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The [[domestication]] of purple grapes originated in what is now southern [[Turkey]]. [[Yeast]], one of the earliest domesticated [[microorganism]]s, occurs naturally on the skins of grapes, leading to the innovation of alcoholic drinks such as wine. [[Ancient Egypt]]ian [[hieroglyphics]] record the cultivation of purple grapes, and history attests to the ancient [[Greeks (wine)|Greeks]], [[Phoenicians (wine)|Phoenicians]] and [[Ancient Rome (wine)|Romans]] growing purple grapes for both eating and wine production. Later, the growing of grapes spread to [[Europe]], [[North Africa]], and eventually [[North America]].
The [[domestication]] of purple grapes originated in what is now southern [[Turkey]]. [[Yeast]], one of the earliest domesticated [[microorganism]]s, occurs naturally on the skins of grapes, leading to the innovation of alcoholic drinks such as wine. [[Ancient Egypt]]ian [[hieroglyphics]] record the cultivation of purple grapes, and history attests to the ancient [[Greeks (wine)|Greeks]], [[Phoenicians (wine)|Phoenicians]] and [[Ancient Rome (wine)|Romans]] growing purple grapes for both eating and wine production. Later, the growing of grapes spread to [[Europe]], [[North Africa]], and eventually [[North America]].


Native purple grapes belonging to the ''Vitis'' genus proliferated in the wild across North America, and were a part of the diet of many [[North American]] Native Americans, but were considered by European colonists to be unsuitable for wine. The first [[Old World]] ''Vitis vinifera'' purple grapes were cultivated in [[California]] where [[Spain]] had established a series of monasteries along the coasts to supply their navies with [[Orange (fruit)|oranges]] to prevent [[scurvy]] and convert [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|natives]]. Grapes have always had a part in history. There are old greek troughs and coffins in the Getty Villa, and they show cherubs in tubs of grapes, making wine. There is a new "grape beer" coming out later this year, even though its been voted and proved that grapes suck. It has also been proven than grapes are actualy miniture water melons that have been shrunken down in size. This is because grapes were the first thing to be hit with the "shrink-ray", but the first ever shrunken grape escaped from his cage. He may have been shrunken down, but the ray mutated him into a super strong GRAPANATOR! Eventualy the National Guard was called in, but their efforts wer pointless because how could they stop a mutant grape when they are all in Afghanistan? Thanks a lot Bush. When the shrunken grape finaaly escaped back into the wild, it repopulated with other grapes, but the mutant "shrinking gene" was very strong, and as soon as you can get a emo to cut himself, every grape in the world was the size of an oblong penny. Thus ends the "grape rampage" of the world..........the end?
Native purple grapes belonging to the ''Vitis'' genus proliferated in the wild across North America, and were a part of the diet of many [[North American]] Native Americans, but were considered by European colonists to be unsuitable for wine. The first [[Old World]] ''Vitis vinifera'' purple grapes were cultivated in [[California]] where [[Spain]] had established a series of monasteries along the coasts to supply their navies with [[Orange (fruit)|oranges]] to prevent [[scurvy]] and convert [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|natives]]. Grapes have always had a part in history. There are old greek troughs and coffins in the Getty Villa, and they show cherubs in tubs of grapes, making wine.


== Description ==
== Description ==

Revision as of 18:40, 27 July 2010

Template:Two other uses

"White" table grapes
Grapes, purple or green
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy288 kJ (69 kcal)
18.1 g
Sugars 15.48 g
7.2 g
8.13 g
Dietary fiber0.9 g
0.16 g
0.72 g
Vitamins and minerals
VitaminsQuantity
%DV†
Thiamine (B1)
6%
0.069 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
5%
0.07 mg
Niacin (B3)
1%
0.188 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
1%
0.05 mg
Vitamin B6
5%
0.086 mg
Folate (B9)
1%
2 μg
Vitamin B12
0%
0 μg
Vitamin C
12%
10.8 mg
Vitamin K
18%
22 μg
MineralsQuantity
%DV†
Calcium
1%
10 mg
Iron
2%
0.36 mg
Magnesium
2%
7 mg
Manganese
3%
0.071 mg
Phosphorus
2%
20 mg
Potassium
6%
191 mg
Sodium
0%
3.02 mg
Zinc
1%
0.07 mg
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[1] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[2]

A grape is the non-climacteric fruit, botanically a true berry, that grows on the perennial and deciduous woody vines of the genus Vitis. Grapes can be eaten raw or used for making jam, juice, jelly, vinegar, wine, grape seed extracts, raisins, and grape seed oil. Grapes are also used in some kinds of confectionery.

History

The domestication of purple grapes originated in what is now southern Turkey. Yeast, one of the earliest domesticated microorganisms, occurs naturally on the skins of grapes, leading to the innovation of alcoholic drinks such as wine. Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics record the cultivation of purple grapes, and history attests to the ancient Greeks, Phoenicians and Romans growing purple grapes for both eating and wine production. Later, the growing of grapes spread to Europe, North Africa, and eventually North America.

Native purple grapes belonging to the Vitis genus proliferated in the wild across North America, and were a part of the diet of many North American Native Americans, but were considered by European colonists to be unsuitable for wine. The first Old World Vitis vinifera purple grapes were cultivated in California where Spain had established a series of monasteries along the coasts to supply their navies with oranges to prevent scurvy and convert natives. Grapes have always had a part in history. There are old greek troughs and coffins in the Getty Villa, and they show cherubs in tubs of grapes, making wine.

Description

Grapes grow in clusters of 6 to 300, and can be crimson, black, dark blue, yellow, green and pink. "White" grapes are actually green in color, and are evolutionarily derived from the purple grape. Mutations in two regulatory genes of white grapes turn off production of anthocyanins which are responsible for the color of purple grapes.[3] Anthocyanins and other pigment chemicals of the larger family of polyphenols in purple grapes are responsible for the varying shades of purple in red wines.[4][5]

Grapevines

Main article: Vitis
Yaquti Grapes production in 2008, Iran.

Most grapes come from cultivars of Vitis vinifera, the European grapevine native to the Mediterranean and Central Asia. Minor amounts of fruit and wine come from American and Asian species such as:

Distribution and production

Grape production in 2005

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 75,866 square kilometres of the world are dedicated to grapes. Approximately 71% of world grape production is used for wine, 27% as fresh fruit, and 2% as dried fruit. A portion of grape production goes to producing grape juice to be reconstituted for fruits canned "with no added sugar" and "100% natural". The area dedicated to vineyards is increasing by about 2% per year.

The following table of top wine-producers shows the corresponding areas dedicated to grapes for wine making:

Country Area dedicated
Spain 11,750 km2
France 8,640 km2
Italy 8,270 km2
Turkey 8,120 km2
United States 4,150 km2
Iran 2,860 km2
Romania 2,480 km2
Portugal 2,160 km2
Argentina 2,080 km2
Australia 1,642 km2
Lebanon 1,122 km2
Top Ten Grapes Producers – 8 October 2009
Country Production (Tonnes) Footnote
 Italy 8,519,418 F
 People's Republic of China 6,787,081 F
 United States 6,384,090 F
 France 6,044,900 F
 Spain 5,995,300 F
 Turkey 3,612,781 F
 Iran 3,000,000 F
 Argentina 2,900,000 F
 Chile 2,350,000 F
 India 1,667,700 F
 World 67,221,000 A
No symbol = official figure, P = official figure, F = FAOSTAT 2007, * = Unofficial/Semi-official/mirror data, C = Calculated figure A = Aggregate (may include official, semi-official or estimates);

Source: Food And Agricultural Organization of United Nations: Economic And Social Department: The Statistical Division

There's no reliable statistics that breaks down grape production by variety. It is, however, believed that the most widely planted variety is Sultana, also known as Thompson Seedless, with at least 3,600 sq.km. (880,000 acres) dedicated to it. The second most common variety is Airén. Other popular varieties include Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Grenache, Tempranillo, and Chardonnay. [6]

Table and wine grapes

Commercially cultivated grapes can usually be classified as either table or wine grapes, based on their intended method of consumption: eaten raw (table grapes) or used to make wine (wine grapes). While almost all of them belong to the same species, Vitis vinifera, table and wine grapes have significant differences, brought about through selective breeding. Table grape cultivars tend to have large, seedless fruit (see below) with relatively thin skin. Wine grapes are smaller, usually seeded, and have relatively thick skins (a desirable characteristic in winemaking, since much of the aroma in wine comes from the skin). Wine grapes also tend to be very sweet: they are harvested at the time when their juice is approximately 24% sugar by weight. By comparison, commercially produced "100% grape juice", made from table grapes, is usually around 15% sugar by weight.[7]

Seedless grapes

Seedlessness is a highly desirable subjective quality in table grape selection, and seedless cultivars now make up the overwhelming majority of table grape plantings. Because grapevines are vegetatively propagated by cuttings, the lack of seeds does not present a problem for reproduction. It is, however, an issue for breeders, who must either use a seeded variety as the female parent or rescue embryos early in development using tissue culture techniques.

There are several sources of the seedlessness trait, and essentially all commercial cultivators get it from one of three sources: Thompson Seedless, Russian Seedless, and Black Monukka, all being cultivars of Vitis vinifera. There are currently more than a dozen varieties of seedless grapes. Several, such as Einset Seedless, Reliance and Venus, have been specifically cultivated for hardiness and quality in the relatively cold climates of north-eastern United States and southern Ontario.[8]

An offset to the improved eating quality of seedlessness is the loss of potential health benefits provided by the enriched phytochemical content of grape seeds (see Health claims, below).[9][10]

Raisins, currants and sultanas

Raisins

In most of Europe, dried grapes are referred to as "raisins" or the local equivalent. In the UK, three different varieties are recognized, forcing the EU to use the term "Dried vine fruit" in official documents.

A raisin is any dried grape. While raisin is a French loanword, the word in French refers to the fresh fruit; grappe (from which the English grape is derived) refers to the bunch (as in une grappe de raisins).

A currant is a dried Zante Black Corinth grape, the name being a corruption of the French raisin de Corinthe (Corinth grape). Currant has also come to refer to the blackcurrant and redcurrant, two berries unrelated to grapes.

A sultana was originally a raisin made from a specific type of grape of Turkish origin, but the word is now applied to raisins made from common grapes and chemically treated to resemble the traditional sultana.

Health claims

Main articles: Wine and health, French Paradox, and Resveratrol

French Paradox

Comparing diets among Western countries, researchers have discovered that although the French tend to eat higher levels of animal fat, surprisingly the incidence of heart disease remains low in France, a phenomenon named the French Paradox and thought to occur from protective benefits of regularly consuming red wine. Apart from potential benefits of alcohol itself, including reduced platelet aggregation and vasodilation,[11] polyphenols (e.g., resveratrol) mainly in the grape skin provide other suspected health benefits, such as:[12]

Although adoption of wine consumption is not recommended by some health authorities,[13] a significant volume of research indicates moderate consumption, such as one glass of red wine a day for women and two for men, may confer health benefits.[14][15][16] Emerging evidence is that wine polyphenols like resveratrol[17] provide physiological benefit whereas alcohol itself may have protective effects on the cardiovascular system.[18]

Resveratrol

Grape phytochemicals such as resveratrol (a polyphenol antioxidant), have been positively linked to inhibiting any cancer, heart disease, degenerative nerve disease, viral infections and mechanisms of Alzheimer's disease.[19][20]

Protection of the genome through antioxidant actions may be a general function of resveratrol.[21] In laboratory studies, resveratrol bears a significant transcriptional overlap with the beneficial effects of calorie restriction in heart, skeletal muscle and brain. Both dietary interventions inhibit gene expression associated with heart and skeletal muscle aging, and prevent age-related heart failure.[22]

Resveratrol is the subject of several human clinical trials,[23] among which the most advanced is a one year dietary regimen in a Phase III study of elderly patients with Alzheimer's disease.[24]

Synthesized by many plants, resveratrol apparently serves antifungal and other defensive properties. Dietary resveratrol has been shown to modulate the metabolism of lipids and to inhibit oxidation of low-density lipoproteins and aggregation of platelets.[25]

Resveratrol is found in wide amounts among grape varieties, primarily in their skins and seeds which, in muscadine grapes, have about one hundred times higher concentration than pulp.[26] Fresh grape skin contains about 50 to 100 micrograms of resveratrol per gram.[27]

Anthocyanins and other phenolics

Anatomical-style diagram of three grapes on their stalks. Two of the grapes are shown in cross-section with all their internal parts labelled.
Grape cross-section

Anthocyanins tend to be the main polyphenolics in purple grapes whereas flavan-3-ols (e.g., catechins) are the more abundant phenolic in white varieties.[28] Total phenolic content, an index of dietary antioxidant strength, is higher in purple varieties due almost entirely to anthocyanin density in purple grape skin compared to absence of anthocyanins in white grape skin.[28] It is these anthocyanins that are attracting the efforts of scientists to define their properties for human health.[29] Phenolic content of grape skin varies with cultivar, soil composition, climate, geographic origin, and cultivation practices or exposure to diseases, such as fungal infections.

Red wine offers health benefits more so than white because many beneficial compounds are present in grape skin, and only red wine is fermented with skins. The amount of fermentation time a wine spends in contact with grape skins is an important determinant of its resveratrol content.[6] Ordinary non-muscadine red wine contains between 0.2 and 5.8 mg/L,[30] depending on the grape variety, because it is fermented with the skins, allowing the wine to absorb the resveratrol. By contrast, a white wine contains lower phenolic contents because it is fermented after removal of skins.

Wines produced from muscadine grapes may contain more than 40 mg/L, an exceptional phenolic content.[26][31] In muscadine skins, ellagic acid, myricetin, quercetin, kaempferol, and trans-resveratrol are major phenolics.[32] Contrary to previous results, ellagic acid and not resveratrol is the major phenolic in muscadine grapes.

The flavonols syringetin, syringetin 3-O-galactoside, laricitrin and laricitrin 3-O-galactoside are also found in purple grape but absent in white grape[33].

Seed constituents

Since the 1980s, biochemical and medical studies have demonstrated significant antioxidant properties of grape seed oligomeric proanthocyanidins.[34] Together with tannins, polyphenols and polyunsaturated fatty acids, these seed constituents display inhibitory activities against several experimental disease models, including cancer, heart failure and other disorders of oxidative stress.[35][36]

Grape seed oil from crushed seeds is used in cosmeceuticals and skincare products for many perceived health benefits. Grape seed oil is notable for its high contents of tocopherols (vitamin E), phytosterols, and polyunsaturated fatty acids such as linoleic acid, oleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid.[37][38][39]

Concord grape juice

Commercial juice products from Concord grapes have been applied in medical research studies, showing potential benefits against the onset stage of cancer,[40] platelet aggregation and other risk factors of atherosclerosis,[41] loss of physical performance and mental acuity during aging[42] and hypertension in humans.[43]

Religious Significance

See also: Wine § Religious_uses

In the Bible, grapes are first mentioned when Noah grows them on his farm Genesis 9:20–21. Instructions concerning wine are given in the book of Proverbs and in the book of Isaiah such as in Proverbs 20:1and Isaiah 5:20–25. Deuteronomy 18:3–5,14:22–27,16:13–15 tell of the use of wine during Jewish feasts. Grapes were also significant to both the Greeks and Romans, and their God of agriculture, Dionysus, was linked to grapes and wine, being frequently portrayed with grape leaves on his head[44]. Grapes are especially significant for Christians, who since the Early Church have used wine in their celebration of the Eucharist[45]. Views on the significance of the wine vary throughout denominations. In Christian art, grapes often represent the blood of Christ, such as the grape leaves in Caravaggio’s John the Baptist.

  • Grapes - Flower Buds
    Grapes - Flower Buds
  • Grapes - Flowers
    Grapes - Flowers
  • Grape Fruits in a tender stage
    Grape Fruits in a tender stage

See also

Sources

Footnotes
  1. ^ United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels". FDA. Archived from the original on 2024-03-27. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
  2. ^ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). Oria, Maria; Harrison, Meghan; Stallings, Virginia A. (eds.). Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US). ISBN 978-0-309-48834-1. PMID 30844154. Archived from the original on 2024-05-09. Retrieved 2024-06-21.
  3. ^ Walker AR, Lee E, Bogs J, McDavid DA, Thomas MR, Robinson SP, AR (2007). "White grapes arose through the mutation of two similar and adjacent regulatory genes". Plant J. 49 (5): 772–85. doi:10.1111/j.1365-313X.2006.02997.x. ISSN 0960-7412. PMID 17316172. {{cite journal}}: |first2= missing |last2= (help); |first3= missing |last3= (help); |first4= missing |last4= (help); |first5= missing |last5= (help); |first6= missing |last6= (help); Unknown parameter |doi_brokendate= ignored (|doi-broken-date= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  4. ^ Waterhouse AL, AL (2002). "Wine phenolics". Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 957: 21–36. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2002.tb02903.x. ISSN 0077-8923. PMID 12074959. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  5. ^ Brouillard R, Chassaing S, Fougerousse A, R (2003). "Why are grape/fresh wine anthocyanins so simple and why is it that red wine color lasts so long?". Phytochemistry. 64 (7): 1179–86. doi:10.1016/S0031-9422(03)00518-1. ISSN 0031-9422. PMID 14599515. {{cite journal}}: |first2= missing |last2= (help); |first3= missing |last3= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. ^ "The most widely planted grape in the world".
  7. ^ "Wine Grapes and Grape-y Wines". Retrieved 03/07/2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  8. ^ Reisch BI, Peterson DV, Martens M-H. "Seedless Grapes", in "Table Grape Varieties for Cool Climates", Information Bulletin 234, Cornell University, New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, retrieved December 30, 2008
  9. ^ Shi J, Yu J, Pohorly JE, Kakuda Y, J (2003). "Polyphenolics in grape seeds-biochemistry and functionality". J Med Food. 6 (4): 291–9. doi:10.1089/109662003772519831. ISSN 1096-620X. PMID 14977436. {{cite journal}}: |first2= missing |last2= (help); |first3= missing |last3= (help); |first4= missing |last4= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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  11. ^ Providência R, R (2006). "Cardiovascular protection from alcoholic drinks: scientific basis of the French Paradox" (Free full text). Rev Port Cardiol. 25 (11): 1043–58. ISSN 0870-2551. PMID 17274460. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  12. ^ Opie LH, Lecour S, LH (2007). "The red wine hypothesis: from concepts to protective signalling molecules" (Free full text). Eur. Heart J. 28 (14): 1683–93. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehm149. ISSN 0195-668X. PMID 17561496. {{cite journal}}: |first2= missing |last2= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  13. ^ American Heart Association, Alcohol, wine and cardiovascular disease.[1]
  14. ^ Alcohol. Harvard School of Public Health
  15. ^ Mukamal KJ, Kennedy M, Cushman M, KJ; et al. (2008). "Alcohol consumption and lower extremity arterial disease among older adults: the cardiovascular health study" (Free full text). Am. J. Epidemiol. 167 (1): 34–41. doi:10.1093/aje/kwm274. ISSN 0002-9262. PMID 17971339. {{cite journal}}: |first2= missing |last2= (help); |first3= missing |last3= (help); |first4= missing |last4= (help); |first5= missing |last5= (help); |first6= missing |last6= (help); |first7= missing |last7= (help); |first8= missing |last8= (help); Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  16. ^ de Lange DW, van de Wiel A, DW (2004). "Drink to prevent: review on the cardioprotective mechanisms of alcohol and red wine polyphenols". Semin Vasc Med. 4 (2): 173–86. doi:10.1055/s-2004-835376. ISSN 1528-9648. PMID 15478039. {{cite journal}}: |first2= missing |last2= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  17. ^ Das S, Das DK, S (2007). "Resveratrol: a therapeutic promise for cardiovascular diseases". Recent Patents Cardiovasc Drug Discov. 2 (2): 133–8. doi:10.2174/157489007780832560. ISSN 1574-8901. PMID 18221111. {{cite journal}}: |first2= missing |last2= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  18. ^ Sato M, Maulik N, Das DK, M (2002). "Cardioprotection with alcohol: role of both alcohol and polyphenolic antioxidants". Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 957: 122–35. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2002.tb02911.x. ISSN 0077-8923. PMID 12074967. {{cite journal}}: |first2= missing |last2= (help); |first3= missing |last3= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  19. ^ Shankar S, Singh G, Srivastava RK, S (2007). "Chemoprevention by resveratrol: molecular mechanisms and therapeutic potential". Front. Biosci. 12: 4839–54. doi:10.2741/2432. ISSN 1093-9946. PMID 17569614. {{cite journal}}: |first2= missing |last2= (help); |first3= missing |last3= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  20. ^ Mancuso C, Bates TE, Butterfield DA, C; et al. (2007). "Natural antioxidants in Alzheimer's disease". Expert Opin Investig Drugs. 16 (12): 1921–31. doi:10.1517/13543784.16.12.1921. ISSN 1354-3784. PMID 18042001. {{cite journal}}: |first2= missing |last2= (help); |first3= missing |last3= (help); |first4= missing |last4= (help); |first5= missing |last5= (help); |first6= missing |last6= (help); |first7= missing |last7= (help); |first8= missing |last8= (help); Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  21. ^ Gatz SA, Wiesmüller L, SA (2008). "Take a break—resveratrol in action on DNA" (Free full text). Carcinogenesis. 29 (2): 321–32. doi:10.1093/carcin/bgm276. ISSN 0143-3334. PMID 18174251. {{cite journal}}: |first2= missing |last2= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  22. ^ Barger JL, Kayo T, Vann JM, JL; Saupe, KW; Cartee, GD; Weindruch, R; Prolla, TA; et al. (2008). "A low dose of dietary resveratrol partially mimics caloric restriction and retards aging parameters in mice" (Free full text). PLoS ONE. 3 (6): e2264. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0002264. PMC 2386967. PMID 18523577. {{cite journal}}: |first11= missing |last11= (help); |first2= missing |last2= (help); |first3= missing |last3= (help); |first4= missing |last4= (help); |first5= missing |last5= (help); |first6= missing |last6= (help); |first7= missing |last7= (help); |first8= missing |last8= (help); |first9= missing |last9= (help); Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Missing |author11= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  23. ^ Listing of resveratrol clinical trials, ClinicalTrials.gov, a service of the US National Institutes of Health [2]
  24. ^ Randomized Trial of a Nutritional Supplement in Alzheimer's Disease, US Department of Veterans Affairs, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, May 2008 [3]
  25. ^ Chan WK, Delucchi AB, WK (2000). "Resveratrol, a red wine constituent, is a mechanism-based inactivator of cytochrome P450 3A4". Life Sci. 67 (25): 3103–12. doi:10.1016/S0024-3205(00)00888-2. ISSN 0024-3205. PMID 11125847. {{cite journal}}: |first2= missing |last2= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  26. ^ a b LeBlanc, MR (2005). Cultivar, Juice Extraction, Ultra Violet Irradiation and Storage Influence the Stilbene Content of Muscadine Grapes (Vitis Rotundifolia Michx.). PhD Dissertation, Louisiana State University [4]
  27. ^ Li X, Wu B, Wang L, Li S, X (2006). "Extractable amounts of trans-resveratrol in seed and berry skin in Vitis evaluated at the germplasm level". J. Agric. Food Chem. 54 (23): 8804–11. doi:10.1021/jf061722y. ISSN 0021-8561. PMID 17090126. {{cite journal}}: |first2= missing |last2= (help); |first3= missing |last3= (help); |first4= missing |last4= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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  44. ^ [Garden Guides| http://www.gardenguides.com/90989-grape-leaf-significance.html]
  45. ^ Justin Martyr, First Apology, "Chapter LXV. Administration of the sacraments" and "Chapter LXVII. Weekly worship of the Christians".
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