent in a campaign in the northeast. He returned and managed to occupy the Citadel of Damascus, but then faced a strong assault from the forces grouped under al-Afdal and his brother az-Zahir. These forces disintegrated under al-Afdal's leadership and in 1200, al-Adil returned to the offensive. Upon Uthman's death, two clans within the empire opposed each other; the mamluks whom Shirkuh and Saladin had enlisted—the Asadiyya and Salahiyya. The latter backed al-Adil in his struggles against al-Afdal. With their support, al-Adil conquered Cairo in 1200, and forced al-Afdal to accept internal banishment. He proclaimed himself Sultan of Egypt and Syria afterward and entrusted the governance of Damascus to al-Mu'azzam and al-Jazira to his other son al-Kamil. Around 1200, a sharif ("tribal head") Qatada ibn Idris seized power in Mecca and was recognized as the emir of the city by al-Adil.

Al-Afdal strove to retrieve Damascus on last time, but failed in doing so. Al-Adil entered the city in triumph in 1201. Az-Zahir still held Aleppo and al-Afdal was given Samosata in Anatolia. Now age 60, al-Adil's line rather than Saladin's would dominate the next 50 years of Ayyubid rule. He redistributed his possessions between his sons: al-Kamil was to succeed him in Egypt, al-Ashraf received al-Jazira, and Awhad was given Diyar Bakr, but the latter territory shifted to al-Ashraf's domain after Awhad died.

Crusader ships attacking the tower of Damietta in 1218

Al-Adil aroused open hostility from the Hanbali "lobby" in Damascus for largely ignoring the Crusaders, having launched only one campaign against them. He felt that the Crusader army was invincible in a straight fight. Prolonged campaigns also involved the difficulties of maintaining a coherent Arab coalition. The trend under al-Adil was steady growth of the empire, mainly through the expansion of Ayyubid authority in al-Jazira and Armenia. The Abbasids eventually recognized al-Adil's role as sultan in 1207. A Crusader military campaign was launched on November 3, 1217, beginning with an offensive towards Transjordan. Al-Mu'azzam urged al-Adil to launch a counter-attack, but he refused his son's proposal. In 1218, the fortress of Damietta in the Nile Delta was besieged by the Crusaders. After two failed attempts, the fortress eventually capitulated on August 25. Six days later al-Adil died, reportedly of shock.

Al-Kamil proclaimed himself sultan in Cairo, while his brother al-Mu'azzam claimed the throne in Damascus. Al-Kamil attempted to retake the fortress, but was forced back by John of Brienne. After learning of a conspiracy against him, he fled, leaving the Egyptian army leaderless. Panic ensued, but with the help of al-Mu'azzam, al-Kamil regrouped his forces. By then, however, the Crusaders had seized his camp. The Ayyubids offered to negotiate for the withdrawal from Damietta, offering the restoration of Palestine to the Kingdom of Jerusalem, with the exception of the forts of Mont Real and Kerak. This was refused by the leader of the Fifth Crusade, Pelagius of Albano and in 1221, they were driven out of the Nile Delta after the Ayyubid victory at Mansura.

Disintegration

In the east, the Khwarezemids under Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu captured the town of Khilat from al-Ashraf, while the Rasulids, who were loyalists to the Ayyubids, began to influence their holdings in Arabia. In 1222, the Ayyubids appointed Ali Bin Rasul as governor of Mecca. Ayyubid rule in Yemen and the Hejaz was declining and the governor of Yemen, Mas'ud bin Kamil was forced to leave for Egypt in 1223. He appointed Nur ad-Din Umar as his deputy governor when he was absent. In 1224, a local dynasty, al-Yamani, gained control of Hadramaut from the Ayyubids who held it loosely due the troubled situation of their administration in Yemen proper. Following Mas'ud's death in 1229, Nur ad-Din Umar declared himself the independent ruler of Yemen and discontinued payment of the annual tribute to the Ayyubids in Egypt.

Under Frederick II, a Sixth Crusade was launched, capitalizing on an ongoing internal strife between al-Kamil and the Ayyubids of Syria and Palestine led by al-Mu'azzam. Al-Kamil, therefore, offered Jerusalem to Frederick to avoid a Syrian invasion of Egypt, but the emperor refused. His position was strengthened when al-Mu'azzam died in 1227 and was succeeded by his son an-Nasir Dawud. He continued negotiations with Frederick in Acre in 1228 leading to the establishment of a limited truce, signed in February 1229. It gave the Crusaders control over an unfortified Jerusalem for over ten years, although the Muslims would hold control over Islamic holy places in the city. Although the treaty was virtually meaningless in military terms, an-Nasir Dawud used it provoke the sentiments of Syria's citizens a Friday sermon by a popular preacher at the Umayyad Mosque "reduced the crowd to violent sobbing and tears."

The settlement with the Crusaders was accompanied by a proposed new division of the Ayyubid principalities; Damascus and its territories would go to al-Ashraf, but clearly recognizing al-Kamil's sovereignty. An-Nasir Dawud resisted the settlement, incensed by the Ayyubid-Crusader truce. Al-Kamil's forces reached Damascus to enforce the proposed agreement in May 1229. The siege put great pressure on the city, but the inhabitants rallied to an-Nasir Dawud, conscious of al-Mu'azzam's stable rule and shocked at the treaty with Frederick. After one month, however, an-Nasir Dawud sued for a peaceful outcome and was given a new principality centered around Kerak, while al-Ashraf—governor of the Diyar Bakr—assumed governorship of Damascus.

Al-Ashraf's rule in Damascus was stable, but he and the other emirs of Syria sought to assert their independence from Cairo. In the midst of these tensions, al-Ashraf died in August 1237 after a four-month illness and was succeeded by his brother as-Salih Ismail. Two months later, al-Kamil's Egyptian army arrived and besieged Damascus, but as-Salih Ismail had laid waste the suburbs of the city to deny al-Kamil's forces shelter. In 1232, al-Kamil installed his eldest son as-Salih Ayyub to govern Hisn Kayfa, but on al-Kamil's death in 1238, Ayyub disputed control of Egypt with his younger brother al-Adil II who had been proclaimed sultan in Cairo. Ayyub eventually occupied Damascus in December 1238, but his uncle Ismail took back the city in September 1239, although he himself was detained by his cousin an-Nasir Dawud in Kerak in order to prevent his arrest by al-Adil. He allied with Dawud who released him the following year, allowing him to proclaim himself sultan in place of al-Adil in May 1240. Meanwhile, the Seljuks were advancing towards al-Jazira, and the descendants of Qatada ibn Idris quarreled with their Ayyubid overlords over control of Mecca. The latter was taken advantage of by the Rasulids of Yemen who attempted to end the Ayyubid suzerainty in the Hejaz and bring the area under their control.

Throughout the early 1240's, Ayyub carried out reprisals against those who supported al-Adil, and he then quarreled with an-Nasir Dawud who was reconciling with as-Salih Ismail of Damascus. The rival sultans Ayyub and Ismail attempted to ally with the Crusaders against the other, but eventually the Crusaders retained their alliance with Ayyub's Egypt. In 1244-45, Ayyub had seized Judea and Samaria from an-Nasir Dawud; he took possession of Jerusalem then marched on to take Damascus which fell with relative ease in October 1245, thereby restoring Syro-Egyptian Ayyubid unity. The rupture of the alliance between the Khwarizmids and Ayyub ended with the virtual destruction of the former by al-Mansur in October 1246.

Culture

Architecture

Military architecture was the supreme expression of the Ayyubid period, as well as an eagerness to fortify the restoration of Sunni Islam, especially in a previously Shia-dominated Egypt, by constructing Sunni madrasas. The most radical change Saladin implemented in Egypt was the enclosure of Cairo and al-Fustat within one city wall. Some of the techniques of fortification were learned from the Crusaders, such as curtain walls following the natural topography. Many were also inherited from the Fatimids like machicolations and round towers, while other techniques were developed simultaneously by the Ayyubids, particularly concentric planning.

In September 1183, construction of the Cairo Citadel began under Saladin's orders. According to al-Maqrizi, Saladin chose the Muqattam Hills to build the citadel because the air there was fresher than anywhere else in the city, but its construction was not so much determined by the salubrious atmosphere; rather it was out of defensive necessity and example of existing fortresses and citadels in Syria. The walls and towers of the northern section of the citadel are largely the works of Saladin and al-Kamil. Al-Maqrizi stated that some of the smaller pyramids of Giza were demolished to provide masonry. Al-Kamil completed the citadel; he strengthened and enlarged some of the existing towers, and also added a number of square towers which served as self-contained keeps. Two of Saladin's towers were totally encased by semi-circular units. According to Richard Yeomans, the most impressive of al-Kamil's structures was the series of massive rectangular keeps which straddled the walls of the northern enclosure. All of al-Kamil's fortifications can be identified by their embossed, rusticated masonry, unlike Saladin's towers which have smooth dressed stones. This heavier rustic style became a common feature in other Ayyubid fortifications, and can be seen the Citadel of Damascus, and that of Bosra in Syria.

When the Saladin restored Sunni orthodoxy in Egypt, ten madrasas were established during his reign, and twent-five during the entire Ayyubid period of rule. Each of their locations had religious, political, and economic significance, in particular those in al-Fustat. Most of the schools were dedicated to the Shafi'i denomination, but others belonged to the Maliki and Hanafi madhabs. The madrasas built near the tomb of Imam al-Shafi'i were located adjacent to the important centers of pilgrimage and a major focus of Sunni devotion.

Science

The facilities and patronage provided by the Ayyubids led a resurgence in intellectual activity in different branches of knowledge and learning throughout the territories they controlled. They took special interest in the fields of medicine, pharmacology, and botany. Saladin built and maintained two hospitals in Cairo emulating the well-known Nuri Hospital in Damascus which not only treated patients, but provided medical schooling. Many scientists and physicians flourished in this period in Egypt, the Levant, and Iraq. Among them were Maimonides, Ibn Jami, Abdul Latif al-Baghdadi, al-Dakhwar,Rashidun al-Suri, and Ibn al-Baitar.

See also

• List of Ayyubid rulers
• History of Arab Egypt

Bibliography

• Ali, Abdul (1996), Islamic Dynasties of the Arab East: State and Civilization During the Later Medieval Times, M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd, ISBN 8175330082, 9788175330085 {{citation}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
• Burns, Ross (2005), Damascus: A History, Routledge, ISBN 0415271053, 9780415271059 {{citation}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
• Brice, William Charles (1981), An Historical Atlas of Islam, BRILL, ISBN 9004061169, 9789004061163 {{citation}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
• Gibbs, Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen; Bosworth, C.E. (1989), The Encyclopaedia of Islam: Fascicules 111-112 : Masrah Mawlid, BRILL, ISBN 9004092390, 9789004092396 {{citation}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
• Lane-Poole, Stanley (1898), Saladin and the Fall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, Putnam
• Lyons, M. C. (1982), Saladin: the Politics of the Holy War, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-31739-9 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Lev, Yaacov (1999), Saladin in Egypt, BRILL, ISBN 9004112219, 9789004112216 {{citation}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
• Margariti, Roxani Eleni (2007), Aden & the Indian Ocean trade: 150 years in the life of a medieval Arabian port, UNC Press, ISBN 0807830763, 9780807830765 {{citation}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
• Meri, Josef W.; Bacharach, Jeri L. (2006), Medieval Islamic civilization: An Encyclopedia, Taylor and Francis, ISBN 0415966914, 9780415966917 {{citation}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
• Salibi, Kamal S. (1998), The Modern History of Jordan, I.B.Tauris, ISBN 1860643310, 9781860643316 {{citation}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
• Shillington, Kevin (2005), Encyclopedia of African history, CRC Press, ISBN 1579584535, 9781579584535 {{citation}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
• Smail, R.C. (1995), Crusading Warfare 1097–1193, Barnes & Noble Books, ISBN 1-56619-769-4

External links

• Ayyubids Dynasty