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== Discovery==
== Discovery==
ASP was first discovered in humans late in 1987, when a serious outbreak of food poisoning occurred in eastern [[Canada]].<ref name=uhm/><ref>{{ cite journal | author = Bates, S. S. | title = Pennate diatom ''Nitzschia pungens'' as the primary source of domoic acid, a toxin in shellfish from eastern Prince Edward Island, Canada | journal = Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences | year = 1989 | volume = 46 | issue = 7 | pages = 1203–1215 | doi = 10.1139/f89-156 | url = http://rparticle.web-p.cisti.nrc.ca/rparticle/AbstractTemplateServlet?calyLang=eng&journal=cjfas&volume=46&year=0&issue=7&msno=f89-156 |display-authors=etal}}</ref> Three elderly patients died and other victims suffered long-term neurological problems. Because the victims suffered from memory loss, the term "amnesic" shellfish poisoning is used.<ref>{{ cite journal | author = Todd, E. C. D. | title = Domoic Acid and Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning: A Review | journal = Journal of Food Protection | year = 1993 | volume = 56 | issue = 1 | pages = 69–83 | doi = | url = http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search/display.do?f=1993/US/US93087.xml;US9331144 }}</ref> The story made front-page newspaper headlines.
ASP was first discovered in humans late in 1987, when a serious outbreak of food poisoning occurred in eastern [[Canada]].<ref name=uhm/><ref>{{ cite journal | author = Bates, S. S. | title = Pennate diatom ''Nitzschia pungens'' as the primary source of domoic acid, a toxin in shellfish from eastern Prince Edward Island, Canada | journal = Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences | year = 1989 | volume = 46 | issue = 7 | pages = 1203–1215 | doi = 10.1139/f89-156 | url = http://rparticle.web-p.cisti.nrc.ca/rparticle/AbstractTemplateServlet?calyLang=eng&journal=cjfas&volume=46&year=0&issue=7&msno=f89-156{{dead link|date=October 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} |display-authors=etal}}</ref> Three elderly patients died and other victims suffered long-term neurological problems. Because the victims suffered from memory loss, the term "amnesic" shellfish poisoning is used.<ref>{{ cite journal | author = Todd, E. C. D. | title = Domoic Acid and Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning: A Review | journal = Journal of Food Protection | year = 1993 | volume = 56 | issue = 1 | pages = 69–83 | doi = | url = http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search/display.do?f=1993/US/US93087.xml;US9331144 }}</ref> The story made front-page newspaper headlines.


Epidemiologists from [[Health Canada]] quickly linked the illnesses to restaurant meals of cultured mussels harvested from one area in [[Prince Edward Island]], a place never before affected by toxic algae. Mouse bioassays on aqueous extracts of the suspect mussels caused death with some unusual neurotoxic symptoms very different from those of [[paralytic shellfish poisoning]] toxins and other known toxins. On December 12, 1987, a team of scientists was assembled at the [[National Research Council of Canada]] laboratory in [[City of Halifax|Halifax]], [[Nova Scotia]]. Integrating bioassay-directed fractionation with chemical analysis, the team identified the toxin on the afternoon of December 16, just 4 days after the start of the concerted investigation.<ref>{{ cite journal |author1=Quilliam M. A. |author2=Wright J. L. C. | title = The Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning Mystery | journal = Analytical Chemistry | year = 1989 | volume = 61 | issue = 18 | pages = 1053A–1060A | doi = 10.1021/ac00193a002 | pmid = 2802153 }}</ref><ref>{{ cite web | url = https://www2.glf.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/dapr-radp/docs/bird_et_al_-_identification_of_domoic_acid_-_arl_tech_rep_1988.pdf | format = pdf | title = Identification of Domoic Acid at National Research Council's Atlantic Lab | accessdate = 9 May 2012 }}</ref>
Epidemiologists from [[Health Canada]] quickly linked the illnesses to restaurant meals of cultured mussels harvested from one area in [[Prince Edward Island]], a place never before affected by toxic algae. Mouse bioassays on aqueous extracts of the suspect mussels caused death with some unusual neurotoxic symptoms very different from those of [[paralytic shellfish poisoning]] toxins and other known toxins. On December 12, 1987, a team of scientists was assembled at the [[National Research Council of Canada]] laboratory in [[City of Halifax|Halifax]], [[Nova Scotia]]. Integrating bioassay-directed fractionation with chemical analysis, the team identified the toxin on the afternoon of December 16, just 4 days after the start of the concerted investigation.<ref>{{ cite journal |author1=Quilliam M. A. |author2=Wright J. L. C. | title = The Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning Mystery | journal = Analytical Chemistry | year = 1989 | volume = 61 | issue = 18 | pages = 1053A–1060A | doi = 10.1021/ac00193a002 | pmid = 2802153 }}</ref><ref>{{ cite web | url = https://www2.glf.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/dapr-radp/docs/bird_et_al_-_identification_of_domoic_acid_-_arl_tech_rep_1988.pdf{{dead link|date=October 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} | format = pdf | title = Identification of Domoic Acid at National Research Council's Atlantic Lab | accessdate = 9 May 2012 }}</ref>


== Possible animal effects ==
== Possible animal effects ==
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Since March 2007, marine mammal and seabird strandings and deaths off the Southern California coast have increased markedly. These incidents have been linked to the recent and dramatic increase of a naturally occurring toxin produced by algae. Most of the animals found dead tested positive for domoic acid.
Since March 2007, marine mammal and seabird strandings and deaths off the Southern California coast have increased markedly. These incidents have been linked to the recent and dramatic increase of a naturally occurring toxin produced by algae. Most of the animals found dead tested positive for domoic acid.


According to the Channel Islands Marine and Wildlife Institute (CIMWI),<ref>[http://www.cimwi.org/stranded_domoic.html Domic Acid Information and History]</ref> "It is generally accepted that the incidence of problems associated with toxic algae is increasing. Possible reasons to explain this increase include natural mechanisms of species dispersal (currents and tides) to a host of human-related phenomena such as nutrient enrichment (agricultural run-off), climate shifts or transport of algae species via ship ballast water."
According to the Channel Islands Marine and Wildlife Institute (CIMWI),<ref>[http://www.cimwi.org/stranded_domoic.html Domic Acid Information and History] {{wayback|url=http://www.cimwi.org/stranded_domoic.html |date=20090513065206 }}</ref> "It is generally accepted that the incidence of problems associated with toxic algae is increasing. Possible reasons to explain this increase include natural mechanisms of species dispersal (currents and tides) to a host of human-related phenomena such as nutrient enrichment (agricultural run-off), climate shifts or transport of algae species via ship ballast water."


== In popular culture ==
== In popular culture ==
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== External links ==
== External links ==
*[http://www.whoi.edu/redtide/page.do?pid=14275 Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning] at [[Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution]]
*[http://www.whoi.edu/redtide/page.do?pid=14275 Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning] at [[Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution]]
*[http://www.inter.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/Gulf/DAPR Domoic acid and ''Pseudo-nitzschia'' references] at [[Fisheries and Oceans Canada]]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20131204023151/http://www.inter.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/Gulf/DAPR Domoic acid and ''Pseudo-nitzschia'' references] at [[Fisheries and Oceans Canada]]
*[http://www.issha.org/Welcome-to-ISSHA/Harmful-Algae-Links/Phycotoxins/Domoic-Acid-ASP Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning, Domoic Acid, and ''Pseudo-nitzschia'' links] at the [http://www.issha.org/Welcome-to-ISSHA ISSHA] website
*[http://www.issha.org/Welcome-to-ISSHA/Harmful-Algae-Links/Phycotoxins/Domoic-Acid-ASP Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning, Domoic Acid, and ''Pseudo-nitzschia'' links] at the [http://www.issha.org/Welcome-to-ISSHA ISSHA] website
*[http://www.inchem.org/documents/pims/chemical/pim670.htm Domoic acid] at [[International Programme on Chemical Safety]]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070630131126/http://www.inchem.org/documents/pims/chemical/pim670.htm Domoic acid] at [[International Programme on Chemical Safety]]
*[http://wdfw.wa.gov/fish/shelfish/razorclm/domacid.htm DOMOIC ACID — A MAJOR CONCERN TO WASHINGTON STATE’S SHELLFISH LOVERS] at [[Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife]]
*[http://wdfw.wa.gov/fish/shelfish/razorclm/domacid.htm DOMOIC ACID — A MAJOR CONCERN TO WASHINGTON STATE’S SHELLFISH LOVERS] at [[Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife]]
*[http://www.ibrrc.org/pr_04_25_2007.html Crisis off our coast] at the [http://www.ibrrc.org/index.html International Bird Rescue Research Center]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20071009103158/http://www.ibrrc.org/pr_04_25_2007.html Crisis off our coast] at the [https://web.archive.org/web/20100505234648/http://www.ibrrc.org:80/index.html International Bird Rescue Research Center]
*[http://www.healthebay.org/news/2007/04_30_domoicacid/default.asp Domoic Acid Poisoning Linked to Recent Marine Strandings and Deaths] at [http://www.healthebay.org/ Heal the Bay]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20071109142639/http://healthebay.org:80/news/2007/04_30_domoicacid/default.asp Domoic Acid Poisoning Linked to Recent Marine Strandings and Deaths] at [http://www.healthebay.org/ Heal the Bay]
*[http://www.cimwi.org/stranded_domoic.html Domoic Acid Information and History] at the [http://www.cimwi.org/index.html Channel Islands Marine and Wildlife Institute]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090513065206/http://www.cimwi.org/stranded_domoic.html Domoic Acid Information and History] at the [http://www.cimwi.org/index.html Channel Islands Marine and Wildlife Institute]
{{Poisoning and toxicity}}
{{Poisoning and toxicity}}


Revision as of 21:16, 11 October 2016

Amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP) is a human illness caused by consumption of the marine biotoxin called domoic acid.[1] This toxin is produced naturally by marine diatoms belonging to the genus Pseudo-nitzschia and the species Nitzschia navis-varingica.[2] When accumulated in high concentrations by shellfish during filter feeding, domoic acid can then be passed on to humans via consumption of the contaminated shellfish.[3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10]

Although human illness due to domoic acid has only been associated with shellfish, the toxin can bioaccumulate in many marine organisms that consume phytoplankton, such as anchovies, and sardines. Intoxication by domoic acid in non-human organisms is frequently referred to as "domoic acid poisoning" or "DAP". In mammals, including humans, domoic acid acts as a neurotoxin, causing permanent short-term memory loss, brain damage, and death in severe cases.

Symptoms and treatment

In the brain, domoic acid especially damages the hippocampus and amygdaloid nucleus.[1] It damages the neurons by activating AMPA and kainate receptors, causing an influx of calcium. Although calcium flowing into cells is a normal event, the uncontrolled increase of calcium causes the cell to degenerate. See reviews by Ramsdell (2007)[11] and Pulido (2008).[12]

Gastrointestinal symptoms can appear 24 hours after ingestion of affected molluscs. They may include vomiting, nausea, diarrhea, abdominal cramps and haemorrhagic gastritis. In more severe cases, neurological symptoms can take several hours or up to three days to develop. These include headache, dizziness, disorientation, vision disturbances, loss of short-term memory, motor weakness, seizures, profuse respiratory secretions, hiccups, unstable blood pressure, cardiac arrhythmia and coma.

People poisoned with very high doses of the toxin or displaying risk factors such as old age and renal failure can die. Death has occurred in 4 of 107 confirmed cases. In a few cases, permanent sequelae included short-term memory loss and peripheral polyneuropathy.

There is no known antidote available for domoic acid, so if symptoms fit the description, it is advised to go quickly to a hospital. Cooking or freezing affected fish or shellfish tissue does not lessen the toxicity. New research has found that domoic acid is a heat resistant and very stable toxin which can damage kidneys at concentrations that are 100 times lower than what causes neurological effects.

Discovery

ASP was first discovered in humans late in 1987, when a serious outbreak of food poisoning occurred in eastern Canada.[1][13] Three elderly patients died and other victims suffered long-term neurological problems. Because the victims suffered from memory loss, the term "amnesic" shellfish poisoning is used.[14] The story made front-page newspaper headlines.

Epidemiologists from Health Canada quickly linked the illnesses to restaurant meals of cultured mussels harvested from one area in Prince Edward Island, a place never before affected by toxic algae. Mouse bioassays on aqueous extracts of the suspect mussels caused death with some unusual neurotoxic symptoms very different from those of paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins and other known toxins. On December 12, 1987, a team of scientists was assembled at the National Research Council of Canada laboratory in Halifax, Nova Scotia. Integrating bioassay-directed fractionation with chemical analysis, the team identified the toxin on the afternoon of December 16, just 4 days after the start of the concerted investigation.[15][16]

Possible animal effects

On June 22, 2006, a California brown pelican, possibly under the influence of domoic acid,[17] flew through the windshield of a car on the Pacific Coast Highway. The phycotoxin is found in the local coastal waters.

Since March 2007, marine mammal and seabird strandings and deaths off the Southern California coast have increased markedly. These incidents have been linked to the recent and dramatic increase of a naturally occurring toxin produced by algae. Most of the animals found dead tested positive for domoic acid.

According to the Channel Islands Marine and Wildlife Institute (CIMWI),[18] "It is generally accepted that the incidence of problems associated with toxic algae is increasing. Possible reasons to explain this increase include natural mechanisms of species dispersal (currents and tides) to a host of human-related phenomena such as nutrient enrichment (agricultural run-off), climate shifts or transport of algae species via ship ballast water."

In popular culture

In the TV series "Elementary" episode "The Red Team" (original air date 31 January 2013), a witness is intentionally poisoned with domoic acid.

In the "Bad Fish" episode of Get a Life (original air-date: 2 February 1992), Sharon and Gus get amnesia after eating bad shellfish, and Chris seizes the opportunity to convince them that they are his best friends.

Domoic acid poisoning may have caused an 18 August 1961 invasion of thousands of frantic seabirds in Capitola and Santa Cruz, California.[19] Director Alfred Hitchcock heard about this invasion while working on his adaptation of the Daphne du Maurier novelette "The Birds" for his feature film The Birds (1963), and asked the Santa Cruz Sentinel newspaper for any further news copy as "research for his new thriller."

See also

References

Template:Research help

  1. ^ a b c Clark, R. F.; Williams, S. R.; Nordt, S. P.; Manoguerra, A. S. (1999). "A Review of Selected Seafood Poisonings". Undersea Hyperbaric Medicine. 26 (3): 175–184. PMID 10485519.
  2. ^ http://www.marinespecies.org/HAB/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=246595 Nitzschia navis-varingica]
  3. ^ Bates, S. S.; Trainer, V. L. (2006). "The Ecology of Harmful Diatoms". In Granéli, E.; Turner, J. (eds.). Ecology of Harmful Algae. Ecological Studies. Vol. 189. Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. pp. 81–93. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-32210-8_7. ISBN 978-3-540-74009-4.
  4. ^ Bejarano, A. C.; van Dola, F. M.; Gulland, F. M.; Rowles, T. K.; Schwacke, L. H. (2008). "Production and Toxicity of the Marine Biotoxin Domoic Acid and its Effects on Wildlife: A Review" (pdf). Human and Ecological Risk Assessment. 14 (3): 544–567. doi:10.1080/10807030802074220.
  5. ^ Trainer, V. L.; Hickey, B. M.; Bates, S. S. (2008). "Toxic Diatoms". In Walsh, P. J.; Smith, S. L.; Fleming, L. E.; Solo-Gabriele, H.; Gerwick, W. H. (eds.). Oceans and Human Health: Risks and Remedies from the Sea. New York: Elsevier Science. pp. 219–237. ISBN 978-0-12-372584-4.
  6. ^ Lefebvre, K. A.; Robertson, A. (2010). "Domoic Acid and Human Exposure Risks: A Review". Toxicon. 56 (2): 218–230. doi:10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.05.034. PMID 19505488.
  7. ^ Bargu, S.; Smith, E.; Ozhan, K. (2011). "Toxic Diatom Pseudo-nitzschia and its Primary Consumers (Vectors)". In Seckbach, J.; Kociolek, P. (eds.). The Diatom World. Springer. pp. 493–512. ISBN 978-9400713260.
  8. ^ Bargu, S.; Goldstein, T.; Roberts, K.; Li, C.; Gulland, F. (2012). "Pseudo-nitzschia Blooms, Domoic Acid, and Related California Sea Lion Strandings in Monterey Bay, California". Marine Mammal Science. 28 (2): 237–253. doi:10.1111/j.1748-7692.2011.00480.x.
  9. ^ Lelong, A.; Hégaret, H.; Soudant, P.; Bates, S. S. (2012). "Pseudo-nitzschia (Bacillariophyceae) Species, Domoic Acid and Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning: Revisiting Previous Paradigms". Phycologia. 51 (2): 168–216. doi:10.2216/11-37.1.
  10. ^ Trainer, V. L.; Bates, S. S.; Lundholm, N.; Thessen, A. E.; Cochlan, W. P.; Adams, N. G.; Trick, C. G. (2012). "Pseudo-nitzschia Physiological Ecology, Phylogeny, Toxicity, Monitoring and Impacts on Ecosystem Health". Harmful Algae. 14: 271–300. doi:10.1016/j.hal.2011.10.025.
  11. ^ Ramsdell, J. S. (2007). "The Molecular and Integrative Basis to Domoic Acid Toxicity". In Botana, L. (ed.). Phycotoxins: Chemistry and Biochemistry. Cambridge, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 223–250. doi:10.1002/9780470277874.ch13. ISBN 0-8138-2700-0.
  12. ^ Pulido, O. M. (2008). "Domoic Acid Toxicologic Pathology: A Review" (pdf). Marine Drugs. 6 (2): 180–219. doi:10.3390/md20080010. PMC 2525487. PMID 18728725.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  13. ^ Bates, S. S.; et al. (1989). articles with dead external links%5d%5d%5b%5bCategory:Articles with dead external links from October 2016%5d%5d%5b%5bCategory:Articles with permanently dead external links%5d%5d[%5b%5bWikipedia:Link rot|permanent dead link%5d%5d] "Pennate diatom Nitzschia pungens as the primary source of domoic acid, a toxin in shellfish from eastern Prince Edward Island, Canada". Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. 46 (7): 1203–1215. doi:10.1139/f89-156. {{cite journal}}: Check |url= value (help)
  14. ^ Todd, E. C. D. (1993). "Domoic Acid and Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning: A Review". Journal of Food Protection. 56 (1): 69–83.
  15. ^ Quilliam M. A.; Wright J. L. C. (1989). "The Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning Mystery". Analytical Chemistry. 61 (18): 1053A–1060A. doi:10.1021/ac00193a002. PMID 2802153.
  16. ^ articles with dead external links%5d%5d%5b%5bCategory:Articles with dead external links from October 2016%5d%5d%5b%5bCategory:Articles with permanently dead external links%5d%5d[%5b%5bWikipedia:Link rot|permanent dead link%5d%5d] "Identification of Domoic Acid at National Research Council's Atlantic Lab" (pdf). Retrieved 9 May 2012. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)
  17. ^ Possibly drunk bird hits windshield
  18. ^ Domic Acid Information and History Template:Wayback
  19. ^ Bargu, S.; Silver, M. W.; Ohman, M. D.; Benitez-Nelson, C. R.; Garrison, D. L. (2012). "Mystery behind Hitchcock's Birds". Nature Geoscience. 5 (1): 2–3. doi:10.1038/ngeo1360.

External links

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