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On the 8th of March, Minister of Foreign Affairs, János Martonyi sent letter to the Minsters of Foreign Affairs of EU-member states, in which he gave details on the text of the amendment.<ref>http://www.kormany.hu/en/ministry-of-foreign-affairs/news/janos-martonyi-sent-letter-to-eu-foreign-ministers</ref>
On the 8th of March, Minister of Foreign Affairs, János Martonyi sent letter to the Minsters of Foreign Affairs of EU-member states, in which he gave details on the text of the amendment.<ref>http://www.kormany.hu/en/ministry-of-foreign-affairs/news/janos-martonyi-sent-letter-to-eu-foreign-ministers</ref>

On the 11th of March, ''"Hungary's parliament, dominated by Prime Minister [[Viktor Orban]]'s [[Fidesz]] party, adopted changes to the country's constitution on Monday despite warnings from the European Union and the U.S. government that the changes could weaken Hungary's democracy. The legislation was supported by 265 lawmakers in the 386-seat chamber, with 11 votes against and 33 abstentions."''<ref>http://www.chicagotribune.com/business/sns-rt-us-hungary-constitutionbre92a0ox-20130311,0,1542992.story</ref>


==Notes==
==Notes==

Revision as of 17:05, 11 March 2013

Politics of Hungary
Constitution
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Budapest
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Gergely Karácsony
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The Fundamental Law of Hungary (Hungarian: Magyarország Alaptörvénye), the country's constitution, was adopted on 18 April 2011, promulgated a week later and went into force on 1 January 2012. Hungary's first constitution to be adopted within a democratic framework and following free elections, it succeeded the 1949 Constitution, adopted on 20 August 1949 and heavily amended on 23 October 1989. That document was Hungary's first permanent written constitution, and until its replacement, the country was the only former Eastern Bloc nation that did not adopt an entirely new constitution after the fall of Communism.

Both domestically and abroad, the 2011 constitution has been the subject of controversy. Among the claims critics make are that it was adopted without sufficient input from the opposition and society at large, that it reflects the ideology of the ruling party and enshrines it in office, that it is rooted in a conservative Christian worldview despite Hungary not being a particularly devout country, and that it curtails and politicizes previously independent institutions. The government that enacted the charter has dismissed such assertions, saying it was enshrined lawfully and reflects the popular will.

Contents

The constitution is divided into sections and articles as outlined below.

Section and article(s) Subject area(s) Notes
Preamble
Basic stipulations 20 articles specifying the country's name, capital, official language, symbols, etc.
Freedom and responsibility 29 articles covering citizens' rights and duties.
The state 54 articles covering the state's attributes.
1-8 Parliament
9-14 President
15-23 Government and independent regulatory authorities
24 Constitutional Court
25-28 Judiciary
29 Prosecution Service
30 Parliamentary Commissioner for Fundamental Rights
31-35 Local governments
36-44 Public finances
45-47 Hungarian Defence Forces, Police and national security services
48-54 Special laws Dispositions covering states of emergency, unexpected attacks, etc.
Closing and interim provisions[1][2]

Overview

Described as socially and fiscally conservative,[3] the constitution initiates a number of changes. In an effort to push the public debt below 50% of gross domestic product (from above 80% at the time of adoption), the powers of the Constitutional Court on budget and tax matters are restricted until debt falls below 50%. The President is allowed to dissolve Parliament if a budget is not approved, and only companies with transparent activities and ownership structures are allowed to bid for government contracts. The powers of the head of the National Bank are also limited, and the modification of tax and pension laws requires a two-thirds majority.[4][3] The life of a fetus is protected from the moment of conception, and although the move is seen as opening the possibility for a future ban or restrictions on abortion,[3] existing laws were unaffected.[5] Same-sex couples may legally register their partnerships, but marriage is defined as being between one man and one woman. A ban on discrimination does not mention age or sexual orientation, and the constitution allows life imprisonment for violent crimes without the possibility of parole.[3]

The constitution lowers judges' mandatory retirement age from 70 to the general retirement age, which was 62 at the time of adoption and is set to rise to 65 by 2022.[6][7][8] The provision also covers prosecutors, while the Chief Prosecutor and the head of the Curia are exempt.[9] The country's name is changed from "Hungarian Republic" to "Hungary", and although the country remains a republic,[10] the preamble contains references to the Holy Crown, as well as to God, Christianity, the fatherland and traditional family values.[11] Certain issue areas, such as family policy, the pension system and taxation, formerly under the purview of the government in office, can be altered only through Organic Laws passed by a two-thirds majority and not subject to constitutional review.[12][13]

History

Background

For centuries, the Hungarian constitution was unwritten, based upon customary law.[14] There was no civil code either; lawyers worked with the Corpus Iuris Hungarici.[15] Among the laws that acquired constitutional force were a series of liberal statutes enacted during the 1848 Revolution; Statute XII of 1867 (enacting the Ausgleich); and further guarantees for constitutionalism, such as Statute IV of 1869, separating the executive and the judiciary; or the post-1870 statutes regulating local self-government and state administration.[16]

Following the advent of the Hungarian Soviet Republic, the Revolutionary Governing Council adopted a Provisional Constitution on 2 April 1919, providing for a Soviet-style political system. On 23 June, the National Assembly of Allied Councils adopted Hungary's first charter-like constitution, the Constitution of the Socialist Allied Council Republic of Hungary. However, that regime was crushed two months later and Hungary returned to its historical, unwritten pre-1918 constitution.[16]

Despite the lack of a written constitution, several constitutional laws were passed during the interwar period of the Kingdom of Hungary. Statute I of 1920 confirmed the monarchical form of government (albeit with a vacant throne, the king's powers being exercised by regent Miklós Horthy and his ministers) and vested legislative power in a diet. Statute XLVII dethroned the Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty. A second chamber was established by Statute XXII of 1926. Successive constitutional acts increased the power of the regent, who was empowered to nominate forty senators at first, and during World War II, eighty-seven.[17]

1949 Constitution

Main article: Hungarian Constitution of 1949

In 1949, with the Hungarian Working People's Party in complete control of the country, a constitution based on the "Stalin" 1936 Soviet Constitution was adopted,[18] the party's leading role enshrined in the document.[19] Its basic features remained in place until 1989, although a number of important amendments were made, including one in 1972 that proclaimed Hungary a socialist state.[20] In 1989, as the Communist regime crumbled, the legislature approved a thorough constitutional revision that ushered in a civil democratic form of government.[21] After the opposition won free elections in 1990, references to democratic socialism and the planned economy were dropped.[22] Further modifications followed over the ensuing two decades,[23] as successive plans for a new constitution did not reach fulfillment.[24]

2011 Constitution

File:Hungary 2011 constitution stamp.png
2011 postage stamp commemorating the constitution adopted that year

Drafting process

In 2010, a new government led by Fidesz initiated a drafting process for a new constitution.[25][26] A parliamentary committee for drafting the constitution was set up, with all five parliamentary parties represented;[27] the draft was composed on Szájer's iPad.[28] The following February, a body responsible for national consultations on a draft was set up by József Szájer, a member of the European Parliament; its members included János Csák, Hungarian ambassador to the United Kingdom; Zsigmond Járai, chairman of the supervisory board of the Hungarian National Bank; József Pálinkás, president of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences and former Minister of Education; and Katalin Szili, former Hungarian Socialist Party Speaker of the National Assembly.[29] The consultation involved questionnaires being mailed out to all citizens for their opinions; some 917,000 or 11% were returned.[30] Provisions were then included or excluded based on consensus among respondents; for instance, a proposal to adopt voting rights for minors was shelved after citizens expressed disapproval.[31]

The following April 18, parliament approved the constitution on a 262-44 vote, with Fidesz and their Christian Democrat coalition partners in favor and Jobbik opposed. The Hungarian Socialist Party and Politics Can Be Different, citing the ruling party's unwillingness to compromise on issues and their inability to change the outcome, boycotted both the drafting process and the vote.[28][11] On April 25, President Pál Schmitt signed the document into law, and it entered into force on the first day of 2012.[10] The enactment came halfway through Hungary's six-month Presidency of the Council of the European Union.[4]

Reactions and subsequent developments

According to Fidesz parliamentary group chairman János Lázár, the constitution marks a break with Hungary’s communist past,[4] while Prime Minister Viktor Orbán said it completes a transition to democracy and allows for sound finances and clean government after years of mismanagement and scandals.[3] However, the opposition accused Fidesz of using its two-thirds majority in Parliament to push through its own constitution without cross-party consensus.[10] Prior to and during the vote to adopt the constitution, thousands of protesters demonstrated in Budapest against its adoption; among their complaints are that it is an attempt by the government to cement its power beyond its term, force its Christian ideology on the country and limit civil liberties. Lack of opposition participation was also mentioned, but Deputy Prime Minister Tibor Navracsics responded that other parties were invited to participate but refused.[11] Members of the Hungarian business community mentioned possible future difficulties in adopting the euro, noting a provision that enshrines the forint as legal tender. However, a government official said that, if the two-thirds majority to change this provision could not be attained, it could be circumvented by other means, such as a referendum.[32] One section of the preamble criticized by some historians as well as by the head of Hungary's Jewish community is the statement that the country lost its independence when it was invaded and occupied by Nazi Germany in March 1944. They asserted that the provision implies the state was not responsible for the ensuing deportation of Jews to extermination camps as part of the Holocaust and that it could affect future restitution claims.[33] Historian Géza Jeszenszky strongly rejected criticism of the passage, saying the loss of Hungarian sovereignty in March 1944 due to foreign invasion is simply a historical fact that should not be denied. In its support, he also mentioned Germany's direct intervention into Hungarian politics, such as the arrest of cabinet members and of anti-German politicians.[34] Direct intervention into Hungarian politics, such as removal of the Government at the time, including arrests of cabinet members and anti-German political figures and banning of Hungarian political parties is also mentioned as justification for the constitution's passage. Socialist leader Attila Mesterházy denounced what he called "Fidesz's party constitution" and promised to change the constitution "on the basis of a national consensus" following the next elections.[11][35] László Sólyom, former President of Hungary and of the Constitutional Court, is a critic of limits imposed on the court and of the "common parliamentary wrangling" through which the charter was adopted.[36][37]

The Venice Commission and the Hungarian Helsinki Committee expressed concern over the provision on cardinal acts; opposition parties asserted these could bind future governments to Fidesz' actions, but did promise to participate in the debate on the acts.[13][12] Amnesty International believes the document "violates international and European human rights standards", citing the clauses on fetal protection, marriage and life imprisonment, and sexual orientation not being covered in the anti-discrimination clause. Left-wing and liberal members of the European Parliament asserted that it fails to protect citizens' rights and reduces legislative checks and balances.[10] Among these was Guy Verhofstadt, head of the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe, who said the constitution could limit "fundamental human rights" and was adopted without transparency, flexibility, a spirit of compromise and sufficient time for debate.[38] Werner Hoyer, Germany's deputy foreign minister, expressed his country's concern as well,[11] prompting the Hungarian Foreign Affairs Ministry to dismiss the remarks as "inexplicable and unacceptable".[39] Additionally, United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon suggested the government should address concerns about the constitution.[40] In neighboring Slovakia, which has a significant Hungarian minority, at least three parties, including the governing Slovak Democratic and Christian Union, expressed concern about clauses that afford certain rights to ethnic Hungarians abroad, including the right to dual citizenship and the right to vote, and critics there fear that the move has expansive and nationalist objectives. Slovakia's Foreign Affairs Ministry stated that it would oppose any other country’s infringement of the Slovak Constitution, its sovereignty or the rights of its citizens.[41] In response, Foreign Minister János Martonyi assured his Slovak counterpart that the constitution has no extraterritorial effect.[42]

Rupert Scholtz, German constitutional law expert and former federal minister stated that „the Hungarian basic law is a very modern Constitution, entirely in the spirit of Western constitutionality and democracy. It also contains a clear commitment to Europe.” [43] He underlined that there are many constitutions in Europe which have reference to Christianity, or to God. In his presentation he stressed that the „Constitution contains a clear commitment to Hungarian democracy, as well as to the rule of law, which is always the most effective antidote to any authoritarian attempts”[44] . In his understanding Hungary, can serve as a model in terms of its cataloge of fundamental rights and debt ceiling. According to him, the reasons behind the unfounded criticism of the Western leftist is that they blindly accepts the harsh attacks of the Hungarian left parties which are still unable to accept their loss of power. [45]

The day after New Year's Day 2012, the government held a gala celebration at the Hungarian State Opera House to mark the entry into force of the constitution. Outside on Andrássy út, tens of thousands of people protested the occasion, with opponents claiming the constitution threatens democracy by removing checks and balances. Demonstrators included representatives from various civil groups and opposition parties, among them the Socialists. Fidesz MP Gergely Gulyás, who helped write the constitution, responded to critics by saying that it improves the legal framework of life in Hungary.[46][47]

On the 21th of January,2012 in response to the opposition protest, a pro-government manifestation, the so-called "Peace March" took place in Budapest, which showed the strong popular support behind the Orbán government.[48] According to the opposition paper, Népszabadság, it was one of the biggest, or maybe the biggest public manifestation since 1989, obviously bigger than any opposition rally.[49]

Reactions to the 4th amendment

On the 1st of March 2013, Princeton University international constitutional law scholar and Hungary specialist Kim Lane Scheppele wrote[50]:

"[T]the government is… introducing... many constitutional… amendments which were introduced before and nullified by the Constitutional Court or changed at the insistence of European bodies. The new constitutional amendment (again) kills off the independence of the judiciary, brings universities under (even more) governmental control, opens the door to political prosecutions, criminalizes homelessness, makes the recognition of religious groups dependent on their cooperation with the government and weakens human rights guarantees across the board. Moreover, the constitution will now buffer the government from further financial sanctions by permitting it to take all fines for noncompliance with the constitution or with European law and pass them on to the Hungarian population as special taxes, not payable by the normal state budget…. It annuls all of the decisions made by the Court before 1 January 2012 so that they have no legal effect. Now, no one in the country – not the Constitutional Court, not the ordinary courts, not human rights groups or ordinary citizens – can rely any longer on the Court’s proud string of rights-protecting decisions."

On the 5th of March 2013, Michael Link, undersecretary in the German Foreign Ministry, in "Hungary must remain a country of the law," [51]called on Hungary "to demonstrate that the country has an effective separation of power between the legislative and the judicial."

On the 6th of March 2013, Europe’s main human rights watchdog, Council of Europe President Thorbjorn Jagland, said that the amendments set to be voted on next week by Hungarian lawmakers may be incompatible with European legal principles and asked Hungary to postpone the approval of a series of constitutional amendments so legal experts can review the changes. [52]

On the 8th of March, 2013. the government of the USA raised its concerns both about the content of the proposed amendments "as they could threaten the principles of institutional independence and checks and balances that are the hallmark of democratic governance" and about the process by which they were to be accepted: "[The USA] "urges the Government of Hungary and the Parliament to ensure that the process of considering amendments to the constitution demonstrates respect for the rule of law and judicial review, openness to the views of other stakeholders across Hungarian society, and continuing receptiveness to the expertise of the Council of Europe’s Venice Commission." [53]

On the 8th of March 2013, in a letter to the European commission, Guido Westerwelle, the German foreign minister, and counterparts in Denmark, the Netherlands and Finland called for the European Union to be given new powers allowing it to freeze EU budget funds to a member state in breach of Europe's "fundamental values."[54] On the same day, European Commission President Jose Manuel Barroso too expressed concerns to Prime Minister Viktor Orban over the amendment vote in Hungary’s parliament next week to change the constitution, arguing that it contravenes EU rules in areas such as the judiciary.[55]

Government responses to critics

Mr. György Schöpflin—formerly Jean Monnet Professor of Politics at the School of Slavonic and East European Studies, University College London and currently member of the European Parliament for Viktor Orban's party, Fidesz—has stated that the assertions of Kim Lane Scheppele on the blog, named The Conscience of a Liberal (Opinion Pages, The New York Times) "are teeming with misunderstandings, errors of fact, misreadings and ill-will.”[56] Analyzing the blog entry of the Princeton constitutional law professor, Mr. Ferenc Kumin—Deputy State Secretary for International Communication of the Hungarian Government — also states that on the one hand it has conceptual errors, because its narrative is based on half-information, gained only from opposition sources. Typical example of this is the case of homelessness, which is of course not criminalised in Hungary. The amendment declares that “in order to preserve the public order, public safety, public health and cultural values” the government may prohibit living in the streets, but the same amendment also says that the government is to ensure the right to housing, and the government has invested a considerable amount in shelters in the interest of the homeless as well as the general public. These are not mentioned in the blog entry of Miss Scheppele. On the other hand, according to Mr. Kumin, the entry is full of factual mistakes as well, of which the worst is the question of the decisions of the previous Court, which are and will be valid – contrary to Miss Scheppele's text. Therefore Mr. Kumin – quoting her other mistakes as well - concludes that the blog-entry did not meet the criteria of an objective analysis, and can be seen only as a political opinion.[57]

On the 7th of March, Deputy Prime Minister Navracsics sent letter to the Secretary General of the Council of Europe Thorbjorn Jagland, to give some additional written explanations to the Proposal on the Fourth Amendment to Fundamental Law of Hungary. [58]

On the 8th of March, Minister of Foreign Affairs, János Martonyi sent letter to the Minsters of Foreign Affairs of EU-member states, in which he gave details on the text of the amendment.[59]

On the 11th of March, "Hungary's parliament, dominated by Prime Minister Viktor Orban's Fidesz party, adopted changes to the country's constitution on Monday despite warnings from the European Union and the U.S. government that the changes could weaken Hungary's democracy. The legislation was supported by 265 lawmakers in the 386-seat chamber, with 11 votes against and 33 abstentions."[60]

Notes

  1. ^ Template:Hu icon Text of the 2011 Constitution
  2. ^ Template:En icon Draft of the 2011 Constitution, without the preamble
  3. ^ a b c d e "Hungarian lawmakers approve socially and fiscally conservative new constitution", The Washington Post, 18 April 2011; accessed April 25, 2011[dead link]
  4. ^ a b c Judy Dempsey, "Hungarian Parliament Approves New Constitution", The New York Times, 18 April 2011; accessed April 25, 2011
  5. ^ Template:Hu icon Kata Janecskó, "Hiába védett a magzat, nem szigorodik az abortusz" ("Despite Fetal Protection, Abortion Law Is Not Tightened"), index.hu, 11 March 2011; accessed June 23, 2011
  6. ^ "Bírói egyesület: átmeneti rendelkezések kellenek" ("Judges' Association: Transitional Provisions Needed"), mti.hu, 19 April 2011; accessed April 26, 2011
  7. ^ "Judges protest planned mandatory retirement age cut in planned new constitution", politics.hu, 15 April 2011; accessed May 13, 2011
  8. ^ "Hungary" at the OECD Library; accessed April 26, 2011
  9. ^ Template:Hu icon "Botrány lesz a bírák nyugdíjazásából" ("Retirement of Judges Will Be a Scandal"), nepszava.hu, 22 June 2011; accessed June 23, 2011
  10. ^ a b c d "Hungarian president signs new constitution despite human rights concerns", Deutsche Welle, 25 April 2011; accessed April 25, 2011
  11. ^ a b c d e "Hungary's parliament passes controversial new constitution", Deutsche Welle, 18 April 2011; accessed April 25, 2011
  12. ^ a b "Socialists, LMP to join parliamentary debate on supermajority laws", politics.hu, 21 April 2011; accessed April 26, 2011
  13. ^ a b Margit Feher, "Hungary Passes New Constitution Amid Concerns", The Wall Street Journal, 18 April 2011; accessed April 26, 2011
  14. ^ Körösényi, p.145
  15. ^ Mezhikovskii, p.122
  16. ^ a b Harmathy, p.4
  17. ^ Ludwikowski, p.30
  18. ^ Ludwikowski, p.31
  19. ^ Harmathy, p.7
  20. ^ Rakowska-Harmstone, p.100
  21. ^ Harmathy, p.8-9
  22. ^ Harmathy, p. 9
  23. ^ Dupré, p. 173-4
  24. ^ Template:Hu icon "Magyarázkodásra kényszerül Gyurcsány" ("Gyurcsány Is Forced to Explain"), Magyar Nemzet, 4 April 2011; accessed April 25, 2011.
  25. ^ "Hungary's new constitution drafted by next March, says Fidesz official", politics.hu, 2 August 2010; accessed August 18, 2010
  26. ^ Template:Hu icon "Bihari szerint mindig lehet jobb" ("According to Bihari, One May Always Do Better"), FN.hu, 7 August 2010; accessed August 18, 2010
  27. ^ Template:Hu icon "Megalakult az alkotmány-előkészítő bizottság" ("Constitutional Draft Committee Is Formed"), hirtv.hu, 28 June 2010; accessed June 23, 2011
  28. ^ a b Zoltán Simon, "Hungary First to Write a Constitution on IPad, Lawmaker Says", Bloomberg, 4 March 2011; accessed April 25, 2011
  29. ^ "Body set up for national consultation on new constitution", politics.hu, 7 February 2011; accessed April 25, 2011
  30. ^ Template:Hu icon "Szájer: Óriási siker a nemzeti konzultáció" ("Szájer: National Consultation a Huge Success"), Magyar Nemzet, 4 April 2011; accessed June 23, 2011
  31. ^ Template:Hu icon "Orbán: kivételesen erős lesz az új alkotmány" ("Orbán: New Constitution Will Be Exceptionally Strong"), MR1-Kossuth Rádió, 28 March 2011; accessed June 23, 2011
  32. ^ "Foreign firms criticize Hungary's new constitution", Deutsche Welle, 20 April 2011; accessed April 25, 2011
  33. ^ Thomas Orszag-Land, "Hungary 'deceitful' over Holocaust", The Jewish Chronicle, 10 June 2011; accessed June 12, 2011
  34. ^ Template:Hu icon "Az alaptörvény és a magyar történelem" ("The Basic Law and Hungarian History") Népszabadság, 31 May 2011; accessed June 23, 2011
  35. ^ "Socialists pledge to 'correct' constitution as soon as possible", politics.hu, 13 April 2011; accessed April 26, 2011
  36. ^ "Former state president warns about possible mistakes around new constitution", politics.hu, 7 March 2011; accessed April 26, 2011
  37. ^ "Constitution - Hungary European democracy despite basic law's shortcomings, says ex-president", mti.hu, 18 April 2011; accessed April 26, 2011
  38. ^ "Hungarian People's Party deputies reject liberal group's concerns about new constitution", politics.hu, 18 April 2011; accessed April 26, 2011
  39. ^ "Orbán spokesman says Germany must not interfere with Hungary's adoption of new constitution", politics.hu, 20 April 2011; accessed April 26, 2011
  40. ^ "UN Secretary-General cautions gov't over constitution and media law", politics.hu, 19 April 2011; accessed April 25, 2011
  41. ^ "Slovakia on edge as Hungary passes new Constitution", thedaily.sk, 19 April 2011; accessed April 25, 2011
  42. ^ Template:Hu icon "Martonyi: Az új alkotmánynak nincs területen kívüli hatálya" ("Martonyi: the New Constitution Has No Extraterritorial Effect"), hirtv.hu, 12 May 2011; accessed June 23, 2011
  43. ^ http://www.budapesttimes.hu/2012/10/06/basic-law-exemplary-criticisms-nonsense/ The Budapest Times 06 october 2012; accessed March 8, 2013
  44. ^ http://www.budapesttimes.hu/2012/10/06/basic-law-exemplary-criticisms-nonsense/ The Budapest Times 06 October 2012; accessed March 8, 2013
  45. ^ http://dir.groups.yahoo.com/group/mvszcanadawest/message/4802/ Die Welt (in English) April 30, 2012; accessed March 8, 2013
  46. ^ Palko Karasz and Melissa Eddy, "Opposition Protests Constitution in Hungary", The New York Times, 2 January 2012; accessed January 15, 2012
  47. ^ "Hungarians protest against new Fidesz constitution", BBC News, 3 January 2012; accessed January 15, 2012
  48. ^ http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-16669498/ BBC 21 january 2012; accessed March 8, 2013
  49. ^ http://nol.hu/velemeny/a_bekemenet_elerte_celjat/ Népszabadság (In Hungarian) 21 January 2012; accessed March 8, 2013
  50. ^ Kim Lane Scheppele, New York Times, March 1, 2013 http://krugman.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/03/01/guest-post-constitutional-revenge/ Constitutional Revenge
  51. ^ http://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/DE/Infoservice/Presse/Interviews/2013/130305-StM_L_FAZ.html
  52. ^ http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/european-rights-watchdog-urges-hungary-to-postpone-vote-on-disputed-amendments-to-constitution/2013/03/06/87ac1526-867b-11e2-a80b-3edc779b676f_story.html
  53. ^ http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2013/03/205838.htm
  54. ^ http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2013/mar/08/hungarian-prime-minister-warned-power
  55. ^ http://www.euronews.com/newswires/1848348-eus-barroso-critical-of-planned-hungary-constitution-vote/
  56. ^ http://ferenckumin.tumblr.com/post/44688341058/facts-matter
  57. ^ http://ferenckumin.tumblr.com/post/44713627207/a-look-at-the-constitutional-amendment
  58. ^ http://www.kormany.hu/en/ministry-of-public-administration-and-justice/news/deputy-prime-minister-navracsics-s-letter-to-secretary-general-jagland
  59. ^ http://www.kormany.hu/en/ministry-of-foreign-affairs/news/janos-martonyi-sent-letter-to-eu-foreign-ministers
  60. ^ http://www.chicagotribune.com/business/sns-rt-us-hungary-constitutionbre92a0ox-20130311,0,1542992.story

References

  • Dupré, Catherine. Importing the Law in Post-communist Transitions (2003), Hart Publishing, ISBN 1-84113-131-8
  • Harmathy, Attila (ed.). Introduction to Hungarian Law (1998), Kluwer Law International, ISBN 90-411-1066-6
  • Körösényi, András. Government and Politics in Hungary (2000), Central European University Press, ISBN 963-9116-76-9
  • Ludwikowski, Rett R. Constitution-making in the Region of Former Soviet Dominance (1996), Duke University Press, ISBN 0-8223-1802-4
  • Mezhikovskii, S. M. et al. Law and Religion in Post-Communist Europe (2003), Peeters Publishers, ISBN 90-429-1262-6
  • Mullerson, Rein et al. Constitutional Reform and International Law in Central and Eastern Europe (1998), Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, ISBN 90-411-0526-3
  • Rakowska-Harmstone, Teresa. Communism in Eastern Europe (1984), Indiana University Press, ISBN 0-253-31391-0
  • Szikinger, István. "Hungary's Pliable Constitution" (2001) in Democratic Consolidation in Eastern Europe: Institutional Engineering, ed. Jan Zielonka, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-924408-1

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