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U.S. posters expressing Sinophobic sentiments aren't expressive of Sinphobia around the world
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the VOA video makes no mention of Sinophobia or ads "exploiting Sinophobia" such words are weasel words. Readded comments on the comments by others on the ad, leaving Mr. Yang's commentary on the ad is NPOV
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In the 1870s and 1880s various legal discriminatory measures were taken against the Chinese. These laws, in particular the [[Chinese Exclusion Act (United States)|Chinese Exclusion Act]] of 1882, were aimed at restricting further immigration from China.<ref name="yeefow">{{cite web|last=|first=|authorlink= |coauthors=|title=An Evidentiary Timeline on the History of Sacramento's Chinatown: 1882 - American Sinophobia, The Chinese Exclusion Act and "The Driving Out"|work=|publisher=Friends of the Yee Fow Museum, [[Sacramento, California]]|date=|url=http://www.yeefow.com/past/1882.html |doi=|accessdate=2008-03-24 }}</ref> The [[Chinese Exclusion Repeal Act of 1943]] was passed only as China became an ally to the United States during [[World War II]], however, the repeal let in place the ban on ethnic Chinese Americans' ownership of property and businesses. Even [[United States Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] Justice [[John Marshall Harlan]], who was the sole dissenting voice against the segregation of Black Americans in [[Plessy v. Ferguson]] (1896), wrote: "In view of the Constitution, in the eye of the law, there is in this country no superior, dominant, [[ruling class]] of citizens. There is no [[caste]] here. Our Constitution is color-blind, and neither knows nor tolerates classes among citizens. In respect of civil rights, all citizens are equal before the law. (...) [But] there is a race so different from our own that we do not permit those belonging to it to become citizens of the United States. Persons belonging to it are, with few exceptions, absolutely excluded from our country. I allude to the Chinese race."
In the 1870s and 1880s various legal discriminatory measures were taken against the Chinese. These laws, in particular the [[Chinese Exclusion Act (United States)|Chinese Exclusion Act]] of 1882, were aimed at restricting further immigration from China.<ref name="yeefow">{{cite web|last=|first=|authorlink= |coauthors=|title=An Evidentiary Timeline on the History of Sacramento's Chinatown: 1882 - American Sinophobia, The Chinese Exclusion Act and "The Driving Out"|work=|publisher=Friends of the Yee Fow Museum, [[Sacramento, California]]|date=|url=http://www.yeefow.com/past/1882.html |doi=|accessdate=2008-03-24 }}</ref> The [[Chinese Exclusion Repeal Act of 1943]] was passed only as China became an ally to the United States during [[World War II]], however, the repeal let in place the ban on ethnic Chinese Americans' ownership of property and businesses. Even [[United States Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] Justice [[John Marshall Harlan]], who was the sole dissenting voice against the segregation of Black Americans in [[Plessy v. Ferguson]] (1896), wrote: "In view of the Constitution, in the eye of the law, there is in this country no superior, dominant, [[ruling class]] of citizens. There is no [[caste]] here. Our Constitution is color-blind, and neither knows nor tolerates classes among citizens. In respect of civil rights, all citizens are equal before the law. (...) [But] there is a race so different from our own that we do not permit those belonging to it to become citizens of the United States. Persons belonging to it are, with few exceptions, absolutely excluded from our country. I allude to the Chinese race."


[[File:US Campaign Attack Ads Take Aim at China.ogg|thumb|200px|[[Voice of America]] report on U.S Campaign attack advertisements exploiting Sinophobia.]]
[[File:US Campaign Attack Ads Take Aim at China.ogg|thumb|200px|[[Voice of America]] report on U.S Campaign attack advertisements concerning China.]]
In the [[United States elections, 2010]], a significant number<ref name="Chi">{{Cite news|url=http://www.boston.com/bostonglobe/editorial_opinion/blogs/the_angle/2010/11/campaign_ads_ch.html|title=In campaign ads, China is fair game; Chinese-Americans are not|date=2010-11-08|first=Frank|last=Chi}}</ref> of [[Negative campaigning|negative advertisements]] from both major political parties focused on a candidates' alleged support for [[free trade]] with China. Some of the stock images that accompanied ominous voiceovers about China were actually of [[Chinatown, San Francisco]].<ref name="lyden">{{Cite news|url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=130860571|title=Critics Say Political Ads Hint Of Xenophobia|date=2010-10-27|accessdate=2010-12-05|publisher=[[NPR]]|first=Jacki|last=Lyden}}</ref> In particular, an advertisement called "Chinese Professor", which portrays a 2030 conquest of the West by China, used local [[Asian American]] extras to play Chinese although the actors were not informed of the nature of the shoot.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.npr.org/blogs/tellmemore/2010/10/27/130865009/playing-the-china-card|title=Politicians Play The China Card|first=Jeff|last=Yang|date=2010-10-27|accessdate=2010-12-05|publisher=[[NPR]]|work=Tell Me More}}</ref> Columnist Jeff Yang said that in the campaign there was a "blurry line between Chinese and [[Chinese-American]]s".<ref name="lyden" /> Larry McCarthy, the producer of "Chinese Professor" who is most famous for his [[Willie Horton]] ad, defended his work by saying that "this ad is about America, it's not about China."<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.politico.com/blogs/bensmith/1010/Behind_the_Chinese_Professor.html|title=Behind The Chinese Professor|first=Ben|last=Smith|date=2010-10-22}}</ref>
In the [[United States elections, 2010]], a significant number<ref name="Chi">{{Cite news|url=http://www.boston.com/bostonglobe/editorial_opinion/blogs/the_angle/2010/11/campaign_ads_ch.html|title=In campaign ads, China is fair game; Chinese-Americans are not|date=2010-11-08|first=Frank|last=Chi}}</ref> of [[Negative campaigning|negative advertisements]] from both major political parties focused on a candidates' alleged support for [[free trade]] with China. Some of the stock images that accompanied ominous voiceovers about China were actually of [[Chinatown, San Francisco]].<ref name="lyden">{{Cite news|url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=130860571|title=Critics Say Political Ads Hint Of Xenophobia|date=2010-10-27|accessdate=2010-12-05|publisher=[[NPR]]|first=Jacki|last=Lyden}}</ref> In particular, an advertisement called "Chinese Professor", which portrays a 2030 conquest of the West by China, used local [[Asian American]] extras to play Chinese although the actors were not informed of the nature of the shoot.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.npr.org/blogs/tellmemore/2010/10/27/130865009/playing-the-china-card|title=Politicians Play The China Card|first=Jeff|last=Yang|date=2010-10-27|accessdate=2010-12-05|publisher=[[NPR]]|work=Tell Me More}}</ref> Columnist Jeff Yang said that in the campaign there was a "blurry line between Chinese and [[Chinese-American]]s".<ref name="lyden" /> Larry McCarthy, the producer of "Chinese Professor" defended his work by saying that "this ad is about America, it's not about China."<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.politico.com/blogs/bensmith/1010/Behind_the_Chinese_Professor.html|title=Behind The Chinese Professor|first=Ben|last=Smith|date=2010-10-22}}</ref> Other editorials commenting on the video have called the video not anti-Chinese.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2010/10/the-phenomenal-chinese-professor-ad/64982|title=The Phenomenal Chinese Professor Ad|first=James|last=Fallows|date=2010-10-21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.politico.com/blogs/bensmith/1010/Behind_the_Chinese_Professor.html|title=Behind The Chinese Professor|first=Ben|last=Smith|date=2010-10-22}}</ref><ref name="Chi" />


== Derogatory terms ==
== Derogatory terms ==

Revision as of 08:05, 28 April 2011

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Unfavorable Views of China (2009). Numbers represent percentage of people polled.[1]

Sinophobia (from Ancient Greek Sinae "the Chinese" + Ancient Greek φόβος, phobos, "fear") or anti-Chinese sentiment is the fear of or dislike of China, its people, or its culture.[2] It often targets Chinese minorities living outside of China and is complicated by the dilemma of immigration, development of national identity in neighbouring countries, disparity of wealth, fall of the past central tribute system and majority-minority relations.

South Asia

India

Anti-Chinese sentiment in India began soon after the war between India and China in 1962. Most of the Indians express hatred towards China. Recently, the competition between India and China on economic and military fronts as well as territorial dispute between the two nations and with China supporting Pakistan in Kashmir have contributed a lot to anti-Chinese sentiment.

Southeast Asia

Anti-Chinese sentiment in Southeast Asian countries is often rooted in socio-economics. Chinese traders from the coast of mainland China and refugees of the Punti-Hakka Clan Wars in China emigrated throughout Southeast Asia countries [citation needed] and eventually became the majority population of Singapore, a large minority in Malaysia and Thailand, and small (less than 5% of the total population) minority groups in Indonesia and the Philippines. A tradition of trading and clan-style self-reliance enabled the Chinese to control much of the capital in these countries. This clannish attitude among the immigrants and their descendants and the ethnic group's disproportionate control of wealth encouraged Sinophobic sentiment.

Malaysia, Indonesia and Philippines

In countries with small Chinese minorities, the economic disparity can be remarkable. For example, in 1998, ethnic Chinese made up just 1% of the population of the Philippines and 3% of the population in Indonesia, but controlled 40% of the Philippines' private economy and 70% of the Indonesian private economy (Indonesian analysts believe this is a false claim since most of Indonesia's wealth was controlled by the military.） [3] In Malaysia the low birth rate of Chinese decreased its relative population from one half to one third. One study of the Chinese as a "market-dominant minority" notes that "Chinese market dominance and intense resentment amongst the indigenous majority is characteristic of virtually every country in Southeast Asia".[4]

This asymmetrical economic position has incited anti-Chinese sentiment among the poorer majorities. Sometimes the anti-Chinese attitudes turn violent, such as the May 13 Incident in Malaysia in 1969 and the Jakarta riots of May 1998 in Indonesia, in which more than 2,000 people died mostly rioters burned to death in a shopping mall.[5] During the colonial era, some genocides killed ten thousands of Chinese.[6][7][8][9][10] During the Indonesian killings of 1965–66, in which more than 500,000 people died,[11] ethnic Chinese were killed and their properties looted and burned as a result of anti-Chinese racism on the excuse that Dipa "Amat" Aidit had brought the PKI closer to China.[12][13] In the Philippines, dozens of Chinese are kidnapped every year and may be killed regardless of ransom—a problem the ethnic Filipino police are often indifferent to.[14]

Sinophobia is also codified in some Southeast Asian countries. The anti-Chinese legislation was in the Indonesian constitution until 1998.

Vietnam

Due to a long history of fighting Chinese invaders and recent territory disputes in the Paracel and Spratly Islands, there are anti-Chinese sentiments among the Vietnamese population.[15][16] While the government tries to maintain friendly ties with the Chinese government by cracking down on anti-Chinese demonstrations and criticisms regarding China, anti-Chinese sentiments had spiked in 2007 after China formed an administration in the disputed islands,[16] in 2009 when the Vietnamese government allowed the Chinese aluminium manufacturer Chinalco the rights to mine for bauxite in the Central Highlands,[17][18][19] and when Vietnamese fishermen were detained by Chinese security forces while seeking refuge in the disputed territories.[20]

The Sino-Vietnamese War resulted in the discrimination and consequent emigration of the country's ethnic Chinese, many of whom fled as "boat people". From 1978 to 1979, some 450,000 ethnic Chinese left Vietnam by boat (mainly former South Vietnam citizens fleeing the Vietcong) as refugees or were expelled across the land border with China.[21]

Pacific

In 2000, Tongan noble Tu’ivakano of Nukunuku banned Chinese stores from his Nukunuku District in Tonga. This followed complaints from other shopkeepers regarding competition from local Chinese.[22] In 2001, Tonga's Chinese community (a population of about three or four thousand people) was hit by a wave racist assaults[citation needed]. The Tongan government did not renew the work permits of more than 600 Chinese storekeepers, and has admitted the decision was in response to “widespread anger at the growing presence of the storekeepers”.[23]

In 2006, rioters damaged shops owned by Chinese-Tongans in Nukuʻalofa.[24][25]

In 2006, Honiara's Chinatown suffered damage when it was looted and burned by rioters following a contested election. Ethnic Chinese businessmen were falsely blamed for bribing members of the Solomon Islands' Parliament. The government of Taiwan was the one that supported the then current government of the Soloman Islands. The Chinese businessmen were mainly small traders from mainland China and had no interest in local politics.[24]

East Asia

Japan

Main article: Anti-Chinese sentiment in Japan

From 1866 to 1869, during Japan's Meiji Restoration, Japan was able to catch up with the progress of western nations. Meanwhile, China was sinking into a state of deep dysfunction. Although Yukichi Fukuzawa refused to recognise China as a bad friend in Datsu-A Ron, translated to "Argument for Leaving Asia", this was not the prevailing attitude and the discriminating consciousness to China remained.

These Sinophobic sentiments fueled the Imperial soldiers' atrocities committed against the Chinese during World War II, culminating in the Nanking Massacre. The Second Sino-Japanese War claimed the lives of more than 20 million Chinese, mostly civilian.

After World War II, the relationship between China and Japan gradually improved. However, since 2000, Japan has seen a gradual resurgence of anti-Chinese sentiments. Many Japanese believe that China is using the issue of the countries' checkered history, such as the Japanese history textbook controversies and official visits to the Yasukuni Shrine, both as a diplomatic card and to make Japan a scapegoat in domestic politics.[26] The Anti-Japanese Riots in Spring of 2005 also caused more fear of China within the Japanese public. Anti-Chinese sentiments in Japan have been on a sharp rise since 2002. According to Pew Global Attitude Project (2008), unfavorable view of China was 84%, unfavorable view of Chinese people was 73%.[27]

Korea

Pre-1945

China and Korea have a long history of conflicts. During the Three Kingdoms Period (57 BCE - 668), Goguryeo, which ruled the northern Korean peninsula and Manchuria, was attacked by many Chinese dynasties, including Han, Wei, Yan, Sui, and Tang Dynasty. Likewise, Baekje and Silla, which was located in the southern Korean peninsula, was raided by the Chinese Tang Dynasty. These frequent Chinese invasions, were widely perceived by Koreans as China's attempt to violate Korean sovereignty, which led to public anger. Koreans also resented China's intervention in its internal and external affairs.

In the 9th century, Chinese pirates infested the coastal Yellow Sea waters of Korean Silla, preying on the Korean peninsula to kidnap people for sell as slave markets in China. This resulted in "protests" from the Korean court.[28][29] The Korean admiral Jang Bogo established of Cheonghaejin garrison, and Jang's force sweep the Chinese pirates from the western coast of Korea.[29]

The early Ming dynasty of China demanded rare animals, food, concubines[30] and eunuchs[31] as tribute from Korea. Koreans could not do anything about it except to meet China's demands, but these aroused great Korean resentment toward Chinese.

In 1592, Japanese warlord Toyotomi Hideyoshi plotting the conquest of Ming dynasty China, and then invaded to Joseon Dynasty Korea as a part of his ambition. Japanese army occupied many parts of the Korean peninsula within months but some region. Korean court has officially requested aid from Ming China, and Chinese army pushed back the Japanese with Koreans. However, Some Chinese soldiers did not distinguish between Korean civilians and the Japanese. This led to the indiscriminate killing of Korean civilians, looted the property of Koreans, rape women and even attacked Korean forces sometimes. As a result, these Chinese actions gave cause for anti-Chinese sentiment among the Korean populace.

Post-1945

See also: Northeast Project of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences and Goguryeo controversies

Anti-Chinese sentiments in South Korea have been on a steady rise since 2002. According to Pew Global Attitude Project, favorable view of China steadily declined from 66% in 2002 to 48% in 2008, while unfavorable view of China rose from 31% in 2002 to 49% in 2008.[32] According to polls by East Asia Institute, positive view of China's influence declined from 48.6% in 2005 to 38% in 2009, while negative view of Chinese influence rose from 46.7% in 2005 to 50% in 2008.[33]

The turning point of rising anti-Chinese sentiments was the Northeast Project, a controversial Chinese government research project claiming Goguryeo and other various Korean kingdoms, including Gojoseon, Buyeo and Balhae, to be Chinese local states and thus part of historical Chinese territory. The conflict erupted after the Chinese Foreign Ministry in April deleted references of the kingdom from the introduction of Korean history on its Web site and that deletion angered many Koreans. Beijing refused to accept Seoul`s demand to restore on its Foreign Ministry Web site the part on Korean history including the ancient kingdom. Many historians and officials in Korea believed the row is at a critical stage in diplomatic relations, with Chinese defiance of Korean requests to reinstate acknowledgment of Goguryeo as a Korean kingdom being seen by Seoul as humiliating and threatening to unravel ties between the two neighbors. This sparked a massive uproar in South Korea when the project was widely publicized in 2004.[34] Amid intensifying criticism against China from the Korean government and public, China dispatched its new Vice Foreign Minister Wu Dawei to Seoul with the Beijing's promise not to distort the Goguryeo history in its textbooks.

During the Seoul leg of the 2008 Olympic torch relay, over 6,000 Chinese students clashed with protesters, throwing rocks, bottles, and punches.[34][35][36] Chinese demonstrators clashed with local activists who rallied to protest the torch relay, citing Beijing's discouraging treatment of North Korea defectors and the regime's crackdown on Tibetans' rioting for independence.[35] With the result of these violence clashes in central Seoul, anti-Chinese sentiments in Korea aroused great indignation toward the Chinese people.[37] The Ministry of Justice of South Korea indicated that it would punish all such demonstrators, regardless of nationality.[38] The Government of South Korea is toughening visa regulations for Chinese students.[39]

There are also other issues that negatively affected sentiments towards China in Korea, such as Made in China controversies, Chinese fishboats illegally trespassing South Korean territorial waters.

Taiwan

Taiwanese nationalism flourished gradually in recent years. In the most recent years, PRC always ranks first in Taiwan's "the most hated country " survey. More than 50% of Taiwan residents who identity themselves Taiwanese instead of the Chinese. Among the remaining 30% of people who identity themselves Chinese, but also Taiwanese. Less than 10% of people think they are Chinese.[40] About 70% of people dissatisfied with China's diplomatic blockade and fear China's military threat. Some young people start using Shina(支那), that is Japanese curse word to China.

Mongolia

Throughout history, Mongolia and China have fought many wars. Because of the relative poverty of Mongolia compared with the advanced civilization of China at the time, Mongolian nomads constantly pillaged and attacked China. In order to diffuse the Mongol threat, Chinese tried to bring about conflict between the various nomadic confederations that had history of rivalry in order to stop the raids. This effort was soon viewed by the Mongolian nomads as China trying to undermine the nomads in order to keep them weak and divided, which fueled more hostility.

It has been reported that some Mongolians see China as a threat to their jobs, resources and possibly territory. The increasing Chinese influence has also raised suspicions of China in Mongolia,[41][42] although the situation is still unclear due to lack of comprehensive reports on the topic. In the modern age right before World War II, the Republic of China that ruled over China tried to claim Mongolian territory to make it part of China. The Republic of China map still includes Mongolia as basically a province of China. To the lesser extent, People's Republic of China also tried to integrate Mongolia into China after World War II. Therefore Sukhbaatar among others traveled to the Soviet Union for military assistance to create a buffer from both China and Japan. Soviet Union on the other hand had no intention of absorbing Mongolia, which is why Mongolia at the time viewed Soviet Union as much less of a threat than compared with China. Soviet Union defeated the Japanese at Khalkhin Gol, helped Mongolia to gain independence and its industrialization albeit the Soviet Union helpfulness is base on the idea is to create a buffer zone just as it's satellite states in eastern Europe. These type of aid end after the 1990 Mongolian democratic revolution. Another fear to a certain extent is the contrast of Mongolian population number (3 million) and China's (1.3 billion) and China's economic power compared with Mongolia; however, it is by no means all negative. For instance China's economic growth is seen in Mongolia's economy as being positive.

When China, which has a larger ethnic Mongolian population than Mongolia itself, claimed Genghis Khan to be a hero of Zhonghua minzu (Chinese ethnic groups),it also reportedly caused a negative sentiment in Mongolia.[43] Extreme groups opposing foreign influence, including China's, are present within Mongolia; one such group, Tsagaan Khass, is a neo-Nazi group devoted to Hitler and ethnic purity, and are opposed to China's increasing influence.[44] Fear and hatred of erliiz, a derogatory term for people of mixed Han Chinese and Mongol ethnicity,[45] is a common phenomena in Mongolian politics. Erliiz are seen as a Chinese plot of "genetic pollution" to chip away at Mongolian sovereignty, and mainstream Mongolian political groups regularly check the genealogy of their rivals to expose errant Chinese ancestry.[46]

Russian Far East

In Russia’s Siberia and the Russian Far East, there is a long-standing dispute over territorial rights, which is thinly woven under the conflicts between two competing homogeneous cultures over limited resources. There is also a perceived fear of a demographic takeover by Chinese immigrants in sparsely populated Russian areas.[47][48]

Outside of Asia

Like China's perception in other countries, China's large population, long history and size has been the subject of fear somewhat. China has figured in the Western imagination in a number of different ways as being a very large inventive civilization existing for many centuries with a very large population; however the weakness of China in the beginning of the modern age, rise of People's Republic of China after the Chinese Civil War has dramatically changed the perception of China from a relatively positive light to negative because of the fear of communism in the West, and repeated public accusations against China of human rights abuses.

The European view towards China from the exotic descriptions of The Travels of Marco Polo developed into a patronising superiority as the West (later including Japan) attempted to extend their colonial empires into China. Successful attempts in exporting opium into the Chinese Empire and a series of other commercial and military successes exposed to colonial powers a political fact: China's culture appeared glorious, but its government showed weaknesses that could be exploited for commercial and cultural gain.[49]

Sinophobia became more common as China was becoming a major source of immigrants for the west (including the American West).[50] Numerous Chinese immigrants to North America were attracted by wages offered by large railway companies in the late 19th century as the companies built the transcontinental railroads.

Sinophobic policies (such as the Chinese Exclusion Act, the Chinese Immigration Act of 1923, anti-Chinese zoning laws and restrictive covenants, the policies of Richard Seddon, and the White Australia policy) and pronouncements on the "yellow peril" were in evidence as late as the mid-20th century in the Australia, United States, Canada, and New Zealand.

Australia

The Chinese population was active in political and social life in Australia. Community leaders protested against discriminatory legislation and attitudes, and despite the passing of the Immigration Restriction Act in 1901, Chinese communities around Australia participated in parades and celebrations of Australia's Federation and the visit of the Duke and Duchess of York.

Although the Chinese communities in Australia were generally peaceful and industrious, resentment flared up against them because of their different customs and traditions. In the mid 19th century, terms such as "dirty, disease ridden, [and] insect-like" were used in Australia and New Zealand to describe the Chinese.[51]

A poll tax was passed in Victoria in 1855 to restrict Chinese immigration. New South Wales, Queensland, and Western Australia followed suit. Such legislation did not distinguish between naturalised, British citizens, Australian-born and Chinese-born individuals. The tax in Victoria and New South Wales was repealed in the 1860s, but by the 1880s there was another wave of anti-Chinese sentiment. Despite a steady decline in the number of Chinese residents in Australia, the numbers of Chinese and Chinese-Australians in the more visible Chinatowns of Melbourne and Sydney were growing. In 1887, two Chinese Commissioners, the first statesmen from China to visit Australia, arrived to assess the living conditions of Chinese in Australia after numerous requests from Chinese living abroad. In 1888, following protests and strike actions, an inter-colonial conference agreed to reinstate and increase the severity of restrictions on Chinese immigration. This provided the basis for the 1901 Immigration Restriction Act and the seed for the White Australia Policy.

Canada

In 1850s, sizable numbers of Chinese immigrants came to British Columbia seeking gold; the region was known to them as Gold Mountain. Starting in 1858, Chinese "coolies" were brought to Canada to work in the mines and on the Canadian Pacific Railway. However, they were denied by law the rights of citizenship, including the right to vote, and in the 1880s, "head taxes" were implemented to curtail immigration from China. In 1907, a riot in Vancouver targeted Chinese and Japanese-owned businesses. In 1923, the federal government passed the Chinese Immigration Act, commonly known as the Exclusion Act, prohibiting further Chinese immigration except under "special circumstances". The Exclusion Act was repealed in 1947, the same year in which Chinese Canadians were given the right to vote. Restrictions would continue to exist on immigration from Asia until 1967, when all racial restrictions on immigration to Canada were repealed, and Canada adopted the current points based immigration system.

France

The 2008 Olympic torch relay leg in Paris, activists claiming allegiance to Tibetan independence and human rights repeatedly attempted to disrupt, hinder or halt the procession.[52]

United States

A political cartoon criticizing US hypocrisy for protesting anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire despite the Chinese Exclusion Act.

In the later part of the 19th Century, the United States—particularly the West Coast states—imported large numbers of Chinese migrant laborers. The decline of the Qing Dynasty in China caused many Chinese to emigrate overseas in search of a more stable life, and this coincided with the rapid growth of American industry. The Chinese were considered by employers as "reliable" workers who would continue working, without complaint, even under destitute conditions.[citation needed]

Chinese migrant workers encountered considerable prejudice in the United States, especially by the people who occupied the lower layers in white society.[citation needed] There were cases[quantify] of physical assaults on Chinese, such as the Chinese massacre of 1871 in Los Angeles. The 1909 murder of Elsie Sigel in New York, of which a Chinese person was suspected (but never proven), was blamed on the Chinese in general and led to physical violence.

Italian-Americans and Irish-Americans, who had once been subject to similar prejudice themselves, were often involved in such assaults, believing that their condition had been worsened by the influx of Chinese laborers.[citation needed]

The emerging American trade unions, under such leaders as Samuel Gompers, also took an outspoken anti-Chinese position,[53] regarding Chinese laborers as competitors to white laborers. Only with the emergence of the international trade union, IWW, did trade unionists start to accept Chinese workers as part of the American working-class.[54]

In the 1870s and 1880s various legal discriminatory measures were taken against the Chinese. These laws, in particular the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, were aimed at restricting further immigration from China.[55] The Chinese Exclusion Repeal Act of 1943 was passed only as China became an ally to the United States during World War II, however, the repeal let in place the ban on ethnic Chinese Americans' ownership of property and businesses. Even Supreme Court Justice John Marshall Harlan, who was the sole dissenting voice against the segregation of Black Americans in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), wrote: "In view of the Constitution, in the eye of the law, there is in this country no superior, dominant, ruling class of citizens. There is no caste here. Our Constitution is color-blind, and neither knows nor tolerates classes among citizens. In respect of civil rights, all citizens are equal before the law. (...) [But] there is a race so different from our own that we do not permit those belonging to it to become citizens of the United States. Persons belonging to it are, with few exceptions, absolutely excluded from our country. I allude to the Chinese race."

File:US Campaign Attack Ads Take Aim at China.ogg
Voice of America report on U.S Campaign attack advertisements concerning China.

In the United States elections, 2010, a significant number[56] of negative advertisements from both major political parties focused on a candidates' alleged support for free trade with China. Some of the stock images that accompanied ominous voiceovers about China were actually of Chinatown, San Francisco.[57] In particular, an advertisement called "Chinese Professor", which portrays a 2030 conquest of the West by China, used local Asian American extras to play Chinese although the actors were not informed of the nature of the shoot.[58] Columnist Jeff Yang said that in the campaign there was a "blurry line between Chinese and Chinese-Americans".[57] Larry McCarthy, the producer of "Chinese Professor" defended his work by saying that "this ad is about America, it's not about China."[59] Other editorials commenting on the video have called the video not anti-Chinese.[60][61][56]

Derogatory terms

There are a variety of derogatory terms referring to China and Chinese peoples. Many of these terms are viewed as racist. However, these terms do not necessarily refer to the Chinese race as a whole; they can also refer to specific policies, or specific time periods in history.

In English

  • Chinaman (term) - The term Chinaman is noted as offensive by modern dictionaries, dictionaries of slurs and euphemisms, and guidelines for racial harassment.
  • Ching chong - English language to mock people of Chinese ancestry, or other Asians who may look Chinese.
  • Chink - Racial slur referring mainly to a person of Chinese ethnicity but sometimes generalized to refer to any person of East Asian descent.
  • Chinky - The name "chinky" is the adjectival form of chink and, like chink, is an ethnic slur for Chinese and other Asian people.
  • Chonky : refers to a person of Chinese heritage with white attributes whether being a personality aspect or physical aspect.[62][63]

In French

  • chinetoque (m/f) - Derogatory term referring to Chinese people.

In Japanese

  • 三国人 (sangokujin, literally "the third country people") - Derogatory term referring to colonial nationals of Taiwan, Korea and China. Tokyo Governor Shintaro Ishihara famously referred to Chinese and Koreans as 三国人 sangokujin in context of foreigners being a potential source of unrest in the aftermath of an earthquake.
  • 土人 (tojin) - literally "earth people", referring to indigenous peoples and savages, used towards the end of the 19th century and early 20th century by Japanese colonials, being a sarcastic remark regarding backwardsness.[citation needed]
  • 特亞人 (tokuajin) - derogatory term used against Koreans and Chinese.[citation needed]
  • 支那 (シナ) (Shina/Zhina) - Romanized Japanese transliterations for the Chinese character compound "支那". Its effect when a Japanese person uses it to refer to a Chinese person is very similar to the American connotation of the word "negro", a word that has harmless etymologies but has gained derogative connotations due to historical context, where the phrase 支那人 (shinajin; Shina person) was used refer to Chinese. In Korea, some people occasionally used this term. In Taiwan, the younger generation also use this word.

In Korean

  • 짱깨 (Jjangkkae) - Derogatory term referring to Chinese people.
  • 짱꼴라 (Jjangkkolla) - This term has originated from Japanese term "Chankoro" (淸國奴, Slave of Qing). Later, it became a derogatory term that indicates Chinese people in general.[64]
  • 중공 (中共) (Jung-gong) - literally "Chinese communist", it is generally used to refer to Chinese communists and nationalists, since the Korean War (1950–1953).
  • 오랑캐 (Orangkae) - literally "Barbarian", derogatory term used against Chinese, Mongolian and Manchus.
  • 되놈 (Doenom) - Derogatory term referring to Chinese people. This term has meant "Manchus". Later, however, it indicates to Han Chinese people, and it is also known as "Ttenom" (떼놈).

In Russian

  • китаёза (kitayóza) (m/f) - Derogatory term referring to Chinese people.
  • узкоглазый (uzkoglázy) (m) - Generic derogatory term referring to Asian people.

In Taiwan

  • 426 - It is "damn mainlander" (死阿陸) homophone words in Taiwanese.
  • 支那豬(Shina boar) - This word transform from Shina of Japan.

See also

References

  1. ^ http://pewglobal.org/database/?indicator=24&response=Unfavorable>
  2. ^ Sinophobic. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Retrieved 2008-08-23.
  3. ^ Chua. pg. 3 & 43.
  4. ^ Chua. (2003). pg. 61.
  5. ^ Malaysia's race rules. The Economist Newspaper Limited (2005-08-25). Requires login.
  6. ^ 明清对待海外华人的不同态度
  7. ^ 海外汉人被屠杀的血泪史大全
  8. ^ 十七﹒八世紀海外華人慘案初探
  9. ^ 东南亚华人遭受的几次屠杀
  10. ^ 南洋华人被大规模屠杀不完全记录
  11. ^ Indonesian academics fight burning of books on 1965 coup, smh.com.au
  12. ^ Vickers (2005), p. 158
  13. ^ BBC News | Analysis | Indonesia: Why ethnic Chinese are afraid
  14. ^ Chua. pg. 1-5.
  15. ^ Martha Ann Overland (2009-04-16). "In Vietnam, New Fears of a Chinese 'Invasion'". Time Magazine. Retrieved 2009-10-27.
  16. ^ a b Agence France-Presse (2007-12-16). "Vietnamese in second anti-China rally over disputed islands". The Australian. Retrieved 2009-10-27.
  17. ^ Agence France Presse (2009-04-20). "Vietnam's China mining plans spark rare criticism". AsianOne News. Retrieved 2009-10-27.
  18. ^ "Vietnam's nationalist bloggers: Getting if off your chest". The Economist. 2009-09-10. Retrieved 2009-10-27.
  19. ^ Martha Ann Overland (2009-09-05). "Vietnam to Its Journalists: Don't Tread on China". Time Magazine. Retrieved 2009-10-27.
  20. ^ Nga Pham (2009-08-12). "China releases Vietnam fishermen". BBC News. Retrieved 2009-10-27.
  21. ^ Griffin, Kevin. Vietnamese. Discover Vancouver.
  22. ^ "No More Chinese!", Tongatapu.net
  23. ^ "Tonga announces the expulsion of hundreds of Chinese immigrants", John Braddock, WSWS, December 18, 2001
  24. ^ a b "The Pacific Proxy: China vs Taiwan", Graeme Dobell, ABC Radio Australia, February 7, 2007
  25. ^ "Chinese stores looted in Tonga riots", People's Daily, November 17, 2006
  26. ^ Matthew Forney, "Why China Loves to Hate Japan". Time Magazine, December 10, 2005. http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1139759,00.html, accessed 1 June 2008
  27. ^ 24-Nation Pew Global Attitudes Survey(2008) 35p, Pew Research
  28. ^ Edward H. Schafer (1963). The golden peaches of Samarkand: a study of Tʻang exotics. University of California Press. p. 44. ISBN 0520054628. Retrieved 2011-01-09.
  29. ^ a b Template:Ko장보고 - 네이버 백과사전
  30. ^ By Frederick W. Mote, Denis Twitchett, John King Fairbank (1988). The Cambridge history of China: The Ming dynasty, 1368-1644, Part 1. Cambridge University Press. p. 301. ISBN 0521243327. Retrieved 2011-01-11. {{cite book}}: More than one of |pages= and |page= specified (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  31. ^ Shih-shan Henry Tsai (1996). The eunuchs in the Ming dynasty. SUNY Press. p. 16. ISBN 0791426874. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
  32. ^ World Public Opinion surveys, 2002-2008 www.worldpublicopinion.org
  33. ^ East Asia Institute Foreign Perception Survey 2005-2009, some in collaboration with BBC World Service Polls 2005-2008 www.eai.or.kr
  34. ^ a b Donga Monthly. http://news.naver.com/main/read.nhn?mode=LSD&mid=sec&sid1=101&oid=037&aid=0000006961
  35. ^ a b Song Sang-ho (2010-04-04). "Chinese student faces arrest for Seoul torch relay violence". The Korea Herald.
  36. ^ Lee, Gil-seong (이길성) (2008-04-29). "중국인들 집단 폭력에 멍들어버린 서울" (in Korean). The Chosun Ilbo. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
  37. ^ "중국인 시위대 폭력행위… '비난여론' 거세" (in Korean). JKSTARS.COM. 2008-04-28. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
  38. ^ Song Sang-ho (2010-04-04). "Seoul to punish Chinese torch demonstrators". The Korea Herald.
  39. ^ Shin Jeong-won (2008-04-30). "정부 "중국인 비자 발급 엄격하게 하겠다"" (in Korean). Newsis.
  40. ^ News in ChinaTimes http://tech.chinatimes.com/mainland/50506059/112011012100524.html
  41. ^ Anti-Chinese sentiment swelling in Mongolia
  42. ^ Mongolia's China Syndrome
  43. ^ Baker, Graeme. (December 30, 2006). Outrage as China lays claim to Genghis Khan. The Daily Telegraph.
  44. ^ Tania Branigan, 2 August 2010, Mongolian neo-Nazis: Anti-Chinese sentiment fuels rise of ultra-nationalism, Guardian UK
  45. ^ Avery, Martha (2003). The Tea Road: China and Russia Meet Across the Steppe. 五洲传播出版社. p. 91.
  46. ^ Bulag, Uradyn E. (2004). "Mongolian Modernity and Hybridity". Minpaku (19). National Museum of Ethnology (Osaka): 1–3. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  47. ^ Santoli, Al (2001-01-29). "Russian far east residents fear takeover by China; Sino-Russian "strategic cooperation" pact aimed at US". American Foreign Policy Council. Archived from the original on 2007-11-16. Retrieved 2008-03-25. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  48. ^ Baker, Peter (2003-08-02). "Russians fear Chinese 'takeover' of Far East regions". Dawn (newspaper). Retrieved 2008-03-25. [dead link]
  49. ^ "The Great Exhibition and London's Chinese Junk". BBC News. 2008-06-16. Retrieved 2010-05-23.
  50. ^ Kazin, Michael; Edwards, Rebecca; Rothman, Adam (2010). "Immigration Policy". The Princeton Encyclopedia of American Political History. Princeton University Press. Compared to its European counterparts, Chinese immigration of the late nineteenth century was miniscule (4 percent of all immigration at its zenith), but it inspired one of the most brutal and successful nativist movements in U.S. history. Official and popular racism made Chinese newcomers especially vulnerable; their lack of numbers, political power, or legal protections gave them none of the weapons that enabled Irish Catholics to counterattack nativists.
  51. ^ Young, Jason. "Review of East by South: China in the Australasian Imagination" (.doc). Victoria University of Wellington. Retrieved 2008-03-24. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  52. ^ "China condemns Olympic torch disruptions", France 24, April 8, 2008
  53. ^ Gompers, Samuel; Gustadt, Herman (1902). Meat vs. Rice: American Manhood against Asiatic Coolieism: Which Shall Survive?. American Federation of Labor.
  54. ^ Lai, Him Mark (2010). Chinese American Transnational Politics. University of Illinois Press. pp. 53–54. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  55. ^ "An Evidentiary Timeline on the History of Sacramento's Chinatown: 1882 - American Sinophobia, The Chinese Exclusion Act and "The Driving Out"". Friends of the Yee Fow Museum, Sacramento, California. Retrieved 2008-03-24. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  56. ^ a b Chi, Frank (2010-11-08). "In campaign ads, China is fair game; Chinese-Americans are not".
  57. ^ a b Lyden, Jacki (2010-10-27). "Critics Say Political Ads Hint Of Xenophobia". NPR. Retrieved 2010-12-05.
  58. ^ Yang, Jeff (2010-10-27). "Politicians Play The China Card". Tell Me More. NPR. Retrieved 2010-12-05.
  59. ^ Smith, Ben (2010-10-22). "Behind The Chinese Professor".
  60. ^ Fallows, James (2010-10-21). "The Phenomenal Chinese Professor Ad".
  61. ^ Smith, Ben (2010-10-22). "Behind The Chinese Professor".
  62. ^ Fontes, Lisa Aronson (2008-05-23). ?. ISBN 9781593857103.
  63. ^ Robert Lee, A (2008-01-28). ?. ISBN 9789042023512. Retrieved 23 August 2010.
  64. ^ Template:Ko Jjangkkolla - Naver encyclopedia

Template:Cultural criticism

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