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A large proportion of Chileans are NOT of Spanish descent.
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<ref>{{cite news | first= | last= | coauthors= | title=Venezuela | date= | publisher= | url =http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-32719/Venezuela | work =Encyclopædia Britannica | pages = | accessdate = 2007-08-25 | language = }}</ref>
<ref>{{cite news | first= | last= | coauthors= | title=Venezuela | date= | publisher= | url =http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-32719/Venezuela | work =Encyclopædia Britannica | pages = | accessdate = 2007-08-25 | language = }}</ref>
|region8 = {{flagicon|Peru}} [[Peru]]
|region8 = {{flagicon|Peru}} [[Peru]]
|pop8 = 5.4 mill (c. 17 mill<sup>[[#2|2]]</sup>)
|pop8 = 4.2 mill (c. 14 mill<sup>[[#2|2]]</sup>)
|ref8 =
|ref8 =
<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/pe.html#People Peru: Ethnic groups]</ref>
<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/pe.html#People Peru: Ethnic groups]</ref>

Revision as of 05:10, 24 June 2009

"Spaniard" redirects here. For other uses, see Spaniard (disambiguation).
Spanish people
Españoles

1st row: Isabella of Castile • Ferdinand II of Aragon • Cortés • Loyola • Charles V • Teresa of Ávila
2nd row: Cervantes • Francisco Goya • José María de Pereda • Rosalía de Castro • Pérez Galdós • Leopoldo Alas

3rd row: Gaudí • Picasso • Dalí • Juan Carlos I of Spain • Antonio Banderas • Rafael Nadal
Regions with significant populations
Spain Spain 40,889,060 [1]
(Spanish descent only)
 Argentina25 mill (>30 mill1)[2]
Brazil Brazil15 mill (>20 mill4)[3]
 Mexico15 mill (c. 75 mill1)
 ChileN/A Many Chileans are not ethnically Spanish.
 Colombia8.4 mill (>42 mill1)[4]
Cuba Cuba7 mill (c. 10 mill2)[5]
Venezuela Venezuela5.6 mill (c. 22 mill2)[6]
Peru Peru4.2 mill (c. 14 mill2)[7]
Costa Rica Costa Rica3.2 mill (c. 4 mill2)[8]
 Puerto Rico3.2 mill[9]
Philippines Philippines2,688,000 (Including Mestizos and those of mixed ancestry)[10]
United States United States2,487,092 (>45 mill3)
[11]
Uruguay Uruguay1.8 mill (>3 mill1)[12]
 France1.5 mill[13]
Dominican Republic Dominican Republic1.5 mill (c. 9.1 mill2)[14]
Bolivia Bolivia1.3 mill (c. 4.4 mill2)[15]
Ecuador Ecuador0.9 mill (c. 9.5 mill2)[16]
Nicaragua Nicaragua0.9 mill (c. 4.7 mill2)[17]
 El Salvador0.6 mill (c. 6.7 mill2)[18]
Guatemala Guatemala0.5 mill (c. 7.3 mill2)[19]
United Kingdom United Kingdom0.33 mill (inc. through Latin American ancestries[citation needed]
Panama Panama0.3 mill (c. 2.5 mill2)[20]
Paraguay Paraguay0.3 mill (c. 4.3 mill2)[citation needed]
Honduras Honduras0.2 mill (c. 6.7 mill2)[citation needed]
Germany Germany130,000[21]
Switzerland Switzerland84,000[citation needed]
Australia Australia75,237 (c. 58,271)[22]
Canada Canada66,545 (213,1051)
[23]
Belize Belize45,000[24]
Belgium Belgium43,000[25]
 Philippines17,000[26]
Languages
Spanish, and other Languages of Spain.
Religion
Christianity (Predominantly Roman Catholic) and others, including atheists.
Related ethnic groups
Portuguese, French, Italians, Hispanics.
#Including those of mixed Spanish and other European ancestry, and mestizos
  1. Including mestizos and/or mulattos.
  2. Including those of mixed Spanish and other European ancestry, other Hispanics of direct Spanish descent, and Spanish-descended mestizos and mulattos.
  3. Including Brazilians of mixed Spanish and other European ancestry, and Spanish-descended mestizos and/or mulattos.

Spanish people or Spaniards constitute the nation or ethnic group native of Spain, a country in the Iberian Peninsula, in southwestern Europe. Spaniards are largely descended from prehistoric indigenous Iberian peoples, although there has been a subsequent long history of migrations that have also left their mark. Substantial populations descended from Spanish colonists and immigrants also exist in other parts of the world, most notably in Latin America, where they are mainly mixed to varying extents with many other groups, most usually, but not only, with indigenous Americans. Within Spain itself, the Spanish identity is often considered not so much as a proper ethnicity in its own right, but rather, as an amalgam of distinct regional ethnic groups.

Historical background

Main language areas in Iberia circa 200 BC.

The earliest modern humans inhabiting Spain are believed to have been Paleolithic peoples that may have arrived in the Iberian Peninsula as early as 35,000-40,000 years ago. In more recent times the Iberians are believed to have arrived or developed in the region between the 4th millennium BC and the 3rd millennium BC, initially settling along the Mediterranean coast.

Celtic tribes arrived in Iberia between the 9th century BC and the 6th century BC. Some of those tribes in north-central Spain, which had cultural contact with the Iberians, are called Celtiberians. In addition, a group known as the Tartessians and later Turdetanians inhabited southwestern Spain and who are believed to have developed a separate civilization of Phoenician influence. The seafaring Phoenicians, Greeks and Carthaginians successively settled along the Mediterranean coast and founded trading colonies there over a period of several centuries. The Second Punic War between the Carthaginians and Romans was fought mainly in what is now Spain and Portugal.[27]

The Roman Republic annexed Iberia during the 2nd century BC and transformed most of the region into a series of Latin-speaking provinces. As a result of Roman colonization, the majority of local languages, with the exception of Basque, stem from the Vulgar Latin that was spoken in Hispania (Roman Iberia), which evolved into the modern languages of the Iberian peninsula, including Castilian, which became the unifying language of Spain, and is now known in most countries as Spanish. Hispania, emerged as an important part of the Roman Empire and produced notable historical figures such as Trajan, Hadrian and Seneca.

The Germanic Vandals and their subordinates the Iranic Alans arrived around 409 AD. The Vandals may have given their name to the region of Andalusia, which according to one of several theories of its etymology which would be the source of Al-Andalus — the Arabic name of Iberian Peninsula). The Vandals were displaced to North Africa by another Germanic tribe, the Visigoths who conquered the region around 415 AD and became the dominant power in Iberia for three centuries. Iberian-Roman culture eventually romanized the Visigoths and other tribes. Another Germanic tribe, the Suebi (including the Buri), who arrived at roughly the same time as the Vandals, became established in the old North western Roman province of Gallaecia a kingdom which survived until late 6th century when it too was integrated by the Visigoths.

In 711, the Iberian Peninsula was invaded by Muslim, Moroccan Berbers, popularly known as the Moors, who conquered nearly all the peninsula except the Kingdom of Asturias in the very northern part and subsequently ruled part of the region as Al-Andalus, but were driven south during their reign, ruling areas from between three to nearly eight centuries, ending with their defeat in 1492. These Muslim invaders were mainly of Moroccan Berber origin with prominent Arab tribal leaders mixed in and they converted many locals to Islam to the point that at certain points in time Muslims outnumbered Christians. Muslims of Hispanic origin were generally known as Muladis (or Muwalladin in Arabic), "those born of foreign parentage" (though the idea "foreign" in this case meant "foreign" to the Arab and Berbers).

In the 10th century a massive conversion of Christians took place, so that muladies comprised the majority of the population of Islamic Spain by the century's end.[28] Muslim Iberia was known as Al-Andalus. Ultimately, most Muslims and Sephardi Jews were either converted to Catholicism or expelled after the Christian reconquest (Reconquista). Between 1609 and 1614, approximately 300,000 Moriscos—new Christians converted from Islam who continued to speak, write, and dress like Muslims—were forcibly expelled from Spain.[29]

The union of the Christian Kingdoms of Castille and Aragon and the conquest of Granada led to the formation of the Spanish state as we know it today and thus to the development of Spanish identity in the form of one people. The Canary Islands had an Indigenous population called the Guanches whose origin is still the subject of discussion among historians and linguists.

Emigration

In the 16th century perhaps 240,000 Spaniards entered American ports. They were joined by 450,000 in the next century.[30] Since the conquest of Mexico and Peru these two regions became the principal destinations of Spanish migrants in the 16th century.[31] In the period 1850-1950, 3.5 million Spanish left for the Americas, particularly Argentina, Uruguay, Brazil, and Cuba.[32] From 1840 to 1890, as many as 40,000 Canary Islanders emigrated to Venezuela.[33] 94,000 Spaniards chose to go to the Algeria in the last years of the 19th century, and 250,000 Spaniards lived in Morocco at the beginning of the 20th century.[32]

By the end of the Spanish Civil War, some 500,000 Spanish Republican refugees had crossed the border into France.[34] From 1961 to 1974, at the height of the guest worker in Western Europe, about 100,000 Spaniards emigrated each year.[32]

Ethnicities and regions

Spain's regions and nationalities

Valencian girls in historical costumes.

Spain itself consists of various regional populations including the Castilians[35], the Catalans, Valencians and Balearics (speakers of Catalan, a distinct Romance language in eastern Spain), the Navarrese, the Basques (people inhabiting the Basque country), Basque language speakers, and the Galicians, who speak Galician. Regional diversity is important to many Spaniards, and some regions also have strong local identities and dialects such as Asturias, Aragon, the Canary Islands, León and Andalusia.

The Roma

Spain is home to around 200,000 Spanish-Roma (Gitanos). Roma are a formerly-nomadic group, which spread across Western Asia, North Africa and Europe, reaching Spain in the 15th century. Gitanos, for a number of historical and cultural reasons are not considered a separate or "foreign" population in Spain, but a distinct ethnicity which overlaps with the wider Spanish ethnicity. Indeed, Gitanos play an important role in particularly Andalusian folklore, music and culture. There are no official statistics on the Gitano population in Spain. Estimates range from 600 000 to 700 000, making Spain, together with Romania and Bulgaria, home to one of the largest Roma communities in Europe. Over 40% of Gitanos live in the region of Andalusia, where they have traditionally enjoyed a higher degree of integration than in the rest of the country. A number of Spanish "gitanos" also live in Southern France, especially in the region of Perpignan.

Ancestry

The ancestry of the peoples in Iberia is largely consistent with geographic position, the Iberian Peninsula being located on the extreme southwest of Europe. There are clear connections with the Mediterranean peoples as well as with those of Atlantic and Western Europe.

The Paleolithic and Neolithic basis of modern Iberian ancestry

Distribution of R1a (purple) and R1b (red). See also: this map for R1b distribution in Europe; this one for a genetic map of Europe; this one for another genetic map of Europe; this one for the Y haplogroups of the world.

A 2007 European-wide study including Spanish Basques and Valencian Spaniards, found Iberian populations to cluster the furthest from other continental groups, implying that Iberia holds the most ancient European ancestry. In this study, the most prominent genetic stratification in Europe was found to run from the north to the south-east, while another important axis of differentiation runs east-west across the continent. It also found, despite the differences, that all Europeans are closely related.[36]

Previous Y-chromosome and mtDNA analysis[37] already pointed to Paleolithic ancestry among populations in the Iberian Peninsula. Although this methodology does not provide strong inferences on genetic population structure, it is useful in tracing parts of the routes of migration in the populating of Europe. Both Y-chromosome haplogroups R1b and Mtdna haplogroup H, reach frequencies above 60% in most of Iberia, R1b peaking at 90% in the Basque region.[38] This shows an ancestral bond between Iberia and the rest of western Europe, and in particular with Atlantic Europe, which share high frequencies of these haplogroups. Y-chromosome and mtDNA analysis seems to support the theory according to which founder populations in northern Iberia colonized the rest of western Europe at the end of the last glaciation.[39]

In fact, according to one article, the main components in the European genomes appear to derive from ancestors whose features were similar to those of modern Basques and Near Easterners, with average values greater than 35% for both these parental populations, regardless of whether or not molecular information is taken into account. The lowest degree of both Basque and Near Eastern admixture is found in Finland, whereas the highest values are, respectively, 70% in Spain and more than 60% in the Balkans.[40][41]

Autosomal studies using a small number of classical genetic markers, supported by more recent analysis of Microsatellite data, have lent support for a large Neolithic element in the European genome, supporting the demic diffusion model from the ancient Near East. This Neolithic component has also been detected at substantial levels in Spain, but at greatly reduced levels to those detected in other European countries to the north and east. Broad gradients across Europe, largely on South East/North West cline using a small number of classical genetic markers would thus link the populations of Western Europe (including Iberia) by a common "paleolithic" ancestry and those of eastern (and particularly south eastern) Europe by a common "neolithic" ancestry[40] Nevertheless the demic diffusion model remains controversial, to the degree that studies of ancient Mtdna have been interpreted as pointing to the absence of a Neolithic contribution in modern European populations.[citation needed]

A European wide study including Spaniards states: No significant correlation is apparent between North African admixture and geography. Genetic exchanges across the Mediterranean Sea, and especially in its western-most part where the geographic distance between continents is smallest (Spain), seem to have been limited or very limited, establishing the North African contribution at between 2.5% and 3.4%. [42][43]

Other historical influences

Haplogroup composition of the ancient Iberians was very similar to that found in modern Iberian Peninsula populations, suggesting a long-term genetic continuity since pre-Roman times [7] [8] [9]. Nonetheless, The ancestry of modern Spaniards has also been influenced in a smaller degree by the many peoples which have passed on its territory throughout history. These peoples include Iberians, Celts, Celtiberians, Phoenicians (Punics or Carthaginians), Greeks (Ancient and Byzantine), Romans, Germanic tribes (Vandals, Suebi and Visigoths), Saqalibas (Slavs), Alans, Jews (Sephardim) or Marranos, Berbers and Arabs (Moors) and in Andalucia the Roma people (Gitanos). There was also a repopulation of Northern Andalusia with Germans in the 18th century[10] due to a royal decree of Charles III, which re-introduced Celtic genoma.

There exists a number of studies which focus on the genetic impact of the centuries of Muslim rule in the Iberian peninsula (al-Andalus) on the genetic make up of the Iberian population. Iberia is the region of Europe (along Sicily) with highest presence of the typically North West African Y-chromosome haplotypes E-M81[44][45] and Haplotype Va[46]. A thorough Y-chromosome analysis of the Iberian peninsula reveal that haplotype E-M81 surpasses frequencies of 10% in Southern Iberia.[47] As for Mtdna analysis (Mitochondrial DNA), although present at only low levels, Iberia has much higher frequencies of typically North African Haplogroup U6 than those generally observed in Europe.[48][49][50]. North African ancestry in Iberia (Algarve and Alentejo, Portugal) is largely on the maternal side where the mtDNA contribution of NW Africa to Iberia (given that the average frequency of U6 is 10% in NW Africa compared with 1.8% in Iberia) can be estimated at 8%.[51][52][53] It is difficult to ascertain that U6's presence is the consequence of Islam's expansion into Europe during the Middle Ages.[54]

A wide ranging study (published 2007) using 6,501 unrelated Y-chromosome samples from 81 populations found that: “Considering both these E-M78 sub-haplogroups (E-V12, E-V22, E-V65) and the E-M81 haplogroup, the contribution of northern African lineages to the entire male gene pool of Iberia is 5.6%. ”[55]

In fact, a European wide study including Spaniards states: No significant correlation is apparent between North African admixture and geography. Genetic exchanges across the Mediterranean Sea, and especially in its western-most part where the geographic distance between continents is smallest (Spain), seem to have been limited or very limited, establishing the North African contribution at 2.5/3.4%. [11] [12]

According to a widely publicited recent study (December 2008) published in the American Journal of Human Genetics, 19.8 percent of modern Spaniards (and Portuguese) have DNA reflecting Sephardic Jewish ancestry (compared to 10.6 percent having DNA reflecting Moorish ancestors with wide geographical variation, ranging from 2.5% in Catalonia to 21.7% in Northwest Castile)[56]. The Sephardic result is in contradiction [57][58][59][60][61] or not replicated in all the body of genetic studies done in Iberia and conflicts with mainstream historiography (denies Neolithic, Roman, Greek, Phoenician, Germanic, Alani, Slavic, Arab and other contributions to modern Iberians) and has been questioned by the authors themselves [62][63][64][65] and by Stephen Oppenheimer who estimates that much earlier migrations, 5000 to 10,000 years ago from the Eastern Mediterranean might also have accounted for the Sephardic estimates: "They are really assuming that they are looking at his migration of Jewish immigrants, but the same lineages could have been introduced in the Neolithic". On the other hand, Chris Tyler-Smith, a collaborator with the team that carried the study[66], argues that the individual differences in Y-chromosome markers suggest that Iberians and Sephardic Jews must share ancestry more recent than several millennia, [67] even though in also a recent study (October 2008) they attributed those same lineages in Iberia and the Balearic Islands as of Phoenician origin [13].

In January 2009, a study by Capelli et al. that analysed only 717 Spanish individuals found the total contribution of specific North African male haplotypes in Spain as 7.7%, with estimates ranging from 0% in Catalonia to 18.6% in Cantabria[68].

The Canary Islands

The inhabitants of the Canary Islands, hold a gene pool that is halfway between the Iberians and the ancient native population, the Guanches (a proto-berber population), although with a major Iberian contribution. Guanche genetic markers have also been found, at low frequencies, in peninsular Spain, probably as a result of slavery and/or later immigration from the Canary Islands.[69]

Modern immigration

The population of Spain is becoming increasingly diverse due to recent immigration. Spain now has among the highest per capita immigration rates in the world and the second highest absolute net migration in the World (after the USA).[70] and immigrants now make up about 10% of the population. Since 2000, Spain has absorbed more than 3 million immigrants, with thousands more arriving each year.[71] Immigrant population now tops over 4.5 million.[72] They come mainly from Europe, Latin America, China, the Philippines, North Africa and West Africa.[73](see Immigration to Spain).

Languages

The vernacular languages of Spain (simplified)
  Spanish official; spoken all over the country
  Catalan/Valencian, co-official
  Basque, co-official
  Galician, co-official
  Aranese, co-official (dialect of Occitan)
  Asturian, recognised
  Aragonese, unofficial
  Leonese, recognised
  Extremaduran, unofficial
  Fala, unofficial
Main article: Spanish language

Languages spoken in Spain include Spanish (castellano or español) (74%), Catalan (català, called valencià in the Valencian Community) (17%), Galician (galego) (7%), and Basque (euskara) (2%).[74] Other languages are Asturian (asturianu), Aranese Gascon (aranés), Aragonese (aragonés), and Leonese, each with their own various dialects. Spanish is the official state language, although the other languages are co-official in a number of autonomous communities.

Peninsular Spanish is largely considered to be divided into two main dialects: Castilian Spanish (spoken in the northern half of the country) and Andalusian Spanish (spoken mainly in Andalusia). However, a large part of Spain, including Madrid, Extremadura, Murcia, and Castilla-la Mancha, speak local dialects known as "transitional dialects" between Andalusian and Castilian Spanish.[75] The Canary Islands also have a distinct dialect of Castilian Spanish which is very close to Caribbean Spanish. Linguistically, the Spanish language is a Romance language and is one of the aspects (including laws and general "ways of life") that makes Spaniards to be labelled a Latin people. The strong Arabic influence on the language (nearly 4,000 words are of Arabic origin, many nouns and few verbs)[76] and the independent evolution of the language itself through history, most notably the Basque influence at the formative stage of Castilian Romance, partially explain its difference from other Romance languages. The Basque language left a strong imprint on Spanish both linguistically and phonetically. Other changes in Spanish have come from borrowings from English and French, although English influence is stronger in Latin America than in Spain.

The number of speakers of Spanish as a mother tongue is roughly 35.6 million, while the vast majority of other groups in Spain such as the Galicians, Catalans, and Basques also speak Spanish as a first or second language, which boosts the number of Spanish speakers to the overwhelming majority of Spain's population of 45.9 million. Mexico has the largest Spanish-speaking population in the world with approximately 100 million speakers.[77]

Spanish was exported to the Americas due to over three centuries of Spanish colonial rule starting with the arrival of Christopher Columbus to Santo Domingo in 1492. Spanish is spoken natively by over 400 million people and spans across most countries of the Americas; from the Southwestern United States in North America down to Tierra del Fuego, the most southernly region of South America in Chile and Argentina. A variety of the language, known as Judæo-Spanish or Ladino (or Haketia in Morocco), is still spoken by descendants of Sephardim (Spanish and Portuguese Jews) who fled Spain following a decree of expulsion of Moors and Jews in 1492. Also, a Spanish creole language known as Chabacano is spoken by less than 1 million people in the Philippines, which developed from the mix of Spanish and native Tagalog and Cebuano languages during Spain's rule of the country through Mexico from 1565 to 1898.

In Russia, the Spaniards who moved there during World War II speak a mix of Russian and Spanish, while some speak Catalan. In Montreal, Quebec, Canada, many Spanish-speaking immigrants relocated in the city adapted a mixed language Franspanol, while they're able to speak French and in addition, English. And in Japan, Latin American descendants of Japanese whom immigrated to the country by the Nikkeijin "right to return" laws are more proficient in Spanish than Japanese.

Religion

Main article: Religion in Spain

According to several sources (Spanish official polls and others, www.ine.es), about 76% self-identify as Christian Catholics, about 2% with another religious faith, and about 19% identify as non-believers or atheists.

Genetic studies, both autosomal and of haplogroup markers, show clearly that Spaniards are closely related to the rest of Europe, and in particular with the population groups of the Atlantic littoral: France, Britain, Ireland and its Iberian neighbour, Portugal.[78] As a western nation it shares strong cultural relationships with the rest of the western world that extends back to the common medieval and Roman inheritances; but it has especially strong cultural relations with those of Italy, Portugal and France, making it a member of Latin Europe.

  Countries where Spanish has official status.
  Countries and regions where Spanish is spoken without official recognition.

Outside of Europe, the Hispanic populations of the Americas form another varied set of peoples that are in one way or another related to Spain culturally and by ancestry. Generalizations about Hispanics as a whole is extremely difficult due to the great variation of the make up of the cultures and ethnic groups of which the Hispanic world is composed. Also, the term Hispanic has many different variations in meaning according to the place, time and context of its use.

Other regions of the world with Spanish influence include parts of Northern and Western Africa and the Philippines. The case of the Philippines being a special one, since this part of the world has inherited its religion, many names and surnames, the names of many cities and provinces or the name of the country itself from the Spanish people, but the use of the Spanish language (which was always a minority language) has been almost lost since the Philippines was taken from Spain by the US in 1898. Some genetic traces of the Spanish period can also be found among the present day population, especially among the upper classes who still continue to use Spanish, although this population is becoming ever smaller.

See also

Footnotes

  1. ^ [http://www.galiciaaberta.com/es/ver/estadisticas-los-extranjeros-padron-habitantes#INMICCAA Revisión del Padrón Municipal de Habitantes 2008 Población según nacionalidad por Comunidades Autónomas]
  2. ^ Argentina: Ethnic groups
  3. ^ [http://www.mae.es/es/MenuPpal/Paises/ArbolPaises/Brasil/Nota+pais/ Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores y de Cooperación. Revisión del Padrón Municipal de Habitantes 2008 Población según nacionalidad por Comunidades Autónomas]
  4. ^ Colombia: Ethnic groups
  5. ^ Template:Es icon "Poblacion Por Color de la Piel y Grupos de Edades, Segun Zona de Residencia y Sexo".
  6. ^ "Venezuela". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2007-08-25. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  7. ^ Peru: Ethnic groups
  8. ^ The Costa Rican people
  9. ^ Puerto Rico: Ethnic groups
  10. ^ [1]
  11. ^ "Ancestry 2000: Census 2000 brief" (pdf). U.S. Census Bureau. p. 5. Retrieved 2007-07-17.
  12. ^ Uruguay: Ethnic groups
  13. ^ "3,7 millions de musulmans en France, Les vrais chiffres". L'Express. 4 December 2003. Retrieved 2007-07-17. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  14. ^ Dominican Republic: Ethnic groups
  15. ^ Bolivia: Ethnic groups
  16. ^ Ecuador: Ethnic groups
  17. ^ Nicaragua: Ethnic groups
  18. ^ El Salvador: Ethnic groups
  19. ^ Guatemala Introduction
  20. ^ Panama: Ethnic groups
  21. ^ Relations between Spain and Germany
  22. ^ "Ancestry by Birthplace of Parent(s)" (EXL). Australian Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved 2007-06-27.
  23. ^ "Population by selected ethnic origins, by province and territory (2001 Census)". Statistics Canada, Canada's National Statistics Agency. Retrieved 2007-07-17.
  24. ^ "Mestizo location in Belize; Location". Retrieved 2008-02-14.
  25. ^ [2]
  26. ^ Belgium: Stock of foreign population by country of nationality, 2001 to 2004
  27. ^ "Ethnographic map of Pre-Roman Iberia". Luís Fraga da Silva - Associação Campo Arqueológico de Tavira, Tavira, Portugal. Retrieved 2007-04-25.
  28. ^ Islamic and Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages. Chapter 5: Ethnic Relations, Thomas F. Glick
  29. ^ Morisco -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia
  30. ^ Axtell, James (September/October 1991), "The Columbian Mosaic in Colonial America", Humanities, 12 (5): 12–18, retrieved 2008-10-08 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  31. ^ Migration to Latin America
  32. ^ a b c Spain: Forging an Immigration Policy, Migration Information Source
  33. ^ "The Spanish of the Canary Islands".
  34. ^ Spanish Civil War fighters look back, BBC News, February 23, 2003
  35. ^ "Anexo:Comunidades autónomas españolas por población". Spanish Wikipedia. Retrieved 2007-04-25.
  36. ^ Measuring European Population Stratification using Microarray Genotype Data [3]
  37. ^ World Haplogroups Maps
  38. ^ Dupanloup, Isabelle; Bertorelle, Giorgio; Chikhi, Lounès; Barbujani, Guido (2004-03-24), "Reduced genetic structure of the Iberian peninsula revealed by Y-chromosome analysis: implications for population demography" (PDF), Molecular Biology and Evolution, 21 (7), Oxford: Oxford University Press: 1361–1372, doi:10.1093/molbev/msh135, ISSN 0737-4038 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help).(PDF)
  39. ^ Flores, Carlos; Maca-Meyer, Nicole; González, Ana M; Oefner, Peter J; Shen, Peidong; Pérez, Jose A; Rojas, Antonio; Larruga, Jose M; Underhill, Peter A (2004-07-28), "Summarized Percent Frequencies of R1b, R1a, I1b* (xM26), E3b1 and J2e", European Journal of Human Genetics, 12, London: Nature Publishing Group: 855–863, doi:10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201225 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  40. ^ a b Dupanloup, Isabelle; Bertorelle, Giorgio; Chikhi, Lounès; Barbujani, Guido (2004-03-24), "Weighted Average Across Loci, and Standard Deviations (SD), of the Estimated Contributions of 4 Parental Populations to European Populations", Molecular Biology and Evolution, 21 (7), Oxford: Oxford University Press: 1361–1372, doi:10.1093/molbev/msh135, ISSN 0737-4038 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  41. ^ Dupanloup, Isabelle; Bertorelle, Giorgio; Chikhi, Lounès; Barbujani, Guido (2004-03-24), "Estimating the Impact of Prehistoric Admixture on the Genome of Europeans Populations to European Populations", Molecular Biology and Evolution, 21 (7), Oxford: Oxford University Press: 1361–1372, doi:10.1093/molbev/msh135, ISSN 0737-4038 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  42. ^ http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/21/7/1361/T03
  43. ^ http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/21/7/1361
  44. ^ http://www.nature.com/ejhg/journal/vaop/ncurrent/abs/ejhg2008258a.html
  45. ^ "Origin, Diffusion, and Differentiation of Y-Chromosome Haplogroups E and J". The American Journal of Human Genetics. Retrieved 2007-04-25.
  46. ^ "North African Berber and Arab influences in the western Mediterranean revealed by Y-chromosome DNA haplotypes". PubMed.org. Retrieved 2007-04-25.
  47. ^ Reduced genetic structure of the Iberian peninsula revealed by Y-chromosome analysis: implications for population demography
  48. ^ "Haplogroup U6 is present at frequencies ranging from 0 to 7% in the various Iberian populations, with an average of 1.8%. Given that the frequency of U6 in NW Africa is 10%, the mtDNA contribution of NW Africa to Iberia can be estimated at 18%. This is larger than the contribution estimated with Y-chromosomal lineages (7%) (Bosch et al. 2001)." Joining the Pillars of Hercules: mtDNA Sequences Show Multidirectional Gene Flow in the Western Mediterranean (2003)
  49. ^ "Although the absolute value of observed U6 frequency in Iberia is low, it reveals a considerable North African female contribution, if we keep in mind that haplogroup U6 is not very common in North Africa itself and virtually absent in the rest of Europe. Indeed, because the range of variation in western North Africa is 4-28%, the estimated minimum input is 8.54%. "African female heritage in Iberia: a reassessment of mtDNA lineage distribution in present times (2005)
  50. ^ "Our results clearly reinforce, extend, and clarify the preliminary clues of an important mtDNA contribution from northwest Africa into the Iberian Peninsula (Côrte-Real et al., 1996; Rando et al., 1998; Flores et al., 2000a; Rocha et al., 1999)(...) Our own data allow us to make minimal estimates of the maternal African pre-Neolithic, Neolithic, and/or recent slave trade input into Iberia. For the former, we consider only the mean value of the U6 frequency in northern African populations, excluding Saharans, Tuareg, and Mauritanians (16%), as the pre-Neolithic frequency in that area, and the present frequency in the whole Iberian Peninsula (2.3%) as the result of the northwest African gene flow at that time. The value obtained (14%) could be as high as 35% using the data of Corte-Real et al. (1996), or 27% with our north Portugal sample." Mitochondrial DNA affinities at the Atlantic fringe of Europe (2003)
  51. ^ "Some mtDNA studies find evidence of the characteristic North African haplogroup U6 within the Iberian Peninsula. Although the overall absolute frequency of U6 is low (2.4%), this signals a possible current North African ancestry proportion of 8%9%, because U6 is not a common lineage in North Africa itself. http://www.cell.com/AJHG/fulltext/S0002-9297(08)00592-2
  52. ^ "Haplogroup U6 is present at frequencies ranging from 0 to 7% in the various Iberian populations , with an average of 1.8%. Given that the frequency of U6 in NW Africa is 10%, the mtDNA contribution of NW Africa to Iberia can be estimated at 18%" Joining the Pillars of Hercules: mtDNA Sequences Show Multidirectional Gene Flow in the Western Mediterranean
  53. ^ "Although the absolute value of observed U6 frequency in Iberia is low, it reveals a considerable North African female contribution, if we keep in mind that haplogroup U6 is not very common in North Africa itself and virtually absent in the rest of Europe. Indeed, because the range of variation in western North Africa is 4-28%, the estimated minimum input is 8.54%. + "African female heritage in Iberia: a reassessment of mtDNA lineage distribution in present times
  54. ^ "We reject the proposal that only historic events such as the Moslem occupation are the main cause of this gene flow, and instead propose a pre-Neolithic origin for it. Mitochondrial DNA affinities at the Atlantic fringe of Europe.
  55. ^ Fluvio Cruciani, Et al. ,"Tracing Past Human Male Movements in Northern/Eastern Africa and Eurasia: New Clues from Y-Chromosomal Haplogroups E-M78 and J-M12", Molecular Biology and Evolution, Volume 24, Number 6: June 2007, Oxford University Press, Pp. 1307
  56. ^ The Genetic Legacy of Religious Diversity and Intolerance: Paternal Lineages of Christians, Jews, and Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula, Adams et al. 2008
  57. ^ http://www.nature.com/ejhg/journal/v12/n10/full/5201225a.html
  58. ^ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12627534?dopt=Abstract
  59. ^ http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/klu/439/2004/00000115/00000005/art00001
  60. ^ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16500815?dopt=Abstract
  61. ^ http://www.cell.com/AJHG/retrieve/pii/S0002929708005478
  62. ^ "Despite alternative possible sources for lineages ascribed a Sephardic Jewish origin", [4]
  63. ^ "La cifra de los sefardíes puede estar sobreestimada, ya que en estos genes hay mucha diversidad y quizá absorbieron otros genes de Oriente Medio" ("The Sephardic result may be overestimated, since there is much diversity in those genes and maybe absorbed other genes from the Middle East"). ¿Pone en duda Calafell la validez de los tests de ancestros? “Están bien para los americanos, nosotros ya sabemos de dónde venimos” (Puts Calafell in doubt the validity of ancestry tests? "They can be good for the Americans, we already know from where we come from). " [5]
  64. ^ “We think it might be an over estimate" "The genetic makeup of Sephardic Jews is probably common to other Middle Eastern populations, such as the Phoenicians, that also settled the Iberian Peninsula, Calafell says. “In our study, that would have all fallen under the Jewish label.”” http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/39056/title/Spanish_Inquisition_couldn%E2%80%99t_quash_Moorish,_Jewish_genes
  65. ^ "El doctor Calafell matiza que (...) los marcadores genéticos usados para distinguir a la población con ancestros sefardíes pueden producir distorsiones". "ese 20% de españoles que el estudio señala como descendientes de sefardíes podrían haber heredado ese rasgo de movimiento más antiguos, como el de los fenicios o, incluso, primeros pobladores neolíticos hace miles de años." "Dr. Calafell clarifies that (...) the genetic markers used to distinguish the population with Sephardim ancestry may produce distorsions. The 20% of Spaniards that are identified as having Sephardim ancestry in the study could have inherited that same marker from older movements like the Phoenicians, or even the first Neolithic settlers thousands of years ago" http://www.elmundo.es/elmundo/2008/12/04/ciencia/1228409780.html
  66. ^ http://www.upf.edu/enoticies/home_upf_en/1206.html
  67. ^ Spanish Inquisition left genetic legacy in Iberia , New Scientist, December 4, 2008
  68. ^ Moors and Saracens in Europe estimating the medieval North African male legacy in southern Europe, Capelli et al., European Journal of Human Genetics, 21 January 2009
  69. ^ "A tale of aborigines, conquerors and slaves: Alu insertion polymorphisms and the peopling of Canary Islands". PubMed.org. Retrieved 2007-04-25. {{cite web}}: Text "Other theories, however, suggest that the native Guanche population may have been of ancient Nordic or Celtic origin, but this in itself is up to dispute. Despite this, the genes of the Guanche people would to some extent be present, albeit on a small scale, in the mainstream Spanish populace." ignored (help)
  70. ^ Eurostat - Population in Europe in 2005
  71. ^ Spain: Immigrants Welcome
  72. ^ Instituto Nacional de Estadística: Avance del Padrón Municipal a 1 de enero de 2006. Datos provisionales
  73. ^ "Spain attracts record levels of immigrants seeking jobs and sun". The Guardian. Retrieved 2007-04-25.
  74. ^ CIA - The World Factbook -- Spain
  75. ^ "Lenguas de España". Proel.org. Retrieved 2007-04-25.
  76. ^ The importance of this influence can be seen in words like admiral (almirante), algebra, alchemy and alcohol, to note just a few obvious examples, which entered other European languages, like French, English, German, from Arabic via medieval Spanish. Modern Spanish has more than 100 000 words.[6]
  77. ^ "Spanish for Cultural Literacy Online" (html). University of Illinois at Springfield. Retrieved 2007-04-25.
  78. ^ World Haplogroups Maps

References

  • Castro, Americo. Willard F. King and Selma Margaretten, trans. The Spaniards: An Introduction to Their History. Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 1980. ISBN 0520041771.
  • Chapman, Robert. Emerging Complexity: The Later Pre-History of South-East Spain, Iberia, and the West Mediterranean. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. ISBN 0521232074.
  • Goodwin, Godfrey. Islamic Spain. San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1990. ISBN 0877016925.
  • Harrison, Richard. Spain at the Dawn of History: Iberians, Phoenicians, and Greeks. New York: Thames & Hudson, 1988. ISBN 0500021112.
  • James, Edward (ed.). Visigothic Spain: New Approaches. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1980. ISBN 0198225431.
  • Thomas, Hugh. The Slave Trade: The History of the Atlantic Slave Trade 1440 – 1870. London: Picador, 1997. ISBN 033035437X.
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