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GM delivered 326 Volts in December 2010 and 321 in January 2011.<ref name=Sales2010>{{cite web|url=http://media.gm.com/content/dam/Media/gmcom/investor/2011/DeliveriesDecember2010.pdf|title=GM U.S. Deliveries for December 2010|publisher=[[General Motors]]|date= 2011-01-04|accessdate=2011-01-04}}</ref><ref name=Sales2011Jan>{{cite web|url=http://media.gm.com/content/Pages/news/us/en/2011/Feb/0104_gmsales/_jcr_content/rightpar/sectioncontainer/par/download/file.res/Deliveries%20January%202011.pdf|title=GM U.S. Deliveries for January 2011|publisher=[[General Motors]]|date= 2011-02-01|accessdate=2011-02-01}}</ref>
GM delivered 326 Volts in December 2010, 321 in January 2011 and 281 in February 2011.<ref name=Sales2010>{{cite web|url=http://media.gm.com/content/dam/Media/gmcom/investor/2011/DeliveriesDecember2010.pdf|title=GM U.S. Deliveries for December 2010|publisher=[[General Motors]]|date= 2011-01-04|accessdate=2011-01-04}}</ref><ref name=Sales2011Jan>{{cite web|url=http://media.gm.com/content/Pages/news/us/en/2011/Feb/0104_gmsales/_jcr_content/rightpar/sectioncontainer/par/download/file.res/Deliveries%20January%202011.pdf|title=GM U.S. Deliveries for January 2011|publisher=[[General Motors]]|date= 2011-02-01|accessdate=2011-02-01}}</ref>
<ref name=Sales2011Feb>{{cite web|url=http://media.gm.com/content/Pages/news/us/en/2011/Mar/0301_gmsales/_jcr_content/rightpar/sectioncontainer/par/download/file.res/DeliveriesFeb2011.pdf|title=GM U.S. Deliveries for February 2011|publisher=[[General Motors]]|date= 2011-03-01|accessdate=2011-03-01}}</ref>
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Revision as of 16:08, 1 March 2011

Chevrolet Volt
2011 Chevrolet Volt
Overview
ManufacturerGeneral Motors
Also calledHolden Volt
Opel Ampera
Vauxhall Ampera
Production2010–present
AssemblyDetroit, Michigan, United States
(Detroit/Hamtramck Assembly)
Body and chassis
Classcompact car
Body style5-door hatchback
LayoutFront engine, front-wheel drive
PlatformDelta II / Voltec
Powertrain
Engine111 kW (149 hp) 55 kW (74 hp)electric motor/generator units[1][2]
1.4 L 4-cylinder range extender[2][3]
Transmission4ET50 variable ratio
Dimensions
Wheelbase105.7 in (2,680 mm)[2][3]
Length177.1 in (4,500 mm)[2][3]
Width70.8 in (1,800 mm)
Height56.3 in (1,430 mm)
Curb weight3,781 lb (1,715 kg)[4]

The Chevrolet Volt is a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle manufactured by the Chevrolet division of General Motors. The Volt has been on sale in the U.S. market since mid-December 2010,[5][6] and displaced the Toyota Prius as the most fuel-efficient car sold in the United States, as rated by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).[7][8]

According to General Motors the Volt can travel 25 to 50 miles (40 to 80 km) on a 16 kW·h (10.4 kW·h usable) lithium-ion battery;[9][10] The EPA found in tests using varying driving conditions and climate controls, the all-electric range averaged 35 miles (56 km), with an energy consumption of 36 kWh per 100 miles (810 kJ/km), and the total range (using battery power first then electricity generated by the on-board gasoline-power generator) is 379 miles (610 km).[11] EPA rated the Volt's combined city/highway fuel economy at 93 miles per gallon gasoline equivalent in all-electric mode, and at 37 mpg[convert: ambiguous unit] in gasoline-only mode, for an overall fuel economy rating of 60 mpg[convert: ambiguous unit] combined.

The Volt's lithium-ion battery pack can be charged by plugging the car into a 120-240VAC residential electrical outlet.[2][12] No external charging station is required.[13] After the Volt battery is depleted, it switches to extended range mode, when a small 4-cylinder internal combustion engine burns premium gasoline to power a 55 kW (74 hp) generator supplying the electrical power to extend the Volt's range. In addition, while in extended range mode and travelling at highway speeds, the engine can engage mechanically via a clutch to combine with the electric motors for propulsion.[9] The electrical power from the generator is sent primarily to the electric motor, with the excess going to the batteries, depending on the state of charge (SoC) of the battery pack and the power demanded at the wheels.[14][15]

The suggested retail price for the 2011 Chevrolet Volt starts at US$40,280 excluding any charges, taxes or any incentives.[16][17] Qualified buyers are eligible for a US$7,500 U.S. federal tax credit and additional incentives are available in some locations. The Volt is also available through a lease program with a monthly payment of US$350 for 36 months, with US$2,500 due at lease signing, and with an option to buy at the end of the lease.[17][18] The Volt will be initially sold in seven regions: California, Virginia/Washington, D.C., Michigan, New York, New Jersey, Connecticut, and Austin, Texas. Nationwide availability in the U.S. and Canada is scheduled to begin with the 2012 model year commencing in late summer 2011.[19][20][21][22][23]

Terminology

Further information: Hybrid vehicle drivetrain

The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) definition of a hybrid vehicle states that the vehicle shall have "two or more energy storage systems both of which must provide propulsion power, either together or independently."[24] General Motors has avoided the use of the term "hybrid" when describing its Voltec designs, even after it was revealed that in some cases the combustion engine provided some assist at high speeds.[25] Instead GM describes the Volt as an electric vehicle equipped with a "range extending" gasoline powered internal combustion engine (ICE) as a genset and therefore dubbed the Volt an "Extended Range Electric Vehicle" or E-REV.[2][26]

According to SAE's definition the Volt is a hybrid vehicle, due to the combination of an internal combustion engine and electric motors, and its configuration can be referred to as a plug-in hybrid.[9] The Volt operates as a purely electric vehicle for the first 25 to 50 miles (40 to 80 km), after which it will function primarily as a series hybrid, as the internal combustion engine acts primarily as a generator to power the electric traction motor. When the initial pure EV battery capacity is depleted and the Volt is operating in series hybrid mode, the Volt's control system will select the most optimally efficient drive mode to improve performance and boost high-speed efficiency. At certain loads and speeds (30 to 70 mph) the internal combustion engine may at times be engaged mechanically via a clutch to an output split planetary gearset and therefore assist the traction motor to propel the Volt. Therefore the Volt can operate as an electric vehicle, series hybrid or parallel hybrid depending on the battery state of charge and operating conditions.[9][25][27][28][29]

Operational overview

The car's 16 kW·h (10.4 kW·h usable) lithium-ion battery pack can be charged by plugging the car into a 120-240VAC residential electrical outlet using the provided SAE J1772-compliant charging cord.[2][30] No external charging station is required.[13] After the Volt battery is depleted, a small 4-cylinder internal combustion engine burns premium gasoline to power a 55 kW (74 hp) generator to extend the Volt's range; in addition, at highway speed with the battery depleted the engine can engage mechanically to assist propulsion directly.[9] The electrical power from the generator is sent primarily to the electric motor, with the excess going to the batteries, depending on the state of charge (SoC) of the battery pack and the power demanded at the wheels. The distribution is controlled by the electronic control unit (ECU) of the vehicle.[15][31]

The Volt can travel 25 to 50 miles (40 to 80 km) on batteries alone;[9][10] the EPA found in tests using varying driving conditions and climate controls that the all-electric range averaged 35 miles (56 km), with an energy consumption of 36 kWh per 100 miles (810 kJ/km), and the total range (electricity and gasoline) is 379 miles (610 km).[11] EPA rated the Volt's combined city/highway fuel economy at 93 miles per gallon gasoline equivalent in all-electric mode, and at 37 mpg[convert: ambiguous unit] in gasoline-only mode, for an overall fuel economy rating of 60 mpg[convert: ambiguous unit] combined. That means, according to the [EPA], the Volt displaces the Toyota Prius as the most fuel-efficient car sold in the United States.[7][8]

History

Concept vehicle

Chevrolet Volt concept car, 2007

The Volt concept vehicle had four doors with a rear liftgate and seating for four passengers. This was a significant change in design when compared to the General Motors EV1 of the 1990s, which only seated two to reduce weight. The top speed was also increased on the Volt, from the electronically limited 80 miles per hour (130 km/h) to 100 miles per hour (160 km/h). The battery pack size was reduced, from about 300 L in volume in the EV1, to just 100 L in the Volt.[32]

GM's Vice Chairman Robert Lutz told Newsweek in 2007 that a two-seat sports car by Tesla Motors, the Roadster, and the rapid advancement of battery technology inspired him to push GM to develop the Volt.[33]

Production model

The production design model, first revealed to the public on September 16, 2008, differed greatly in design from the original concept car. Citing necessary aerodynamic changes needed to extend the Volt's initial full-charge range, the Volt uses GM's new "Delta II" platform, shared by the planned 2010 Chevrolet Cruze and the 2012 Saab 9-3.[1][34] GM claimed that the production model's drag coefficient would be lower than the 0.25 drag coefficient of the Toyota Prius, which uses a Kammback body.[35] The production vehicle has a drag coefficient of 0.29.[36]

Design and production timeline

Chevrolet Volt concept at the 2008 Australian International Motor Show.

To help spur battery research, GM selected two companies to provide advanced lithium-ion battery packs: Compact Power (CPI), which uses manganese spinel based cells made by its parent company, LG Chemical; and Continental Automotive Systems, which uses nanophosphate based cylindrical cells made by A123Systems.[37][38] However, on August 9, 2007, GM established a more close-knit relationship with A123Systems so that the two companies could co-develop a Volt-specific battery cell.[39] This cell was later unveiled at the EVS23 industry convention in Anaheim, CA.[40] Work with CPI continued at a rapid pace, and in late 2007 CPI delivered two fully functional prototype battery packs to GM's testing facilities. On January 31, 2008, A123 and Continental delivered their first prototype to GM's European test facilities. GM will use LG Chem batteries for the production model.[41]

Apparently Saab engineers played a key role in vehicle development of the Volt powertrain.[42][43]

GM was expecting ten years of life out of the batteries. As of early 2008, they had started extensive battery testing and planned to have 10-year battery results in two years. Batteries were placed in the Chevrolet Malibu for further real-world testing.[44] In April 2008, GM Vice Chairman Bob Lutz said that the first battery test mule was now running with a lithium-ion battery pack.[45] By that summer, GM confirmed that a non-turbocharged, 1.4 liter 4-cylinder engine would be used as the range extender, and that the intention is to build it in Flint, Michigan.[46] In August 2008, Andrew Farah, the car's chief engineer, stated that the project remains on-track to hit the 2010 deadline saying "at this point, there’s nothing standing in our way of continuing to do what we said we’re going to do."[47]

In April 2009, GM allowed journalists to test the Volt powertrain in the body of Chevrolet Cruze sedans used as test mules which lacked the range-extending generator. The driving tests were conducted at GM Technical Center in Warren, Michigan. Several of the journalists noted that the Volt mule's drive in electric mode is quiet and smooth, without any of the typical noises in commercially available hybrids when accelerating or decelerating. In November 2009, a journalist described the 'feel' of driving the car as it transitioned from electric to generator mode as "the engine’s initial engagement is inaudible and seamless"[48]

The first pre-production test car based on the final Volt design was built in June 2009, in Warren, Michigan,[49][50] and by October 2009, 80 Volts had been built and are being tested under various conditions.[50][51] On March 31, 2010, the first factory-built Volt was produced at the Detroit Hamtramck Assembly Plant in order to test the production line and for quality control purposes, both of the tooling and the pre-production vehicles that will be produced before regular production begins.[52][53]

Official introduction

General Motors held a ceremony at its Detroit/Hamtramck Assembly plant on November 30, 2010, to introduce the first Chevrolet Volt off the assembly line. The first Volt built for retail sale will be displayed at GM's Heritage Center museum in Sterling Heights, Michigan.[54][55] The second unit was offered at a public auction, with an opening bid of US$50,000 and it was won by Rick Hendrick who paid US$225,000. The proceeds went to fund math and sciences education in Detroit through the Detroit Public Schools Foundation.[56] Sales and deliveries began in mid December 2010 and the first retail vehicle was delivered to a customer in Denville, New Jersey on December 15, 2010.[5]

Specifications

Drivetrain

Right side: the power inverter in top of the electric drive unit (electric motor) used for traction. Left side: the 1.4-liter gasoline-powered engine used as generator to provide power to the electric motor or to engage mechanically to assist propulsion when the battery is depleted.

The 2007 Chevrolet Volt concept vehicle that appeared in the North American International Auto Show[57] introduced the Voltec[2][58] drive system, which is an attempt to standardize many components of possible future electrically propelled vehicles, and to allow multiple interchangeable electricity-generating systems. The initial design as envisioned in the Volt combines an electric motor and 16 kWh (58 MJ) lithium-ion battery plug-in system[59] with a small 1.4 L engine powered by gasoline linked to a 55 kW (74 hp) generator. The vehicle is propelled by an electric motor with a peak output of 111 kW (149 hp) delivering 273 lb-ft (368 N-m) of motoring torque. Ordinarily, the vehicle charges while at home overnight. According to General Motors a full charge takes approximately eight hours from a standard North American 120 V, 15 A household outlet and less than three hours from a standard 240 VAC outlet.[1] Charge times will be less if the battery is not fully depleted.

Since the electrical drivetrain is not affected by the method used to charge its batteries, several options could be made available for the genset engine. The original prototype specifications for the Volt called for a turbo-charged 1.0 litre 3-cylinder engine.[60] However the initial production configuration currently specified by GM indicates the use of a naturally aspirated 1.4-liter 4-cylinder engine (Opel's Family 0) RPO LUU with approximately 80 horsepower, which uses premium gasoline. An E85 flex-fuel Volt version is under development and it will be available in 2013.[9]

This drivetrain layout permits the Volt to operate as a pure battery electric vehicle until its plug-in battery capacity has been essentially depleted, at which time it commences to operate as a series hybrid design since mechanical power drives the generator, which in turn either charges the battery pack or provides power to the electric motors. While in this series mode at higher speeds and loads, (typically above 30 miles per hour (48 km/h) and/or under hard acceleration) the gasoline engine can engage mechanically to the output from the transmission and assist both electric motors to drive the wheels, hence the Volt can also operate as a power-split or series-parallel hybrid when additional power is required. After its all-electric range has been depleted, at speeds in between 30 to 70 miles per hour (48 to 113 km/h), the Volt is programmed to select the most efficient drive mode of the two, a design feature that allows the Volt to improve performance and boost high-speed efficiency by 10 to 15 percent.[9][27][28][29]

The 2011 Volt has three drive modes, normal, sport and mountain.[10][29] The mountain mode, which is expected to be required only under unusual power demand conditions, increases minimum battery state of charge (SoC) to around 45%, helping the Volt to maintain performance on steep and long grades. The driver will hear more engine noise when operation in mountain mode due to the higher rate of power generation required to maintain this mode.[4][29] The sport mode causes the engine to rev higher and the response to the "throttle" pedal is quicker.[4]

To extend the battery's life span, GM plans to station charge the lithium-ion battery to a SoC of approximately 90%. Then, once the battery depletes to a low set-point (ca. 25%), the on-board ICE powered generator maintains the state of charge between the lower setpoint and an upper set-point above the 30% SoC level (see figure 5 of reference[2]). So, its charge state actually varies between 25% SoC and 90% SoC. This translates to the following analysis of battery capacity:

theoretical capacity 100% 16.0 kW·h (not realized under normal conditions)
highest recharged level 90% 14.4 kW·h (after being plugged in)
charge sustaining level 25% 4.0 kW·h (after ~40 miles of driving)
Empty 0% 0.0 kW·h (not realized under normal conditions)
Powertrain cut-away of the Volt showing both engines and the underfloor T shape tunnel where the battery pack is located
The Volt seats only four people as the battery runs down the center of the car preventing a rear bench

In terms of the on-board generator, the peak power of 55 kW will rarely be used, only in extreme conditions. Peak efficiency will be at around 30 kW, which is what the car should require at 65 mph slightly uphill, although the actuals of mass and energy requirements are not final yet.[needs update] The engine’s job will be to maintain the battery at a SoC of around 30%, and will do so by continuously matching the average power requirement of the car once it is turned on. Those power requirements will roughly be about 8 kW in the city, and 25 kW on the highway.

To avoid maintenance problems caused by storing the same gasoline in the tank for months, the production Volt has a sealed and pressurized fuel tank to avoid evaporation, and as a result, the fuel filler has to be depressurized before opening the tank. Also the engine management system monitors the time between engine running and it is programmed to prompt the driver to run past the 40-mile (64 km) all-electric range before recharging in order to consume some gasoline. If the driver does not run on gasoline, the system will automatically run the maintenance mode which starts the engine to consume some of the aging fuel and circulate the fluids within the engine.[61]

Battery

See also: Electric vehicle battery

Reuters reported in October 2008 that GM had decided to work exclusively with Compact Power Incorporated (CPI), a Detroit-based unit of South Korea’s LG Chem, to develop the battery systems for the first production version of the Volt.[62][63][64][65] The cells will be produced in Korea and subsequently shipped to the United States, where the battery packs will be assembled at a purpose-built facility in Brownstown Township, Michigan owned and operated by GM.[66]

The Volt's 375 lb (170 kg), 220-cell lithium-ion battery (Li-ion) pack is anticipated to store 16 kW·h of energy,[1][67] but will be restricted (in software) to use only 10.4 kW·h of this capacity to maximize the life of the pack. It will only be allowed to charge to 90% of full capacity and to discharge only to approximately 25% SoC before the engine cuts in and maintains the charge near the lower level. When the vehicle is plugged into a charger the battery SoC is restored to 90%.

Despite containing near identical energy (+/- 0.5kWh), the Volt's battery pack is over 70% lighter than the EV1's original 1,310 lb (590 kg), 16.5 kW·h AC Delco lead-acid battery pack, mainly because the Volt will use higher specific energy Li-ion batteries. Li-Ion batteries are expected to become less expensive as economies of scale take effect.[68][69][70][71]

Inlet for the electrical charger in the left side of the Chevrolet Volt with the manufacture's provided charging cord.

The battery needs a minimum temperature of between 0 °C and 10 °C (32 °F and 50 °F) to be used and when the Volt is plugged in the battery will be kept warm enough so that it can be used immediately when the Volt is unplugged.[72] If the Volt is kept unplugged and the temperature of the battery is below the minimum temperature, the gasoline engine will run until the battery warms up.[72] This temperature regulation is done since electro-chemical batteries have degraded performance when they are very cold.[72]

The Volt's battery will be guaranteed by GM for eight years or 100,000 miles (160,000 km), and will cover all 161 battery components.[73] A project to examine the potential of reusing spent batteries from the car has been announced.[74]

Charge plug interface

The Volt will use a new plug specification, SAE J1772-2009, that is being proposed as a standard for electric cars.[75][76]

All-electric range

According to GM, the Volt average all-electric range with a fully charged batteries is 40 miles (64 km), a distance longer than the daily commute for 75% of Americans.[77][78] Later, General Motors explained that the Volt's all-electric range varies from 25 to 50 miles (40 to 80 km) depending on terrain, driving technique, temperature and battery age.[9][79]

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) official all-electric range is 35 miles (56 km) based on the agency's five-cycle tests using varying driving conditions and climate controls. Once the battery is depleted and the gasoline engine kicks in, the total range is 379 miles (610 km) according to EPA tests.[7][8][80]

Monroney label showing EPA's fuel economy and environmental comparison label for the 2011 Chevrolet Volt.
The Volt digital panels keep track of energy usage by fuel source and average fuel economy.
Smartphone display for tank level and fuel range
Smartphone display of total and EV range

Fuel economy

Considering an energy consumption of 36 kWh per 100 miles (810 kJ/km) and a conversion factor of 33.7 kW-hr of electricity being the energy equivalent of a gallon of gasoline,[8][80] the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency officially rated the Volt's combined fuel economy at 93 miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (mpg-e) (2.5 L gasoline equivalent/100 km; 112 mpg-imp gasoline equivalent) in all-electric mode, and 37 mpg[convert: ambiguous unit] in gas-only mode, for an overall combined fuel economy rating of 60 mpg[convert: ambiguous unit].[7][8]

The EPA also included in the Volt's fuel economy label a table showing fuel economy and electricity consumed for five different scenarios: 30, 45, 60 and 75 miles (121 km) driven between a full charge, and a never charge scenario. This information was included in order to make the consumers aware of the variability of the fuel economy outcome depending on miles driven between charges. Under the gas-only scenario (never charge), the 37 mpg[convert: ambiguous unit] figure results from 35 mpg[convert: ambiguous unit] city and 40 mpg[convert: ambiguous unit] highway.[8]

Evolution of fuel economy rating

On August 2009, GM released their estimated city fuel economy rating for the Volt of 230 mpg‑US (1.0 L/100 km; 280 mpg‑imp) of gasoline plus 25 kW·h/100 mi (560 kJ/km) of electricity using the EPA's proposed method for evaluating plug-in hybrids.[51][81][82] The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued a statement clarifying that the "EPA has not tested a Chevy Volt and therefore cannot confirm the fuel economy values claimed by GM."[51] On July 2010 General Motors recognized that their estimate was based on a formula that never got official approval, and they were awaiting EPA's decision on how the equivalent fuel economy of plug-in hybrids will be estimated.[83]

Because the Volt can use both gasoline and grid electricity, assigning a fuel economy value that only refers to "on-board" gasoline is only appropriate for evaluating the efficiency of the ICE, therefore, the EPA had to develop an updated methodology for determining and reporting equivalent fuel economy for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. An EPA presentation to the Society of Automotive Engineers in February, 2009 discussed a method based on SAE J1711 to combine the gasoline fuel economy with the electrical fuel economy using the petroleum equivalency factor of 33.7 kW·h⁄gallonUS (the lower heating value of gasoline and the value used by the DOE[84]) which would combine GM's estimated city fuel economies for the Volt into an overall 85 mpgge[notes 1] for reporting.[85][86]

On November 2010 EPA issue the first fuel economy ratings and accompanying fuel economy labels for electric cars, which included the Nissan Leaf and the Chevrolet Volt (when running on the plug-in charge). The agency calculated the miles per gallon gasoline equivalent rating under its five-cycle tests and based on a formula of 33.7 kW-hr of electricity being the energy equivalent of a gallon of gasoline,[80] and rated the Volt's combined fuel economy at 93 mpg-e in all-electric mode, and 37 mpg[convert: ambiguous unit] in gas-only mode, for an overall combined fuel economy rating of 60 mpg[convert: ambiguous unit].[7][8]

Test drives

On October 10, 2010, General Motors made the Volt available for 150 journalists and analysts to test drive the plug-in on open highways around Detroit. GM organized a hypermiling competition among the journalists attending the official press launch event over a 43.2 mi (69.5 km) distance. The winner achieved over 50 mi (80 km) miles of electric range while most participants managed just over 46 mi (74 km) miles.[87]

The Detroit News reported an all-electric range of 32 miles (51 km) driving in a "very un-eco-friendly manner" and a total fuel consumption of 0.9 US gallons (3.4 L; 0.75 imp gal) for the 75 miles (121 km) trip.[88] USA Today reported an EV range of 40 miles (64 km) driving more than an hour of stop-and-go through Detroit suburbs and the rolling Michigan countryside.[89] Detroit Free Press reported an all-electric range of 46.2 miles (74.4 km) driving normally and using the air conditioning.[90] The following table summarizes the results reported by other specialized media, and some other more extended tests.

Summary of the Volt's all-electric range and fuel economy results
published by the specialized press and industry analysts
Reviewer Driving
condition		 All-electric
range		 Fuel economy
(Charge-sustaining mode)		 Combined
fuel economy
(mpg-e)		 Comments
miles km mpg-US L/100 km mpg-US L/100 km
EPA ratings[8] Repeatable, EPA five-cycle tests designed to simulate varying driving conditions and climate controls 35 56 37[convert: ambiguous unit] 93[convert: ambiguous unit] All ratings combined city and highway
Popular Mechanics[91] Two-lane roads under "lead-foot" style driving, A/C off 31 50 n.a. n.a
City streets under normal style driving, A/C on 35 56 31.7[convert: ambiguous unit] n.a.
Highway only, cruising at 78 mph 33 53 36[convert: ambiguous unit] n.a Over 600 miles (970 km)
Consumer Reports Short test: normal daily commute, climate control in Auto mode[92] 33 53 30[convert: ambiguous unit] 89[convert: ambiguous unit] Outdoor temperatures averaged about 50 °F (10 °C)
Extended test: normal daily commute, cold winter time[93] 25 40 30[convert: ambiguous unit] n.a. Outdoor temperatures averaged about 20 to 30 °F (−7 to −1 °C). Almost 1,000 miles (1,600 km). Average combined 53 mpg[convert: ambiguous unit]
Motor Trend[94] Normal everyday driving n.a n.a 126.7[convert: ambiguous unit] Over 299 miles (481 km)
City, hard-core mountain roads and freeway, A/C on 36.3 58.4 n.a 74.6[convert: ambiguous unit] Over 122 miles (196 km)
Edmunds.com[95] "Light-footedly" in typical traffic driving 47 76 n.a n.a
Normal driving three persons on board 42 68 n.a n.a
Car and Driver[96] Highway commuting with the 80 mph flow of traffic 26 42 Average
35		 Average
6.7		 Average
74		 Average
3.2		 Energy-equivalent efficiency (mpgge) over 152 miles (245 km)
Fast driving back-road loop 31 50
Autoblog[97] Hypermiling without disrupting traffic 47.5 76.4 36[convert: ambiguous unit] n.a. Battery-level meter still showed 10 miles (16 km) of range remaining
Green Car Reports[98] Hypermiling in road with speed limits under 45 mph 43 69 n.a. n.a. Battery-level meter still showed 3 miles (4.8 km) of range remaining
Normal driving, no freeway n.a. 40.3[convert: ambiguous unit] 73.9[convert: ambiguous unit] Over 160 miles, 73.0 miles (117.5 km) on electricity and 86.8 miles (139.7 km) on gasoline.
Los Angeles Times[10] Highway driving, freeway speed n.a. n.a. 90.3[convert: ambiguous unit] Over 72.5 miles, 40.8 in electric mode and 31.7 on gasoline
Highway driving, freeway speed n.a. 39[convert: ambiguous unit] n.a. Over 400 miles (640 km) from Los Angeles to Oakland
MSNBC[99] Highway driving, freeway speed 32.9 52.9 40[convert: ambiguous unit] 80[convert: ambiguous unit] Over 873 miles (1,405 km) from Seattle to San Francisco

Tailpipe emissions

EPA rating for the Volt's tailpipe emissions is 84 grams of carbon dioxide per mile, (52.5 CO2 g/km),[7][100] which puts the Volt ahead of the Toyota Prius in terms of low greenhouse emissions as measured at the tailpipe. CO2 emissions are produced by the internal combustion engine in extended-range mode, and only after the Volt's primary battery charge has been depleted. In the other air pollutants category, the Volt rates six out of ten, with ten being best.[100]

The California Air Resources Board (CARB) classified the Volt as Ultra Low Emission Vehicle (ULEV), as CARB tests do not account for the Volt electric range. With all tests conducted under conditions where the engine is running the CARB rated the Volt's carbon monoxide (CO) emissions at 1.3 g/mile, missing the limit for SULEV classification by 0.3 g/mile.[101]

Connectivity

The Volt will feature Onstar Mobile for owners to access vehicle information without being in or near the car. The smart phone application features the ability to check fuel efficiency as well as the vehicle's current electric range. It will also help monitor the charging, giving owners key information about the current charge level and the amount of time it will take until it’s fully charged. The application will be able to control features such as locking/unlocking doors and can act as a remote car starter.[102] A five year OnStar service is bundled into the Volt's US$41,000 base price.[17][103]

Warning sounds

Further information: Electric vehicle warning sounds

Due to significant noise reduction typical of hybrids and plug-ins vehicles traveling in all-electric mode at low speeds, GM plans to include in the Volt warning sounds when the car is operating at low speeds to alert pedestrians, the blind and others to the car's presence.[104][105] GM's system is called Pedestrian-Friendly Alert System and it will be manually activated by the driver.[106][107]

Production and sales

2011 Volt's frontal view
2011 Volt's rear view

North America

In July 2007, General Motors stated that it would have the Volt on the U.S. market in 2010,[108] and in early June 2008, they confirmed that production had been approved, with a target of getting the Volt into showrooms by the end of 2010.[109]

Following the conclusion of the 2007 UAW-GM contract talks, assembly of the Volt was assigned to Detroit/Hamtramck Assembly.[110] Initially the gasoline engine will be imported from the Opel engine plant in Aspern, Austria.[111] GM announced an initial production for calendar year 2011 of 10,000 Volts and production for 2012 will be 45,000 units, up from the 30,000 units initially announced.[112] On October 18, 2010 GM again revised production numbers upwards to between 10,000 and 15,000 Volts in 2011, and likely will build to the maximum capacity of 60,000 in 2012 and even more if there will be higher demand. [113] On January 12, 2011 GM announced that because of surprised initial demand it will further be pushing Volt production to 25,000 in 2011. [114] The 2011 Chevrolet Volt was officially launched on November 30, 2010 at a ceremony at the Hamtramck plant where the first production unit for retail sales off the assembly line.[54][55] The first retail vehicle was delivered to a customer in Denville, New Jersey on December 15, 2010.[5]

United States

The Volt will be sold initially only in California, Washington Metropolitan Area, Michigan, Texas, New York, New Jersey and Connecticut.[21][23] The first cars will be available in Washington D.C., the New York City metropolitan region, California, and Austin, Texas. During the first quarter of 2011 the market will expand to Michigan, the rest of Texas and to all of New York, New Jersey and Connecticut.[115] The restricted roll-out is due to limited production, as GM planned production for 2011 is only 10,000 units.[23][115] Nationwide availability in the U.S. and Canada is scheduled to begin in late 2011 until mid 2012.[22][23][115]

In the U.S. market, the suggested retail price (MSRP) for the 2011 Chevrolet Volt starts at US$40,280 which excludes destination freight charge, tax, title, license, dealer fees and optional equipment and before any savings due to factory incentives, tax deductions, or other available subsidies for qualifying buyers.[16][17][18] Due to the capacity of the Volt's battery pack it qualifies for the maximum US$7,500 federal tax credit as specified in the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008.[17][116] The federal tax credit phases out over a one year period after the manufacturer has sold at least 200,000 vehicles in the U.S.[117] Several states also have additional incentives or rebates available for plug-in electric vehicles for qualifying buyers.[17][118] More than 600 Chevrolet dealers in the seven initial launch markets began taking orders beginning July 27, 2010.[17] Available options on the Volt include three different colors of premium paint, chrome wheels, rear parking assist and heated leather seats. The Volt price including all available regular production options will be US$44,600 (including destination charges and before tax credits or any subsidies)[119]

The Volt will also be available through a lease program with a monthly payment of US$350 for 36 months, with US$2,500 due at lease signing, and with an option to buy at the end of the lease.[17][18] Although the Volt's retail price is higher than its main competitor, the Nissan Leaf, the lease rate for the Volt is almost the same as its competitor, except that the Leaf has a lower initial payment. General Motors explained that "the apparent disparity between the Volt's sticker and lease prices is a reflection of the company's calculation that the vehicle will maintain a very high residual value after three years—significantly higher than that of the LEAF."[18][103]

The 2011 Volt was not submitted for application to the California Air Resources Board's Clean Vehicle Rebate Project rebate and therefore is not required to meet the 10-year 150.000-mile (241.402 km) battery warranty requirement for partial zero-emissions vehicles (Enhanced AT-PZEV). The Volt team explained that for the launch GM decided to go with a common national package which includes an 8-year 100,000-mile (160,000 km) battery warranty. A configuration which qualifies for the CARB Enhanced AT-PZEV package is scheduled for a later release. Also a third package under development with an E85 flex-fuel engine is scheduled for 2013.[9] The engineering team commented that "introducing two or three packages of an entirely new technology set and platform at the same time wasn't an option."[17]

The price for the home charging units is US$490 plus installation costs. The Voltec home-charging unit is a 240-volt (Level II) charger, and, according to GM, can replenish the Volt's batteries in about four hours. Consumer Reports has advised buyers to budget up to US$2,000, as many older homes may need a substantial electrical upgrade because the U.S National Electrical Code requires that the charger have its own dedicated 220-volt, 30-amp circuit.[120][121] Early buyers can benefit from the federal tax credit available for charging equipment.[121]

Monthly U.S. sales

GM delivered 326 Volts in December 2010, 321 in January 2011 and 281 in February 2011.[6][122] [123]

Canada

The Volt will be available in Canada in the second half of 2011, and the initial launch markets include Montreal, Quebec City, Toronto, Oshawa, Ottawa-Gatineau, Vancouver and Victoria. Availability in the rest of the country is expected before the end of the 2012 model year.[124]

The Volt is being endorsed by the Ontario government and the province will provide a CAN$8,200 tax credit for buyers.[125][126] The province also will purchase 500 Volts for the Ontario public service fleet. These measures are part of Premier Dalton McGuinty's plan that, by 2020, 5% of all the cars in Ontario will be electrically powered.[127]

Opel Ampera frontal view
Opel Ampera rear view

Europe

The European version of the Volt, the Opel Ampera, was unveiled at the Geneva Auto Show in March 2009[2][128] and also was exhibited at the 2009 Frankfurt Auto Show.[129] GM will offer Europeans the choice of the Volt or the Opel/Vauxhall Ampera – the Euro spec version of the same car.[130] Opel is developing the battery control modules for the Opel Ampera at the GM Alternative Propulsion Center Europe in Mainz-Kastel, Germany.[2][131] At the British International Motor Show in July 2008, GM stated that they were considering building all of the Volts for the European market, branded Chevrolet, Opel and Vauxhall, at their Vauxhall plant in Ellesmere Port on the other side of the River Mersey from the Jaguar car plant in Liverpool, United Kingdom.[132] In August 2008 GM stated that the Volt would be available for sale in Europe in 2011.[133]

The production version of the Ampera will be unveiled at the 2011 Geneva Motor Show.[134] Opel announced that the Ampera will be offered for a uniform price throughout Europe of €42,900 (US$58,000) including VAT, but prices by country may vary due to the trim levels that will be offered in each market.[134] The Opel Ampera will benefit from several subsidies and tax breaks available for plug-in electric vehicles in several European countries.[135][136] According to Opel, as of February 2011 around 1,000 people across Europe have reserved an Ampera, with half the reservations from corporate customers.[134]

Other markets

Australia

At the Sydney Motor Show in October 2008, Holden stated that the Volt would be available in Australia by 2012 for "more than A$30,000".[137]

Brazil

General Motors do Brasil announced that it will import from five to ten Volts to Brazil during the first semester of 2011 as part of a demonstration and also to lobby the federal government to enact financial incentives for green cars. If successful, GM would adapt the Volt to operate on ethanol fuel, as most new Brazilian cars are flex-fuel.[138][139]

China

In September 2010, General Motors unveiled the Chevrolet Volt to the Chinese press and potential consumers under its Chinese name of 沃蓝达 (Wo Lan Da) and delivered the first two Volts for use as part of Expo 2010 Shanghai China's transportation fleet. The Volt is scheduled to go on sale in China in 2011.[140][141]

Japan

In December 2010, GM announced plans to introduce the Volt in limited numbers into Japan in 2011 for technology and market test purposes. Exports for retail sales will depend on the results of this trial.[142][143]

The Cadillac Converj, unveiled at the 2009 North American International Auto Show, shares the Volt's Voltec powertrain.

Cadillac Converj

The Cadillac Converj is a plug-in hybrid concept car manufactured by Cadillac, a division of General Motors, and first unveiled at the 2009 North American International Auto Show.[144][145] The Converj incorporates the propulsion system from the Chevy Volt, including the battery pack, the 111 kW electric motor, and the four-cylinder engine-generator, collectively dubbed the Voltec powertrain. The Converj concept has an all-electric range of 40 miles (64 km) and a top speed of 100 mph (160 km/h).[146]

Volt MPV5

At the 2010 Auto China show GM unveiled the Chevrolet Volt MPV5 Concept. The Volt MPV5 is a plug-in crossover hybrid and has a top speed of 100 mph (160 km/h) and an electric range of 32 miles (51 km). The MPV5 integrates design elements from the Volt, with body style very similar to the Chevrolet Orlando and four inches larger than the Chevrolet HHR.[147][148]

Controversies and criticism

EPA fuel economy testing

In 2008 General Motors was reportedly in disagreement with the United States Environmental Protection Agency regarding how the Volt should be tested to determine its official fuel economy rating. The controversy centered around whether, by including an internal combustion gasoline engine, the Volt should be classified as a hybrid rather than an electric vehicle (and tested accordingly). If tested with the same EPA tests used by other hybrids, the Volt's EPA fuel economy rating would be around 48 mpg due to the current EPA test for hybrids disallowing vehicles from boosting their mpg rating using stored battery power. On the other hand, since the Volt was designed to run primarily off of electricity (with the ICE only used for recharging batteries), GM feels that the current test puts the Volt at a severe disadvantage. GM believes that the Volt is an entirely new type of vehicle which the EPA's current fuel economy tests are not suited to rate and that a new test should be devised for this emerging class of hybrid-electrics.[149]

General Motors has pushed for a more simplified (and arguably more straightforward) mpg calculation method that takes into account the range of a hybrid while running solely on electricity. Because the Volt can travel 40 miles (64 km) on batteries alone, GM argues that most drivers with a daily commute of less than 40 miles (64 km) a day would never need to turn on the Volt's gasoline engine, so long as they recharged their vehicle at work or at night. Additionally, GM fears that if the Volt were required to finish the EPA test with a 100% battery charge (as is currently required for all hybrids), consumers would fail to see the true value of the vehicle as, effectively, an electric vehicle with an ICE range extender—a point GM is relying on to justify the vehicle's $41,000 price tag.[150]

Production cost and sales price

In 2009, the Presidential Task Force on the Auto Industry said that "GM is at least one generation behind Toyota on advanced, “green” powertrain development. In an attempt to leapfrog Toyota, GM has devoted significant resources to the Chevy Volt." and that "while the Chevy Volt holds promise, it is currently projected to be much more expensive than its gasoline-fueled peers and will likely need substantial reductions in manufacturing cost in order to become commercially viable."[151] In an April 2009 interview with the president of GM's North American operations, Troy Clark stated he was uncertain if the next generation systems following the Volt would be profitable.[152]

A 2009 Carnegie Mellon University study indicates that a PHEV-40 will be less cost effective than a HEV or a PHEV-7 in all of the scenarios considered, due to the cost and weight of the battery.[153] Jon Lauckner, a Vice President at GM, responded that the study did not consider the inconvenience of a seven mile electric range and that the study's cost estimate for the Volt's battery pack was "many hundreds of dollars per kilowatt hour higher" than what it costs to make today."[154]

After the Volt's sales price was announced in July 2010, the Washington Post expressed its concern because as "for the near future, electric cars will be far too expensive for anyone but upper-income Americans. The only way to sell them, even to the well-off, will be with a large federal subsidy. The newspaper explained that the average new car sold for $28,350 in 2008, while the plug-in Volt, by contrast, will cost $41,000, less the $7,500-per-car federal tax credit, and that includes other subsidies derived from the $2.4 billion advanced vehicle technology grant program part of the economic stimulus plan. The Washington Post concludes that "common sense suggests the likeliest purchasers will be upscale consumers who already own gas-powered cars for heavy-duty driving, live in a single-family home with an electric outlet in the garage -- and can afford a green experiment."[155]

President Barack Obama behind the wheel of a new Chevy Volt during his tour of the General Motors Auto Plant in Hamtramck, Michigan.

In an OpEd published in the New York Times, Edward Niedermeyer, editor of the website The Truth About Cars, criticized General Motors because the Volt costs $41,000 before relevant tax breaks despite billions of dollars of government loans and grants for the Volt’s development and production. "And instead of the sleek coupe of 2007, it looks suspiciously similar to a Toyota Prius. It also requires premium gasoline, seats only four people (the battery runs down the center of the car, preventing a rear bench) and has less head and leg room than the $17,000 Chevrolet Cruze, which is more or less the non-electric version of the Volt." He also complained that to make the Volt more affordable, GM decided to offer a $350-a-month lease for 36 months, but limited to only 12,000 miles per year, or about 33 miles per day. If an owner wants to keep below the lease mileage limit and he charges his Volt every evening, which is good for 40 miles (64 km) of battery power, this Volt owner would rarely use its expensive range-extending gas engine. "No wonder the Volt’s main competition, the Nissan Leaf, forgoes the additional combustion engine — and ends up costing $8,000 less as a result."[156]

General Motors CEO Edward Whitacre Jr. rejected as "ridiculous" criticism that the Volt's price is too expensive. He said that "I wish we had thousands more (Volts) but we don't. I think it's a very fair price. It's the only car that will go coast to coast on electricity without plugging it in, and nobody else can come close."[157] A G.M. spokesman also commented they are not worried about the critics of the price and commented that the US$350 leasing price is very affordable, nearly on par with Nissan's electric Leaf.[158]

Despite the federal government being the major GM shareholder due to the 2009 government-led bankruptcy of the automaker, during a press briefing at the White House an administration official clarified that the federal government did not have any input on the controversial pricing of the 2011 Chevrolet Volt. The Treasury official said that "We do not tell General Motors what to charge for its cars... we don't tell them what to charge for the Volt. We're not going to tell them what to charge for the Chevrolet Cruze."[159]

There have been also complaints regarding price markups due to the initial limited availability. The New York Times reported that several dealers are charging between US$5,000 to US$12,000 above General Motors's recommended price.[160] At least in one case a US$20,000 mark up in California was reported by Edmunds.com.[161] Even though the carmaker cannot dictate vehicle pricing to its dealers, a G.M. spokesman said that the company had requested the dealers to keep prices in line with the company’s suggested retail price.[160]

Battery charging emissions

Main article: Greenhouse gas emissions in plug-in hybrids
See also: Air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions in plug-in electric vehicles

The EPA rated the Volt's tailpipe emissions at 84 grams of carbon dioxide per mile (52.5 CO2 g/km).[7][100] These are the greenhouse emissions at the point of operation. Charging the Volt's batteries still results in some greenhouse gas emissions from electricity generation at the local power station.[162] However, under most conditions CO2 output is less than other low emission vehicles and in the best case emissions are nearly zero.[163] GM claims that the Volt saves 4.4 metric tons in CO2 emissions annually compared to a typical U.S. car.[164]

UK based Auto Express magazine claims in a non-scientific study to have calculated that the generation of electricity for charging the batteries in the Volt resulted in emissions equivalent to 124.2 g/km of CO2 for electric-only trips (those not involving the use of any on board fuel), based on government figures for the average CO2 emissions from power stations. According to Auto Express, this is more CO2 than the BMW 118d produces.[165] Using CO2 emissions data for the United States, the Auto Express estimate can be shown to imply Volt's plug-to-wheel efficiency of approximately 340 Wh/mile - somewhat high for electric vehicles (Tesla Roadster is EPA rated at 280 Wh/mile plug-to wheel), but within the realm of possibility.

Awards and recognition

The 2011 Chevrolet Volt won the 2011 Motor Trend Car of the Year award.
  • 2009 Festival International Automobile selected the Chevrolet Volt for the 2009 Environmental Grand Prize [167]
  • 2011 Motor Trend Car of the Year. The magazine commented that "In the 61-year history of the Car of the Year award, there have been few contenders as hyped -- or as controversial -- as the Chevrolet Volt."[169]
  • 2011 Green Car of the Year by Green Car Journal. The magazine editors explained that "This award welcomes a new genre of mass-production electric vehicles to the consumer market, with the Volt as the first-ever electric vehicle to take top prize."[170]
  • 2011 Automobile of the Year by Automobile Magazine. The editors commented that the Volt "...is genuinely an all-new car, in the most simplistic sense as well as in the greater notion that the Volt is unlike any vehicle we have ever driven."[171]

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Chevrolet Volt.
Wikiquote has quotations related to Chevrolet Volt.

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Notes

  1. ^ The formula from the EPA's SAEpresentation would combine the Volt's reported gasoline and electricy fuel economies as:



    = 84.99 mpgge overall. [85]
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