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Revision as of 22:12, 4 January 2007

War on Terrorism
File:Army.mil-2006-12-21-110829.jpg
Soldiers patrol the streets of Adhamiya, a neighborhood in Baghdad, Iraq.
DateOctober 7, 2001 - (conflict still ongoing)
Location
Middle East, South Asia, Southeast Asia, more...
Result Conflict ongoing
Belligerents
Participants in Operations:
United States United States
United Kingdom United Kingdom
Turkey Turkey
South Korea South Korea
Australia Australia
Canada Canada
Israel Israel
Spain Spain
Pakistan Pakistan
Afghanistan Afghanistan
Italy Italy
Philippines Philippines
Jordan Jordan
Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia
NATO
Iraq Iraq
Kurdistan Region Kurdish forces
 Ethiopia
Transitional Federal Parliament
and others		 Targets of Operations:
al-Qaeda
Taliban
Ba'athist Iraq
Ba'ath Loyalists [citation needed]
Iraqi insurgency
File:Flag of Hezbollah.svg Hezbollah
Waziristan [citation needed]
File:Somalia Islamic Courts Flag.svg Islamic Courts Union
Mahdi Army [citation needed]
Jemaah Islamiyah
Abu Sayyaf

The War on Terrorism, War on Terror or Long War can refer to several distinct conflicts, but it is most recently the name given by the United States of America and its allies[28] to an ongoing campaign with the stated goal of "ending international terrorism," launched in direct response to the September 11, 2001 attacks on the U.S., for which al-Qaeda claimed responsibility.[1][2][3]

The campaign's stated goals include preventing those groups identified as "terrorist" by the United States[4] (largely focused on militant Islamist groups such as al Qaeda and its affiliates) from carrying out attacks and posing a threat to America and its allies; "spreading freedom"[5] and liberal democracy; and putting an end to state sponsorship of terrorism in so-called rogue[6] and failed states,[7] beginning with Operation Active Endeavor, NATO's anti-terrorism response to the trafficking of weapons. It was followed with the 2001 overthrow of the Taliban government in Afghanistan, which had sheltered elements of al Qaeda including its leader, Osama Bin Laden.

The War on Terrorism was launched by U.S. President George W. Bush,[8] with support from NATO and other allies. The "War on Terror" has taken many forms, such as diplomacy, going after "terrorist financing",[9] domestic provisions aiming to prevent future attacks, and joint training and peacekeeping operations with a wide variety of nations.

The phrase Global War on Terrorism (or GWOT)[10] [11] is the official name used by the U.S. military for operations designated as part of the campaign. Thus, the "War on Terror" as defined by this article is largely a military effort, and has been compared in both its unspecified, continuing duration and its multiple theaters of operation, to the Cold War.[12] The war is also characterized as an ideological struggle, "involving both a battle of arms and a battle of ideas,"[13] and some have characterized it as a "clash of civilizations".[14] Although the U.S.-led coalition that invaded Iraq in 2003 and toppled President Saddam Hussein was made up of allies in the "War on Terror",[15] the current Iraq war and its alleged links to the larger campaign against terrorism have been highly controversial. The Bush Administration has been accused of acting in violation of international law, human rights,[16] and the U.S. Constitution[17] in its execution of the campaign, particularly with regard to the internment of prisoners of war (or "illegal combatants") in its military prison at Guantánamo Bay, Cuba.[18]

The U.S. government's articulation of military doctrines such as pre-emptive war and "regime change" as part of the War on Terror, as well as Bush and Blair's justifications for the war, have also been controversial. Both the larger concept of a "War on Terrorism", and the specific tactics used, have been subject to widespread criticism outside of the United States, and world opinion polls[19] have shown limited support even in some nations whose governments and militaries are supportive.[20] In addition, according to the U.S. government's own measures, international terrorist incidents have been on the rise[21] since the campaign began. However, the U.S. and allies have claimed victories, such as democratic elections in Afghanistan and Iraq, and the capture of alleged 9/11 planner Khalid Sheikh Mohammed.[22] The War on Terrorism has resulted in high military casualties on both sides, as well as high civilian casualties, although very few United States civilians have been killed other than those who died on 9/11[23][24], and is a "long war" whose planners expect it to continue for the foreseeable future.[25]

In 2006, the British Foreign Office advised the government to stop using the phrase "War on Terror". A spokesperson for the department said the government wanted to "avoid reinforcing and giving succour to the terrorists' narrative by using language that, taken out of context, could be counter-productive".[29]

Overview

See also: Terrorism and List of terrorist incidents

Terrorist organizations had carried out attacks on the US and its allies throughout the latter part of the 20th century, prompting occasional responses. Following the 1998 embassy bombings in Kenya and Tanzania,[26] United States President Bill Clinton launched Operation Infinite Reach, a bombing campaign in Sudan and Afghanistan against targets associated with Al-Qaeda.[27][28] In October of 2000 the USS Cole bombing occurred,[29] followed by the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks.[30] The latter attacks created an immediate demand throughout the United States for a decisive response. It has, however, been argued that the "decisive response" caused still more deaths through collateral damage. There are two notable absences in the war on terror, that of Russia and China, who are not officially working with the United States and its allies.

Historical usage of phrase

The phrase "War on Terrorism" was first widely used by the Western press to refer to the attempts by Russian and European governments, and eventually the U.S. government, to stop attacks by anarchists against international political leaders. (See, for example, New York Times, April 2 1881.) Many of the anarchists described themselves as "terrorists", and the term had a positive valence for them at the time. When Russian Marxist Vera Zasulich shot and wounded a Russian police commander who was known to torture suspects on 24 January 1878, for example, she threw down her weapon without killing him, announcing, "I am a terrorist, not a killer".[31]

The next time the phrase gained currency was when it was used to describe the efforts by the British colonial government to end a spate of Jewish attacks in the British Mandate of Palestine in the late 1940s. The British proclaimed a "War on Terrorism" and attempted to crack down on Irgun, Lehi, and anyone perceived to be cooperating with them. The Jewish attacks, Arab attacks and revolts, and the subsequent British crackdown hastened the British evacuation from Palestine. The phrase was also used frequently by U.S. President Ronald Reagan in the 1980s.[32]

Operative definition in U.S. foreign policy

The United States has defined terrorism under the Federal Criminal Code. Chapter 113B of Part I of Title 18 of the Code defines terrorism and lists the crimes associated with it.[33] In Section 2331 of Chapter 113b, terrorism is defined as:

"..activities that involve violent... <or life-threatening acts>... that are a violation of the criminal laws of the United States or of any State and... appear to be intended (i) to intimidate or coerce a civilian population; (ii) to influence the policy of a government by intimidation or coercion; or (iii) to affect the conduct of a government by mass destruction, assassination, or kidnapping; and ...<if domestic>...(C) occur primarily within the territorial jurisdiction of the United States...<if international>...(C) occur primarily outside the territorial jurisdiction of the United States..."

With respect to defining his policy known as the War on Terror, President Bush has stated that:

"...today's war on terror is like the Cold War. It is an ideological struggle with an enemy that despises freedom and pursues totalitarian aims....I vowed then that I would use all assets of our power to win the war on terror. And so I said we were going to stay on the offense two ways: one, hunt down the enemy and bring them to justice, and take threats seriously; and two, spread freedom".[34]

Objective and strategies

The United States has based its counterterrorism strategy on several steps:[35]

  1. Defeat terrorists and their organizations.
  2. Identify, locate and destroy terrorists along with their organizations.
  3. Deny sponsorship, support and sanctuary to terrorists.
    1. End the state sponsorship of terrorism.
    2. Establish and maintain an international standard of accountability with regard to combating terrorism.
    3. Strengthen and sustain the international effort to fight terrorism.
    4. :Working with willing and able states.
    5. :Enabling weak states.
    6. :Persuading reluctant states.
    7. :Compelling unwilling states.
    8. Interdict and disrupt material support for terrorists.
    9. Eliminate terrorist sanctuaries and havens.
  4. Diminishing the underlying conditions that terrorists seek to exploit.
    1. Partner with the international community to strengthen weak states and prevent (re)emergence of terrorism.
    2. Win the war of ideals.
  5. Defend U.S. citizens and interests at home and abroad.
    1. Implement the Nation Strategy for Homeland Security
    2. Attain domain awareness
    3. Enhance measures to ensure the integrity, reliability, and availability of critical physical and information-based infrastructures at home and abroad.
    4. Integrate measures to protect U.S. citizens abroad.
    5. Ensure an integrated incident management capability.

Campaigns and theatres of operations

Part of a series on
Terrorism
By ideology
Religious
Special-interest / Single-issue
Related topics
Structure
  • Methods
  • Tactics
Terrorist groups
Adherents
State terrorism
State-sponsored terrorism
Response to terrorism
Main article: War on Terrorism - Theaters of operation

Africa

Horn of Africa

Main article: Operation Enduring Freedom - Horn of Africa
Main article: War in Somalia (2006–present)
File:Dragunov on range.jpg
Combined Joint Task Force training in Ethiopia.

This extension of Operation Enduring Freedom, titled OEF-HOA, was initiated in response to the September 11, 2001 attacks on the United States. Unlike other operations contained in Operation Enduring Freedom, OEF-HOA does not have a specific terrorist organization as a target. OEF-HOA instead focuses its efforts to disrupt and detect terrorist activities in the region and to work with host nations to prevent the reemergence of terrorist cells and activities.

In October 2002, the Combined Joint Task Force, Horn of Africa (CJTF-HOA) was established in Djibouti at Camp Le Monier. It contains approximately 2,000 personnel including U.S. military and Special Operations Forces (SOF) and coalition force members, Coalition Task Force 150 (CTF-150). The coalition force members consist of ships from Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Pakistan, New Zealand, Spain and the United Kingdom. The primary goal of the coalition forces is to monitor, inspect, board and stop suspected shipments from entering the Horn of Africa region and areas of Operation Iraqi Freedom.[36] Included in the operation is the training of selected armed forces units of the countries of Djibouti, Kenya and Ethiopia in counterterrorism and counterinsurgency tactics. Humanitarian efforts conducted by CJTF-HOA include rebuilding of schools and medical clinics as well as providing medical services to those countries whose forces are being trained. The program expands as part of the Trans-Saharan Counter Terrorism Initiative as CJTF personnel also assist in training the forces of Chad, Niger, Mauritania and Mali.[36] However, the War on Terror does not include Sudan, where over 400,000 have died due to state-sponsored terrorism.[37]

On July 1, 2006, a Web-posted message purportedly written by Osama bin Laden urged Somalis to build an Islamic state in the country and warned western states that his al-Qaeda network would fight against them if they intervened there.[38]

Somalia has been considered a "failed state" because its official central government was weak, dominated by warlords and unable to exert effective control over the country. Beginning in mid-2006, the Islamic Courts Union (ICU), an Islamist faction campaigning on a restoration of "law and order" through Sharia Law, had rapidly taken control of much of southern Somalia. On December 14, 2006, the US Assistant Secretary of State Jendayi Frazer claimed al-Qaeda cell operatives were controlling the Islamic Courts Union, a claim denied by the ICU.[39]

By late 2006, the UN-backed Transitional Federal Government of Somalia had seen its power effectively limited to Baidoa, while the Islamic Courts Union controlled the majority of Southern Somalia, including the capital of Mogadishu. On December 20th, the Islamic Courts Union launched an offensive on the government stronghold of Baidoa, and saw early gains before Ethiopia intervened in favor of the government. By December 26th, the Islamic Courts Union went into a "tactical retreat" towards Mogadishu, before again retreating as TFG/Ethiopian troops neared, leading them to take Mogadishu with no resistance. The ICU then fled to Kismayo, where they are currently fighting Ethiopian/TFG forces in the Battle of Jilib. The Prime Minister of Somalia claims that 3 terror suspects from the 1998 Embassy Bombings are being sheltered in Kismayo. [30]

Europe

Main article: Operation Active Endeavour

Beginning in October 2001, Operation Active Endeavour is a naval operation of NATO started in response to the 9/11 attacks. It operates in the Mediterranean Sea and is designed to prevent the movement of terrorists or weapons of mass destruction as well as to enhance the security of shipping in general. The operation has also assisted Greece with the prevention of illegal immigration.

Middle East

Iraq

Main articles: Iraq War and 2003 invasion of Iraq

Iraq had been listed as a State Sponsor of Terror by the United States since 1990,[40] and maintained poor relations with the United States since the Gulf War. Tensions were high throughout the 1990's, with the United States launching Operation Desert Fox against Iraq in 1998 after it failed to meet demands of "unconditional cooperation" in weapons inspections.[41] After the September 11 attacks, the U.S. government claimed that Iraq was a threat to the United States because Iraq could begin to use its alleged Weapons of Mass Destruction to aid terrorist groups. Iraq had no role in the September 11 attacks and had no known history of a significant working relationship with Al Qaeda. The George W. Bush administration called for the United Nations Security Council to send weapons inspectors to Iraq to find and destroy alleged weapons of mass destruction and for a UNSC resolution.[42][43] UNSC Resolution 1441 was passed unanimously, which offered Iraq "a final opportunity to comply with its disarmament obligations" or face "serious consequences." Resolution 1441 did not authorize the use of force by member states, thus Resolution 1441 had no effect on the UN Charter's prohibition on the use of force by member states against fellow member states. Saddam Hussein subsequently allowed UN inspectors to access Iraqi sites, while the U.S. government continued to assert that Iraq was being obstructionist. [31] In October 2002, the United States Congress authorized the president to use force if necessary to disarm Iraq in order to "prosecute the war on terrorism."[44] After failing to overcome opposition from France, Russia, and China against a UNSC resolution that would sanction the use of force against Iraq, and before the UN weapons inspectors had completed their inspections, the United States assembled a "Coalition of the Willing" composed of nations who pledged support for a war against Iraq.[45] On March 20th, 2003, the invasion of Iraq was launched in what the Bush Administration said were the "serious consequences" spoken of in UNSC Resolution 1441.[46]

US Soldiers patrol the streets of a civilian neighborhood in Baghdad, Iraq.
Training Iraqi Police - a Staff Sgt. congratulates an Iraqi police officer on his marksmanship at the Camp Rustamiyah range.

Saddam Hussein's regime was quickly toppled and on May 1, 2003, George W. Bush stated major combat operations in Iraq had ended and claimed victory in Iraq. [32] But the war continued on as an insurgency against the U.S.-led coalition forces and the Iraqi police units and governing structures they installed. Elements of the insurgency are led by Sunni loyalists, who are Iraqi nationalists and pan-arabists. Some insurgency leaders are strict Muslims and see themselves as fighting a religious war to liberate Iraq of foreign non-Muslim occupiers and their Iraqi collaborators. [33] Nearly 3,000 soldiers from the coalition have been killed, with an estimated 67,000 Insurgents killed or detained. [34] Several estimates of the number of civilians killed as a result of the conflict exist. A published Johns Hopkins University Study estimates approximately 650,000 Iraqi "excess" deaths as of July 2006 because of the war and the upheaval caused by the war.[47] See, Casualties of the conflict in Iraq since 2003. In a classified memo (dated November 6, 2006) to President Bush, former Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld revealed that he felt the military strategy in Iraq was ineffective and needed change.[48]. At a news conference with the British Prime Minister Tony Blair in Washington on 6 December 2006, President George W. Bush commented the Iraq Study Group's report and admitted for the first time that a "new approach" is needed in Iraq, that the situation in Iraq is "bad there" and that the task ahead was "daunting". [49] Mr Bush said he would not accept every recommendation by the ISG panel but promised that he would take the report seriously. Mr Bush is expected to wait for three other studies from the Pentagon, the US State Department and the National Security Council before charting the new course on Iraq. [50]

Lebanon

Main article: 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict

In July 2006, following the killing of three Israeli soldiers and the taking prisoner of two more by Hezbollah, Israel invaded southern Lebanon, intent on the destruction of Hezbollah. The conflict lasted over a month and caused the deaths of between 845[51] and 1300[52] Lebanese and 163 Israelis (119 military and 44 civilian) and wounding thousands more Israelis and Lebanese.[53] Both the Lebanese government (including Hezbollah) and the Israeli government have agreed to the terms of the ceasefire agreement created by the United Nations that began at 0500 on August 14, 2006. While the conflict is associated with the longer running Arab-Israeli conflict, prior to the declaration of the ceasefire, Israel stated it was fighting a war against terror,[54] the US government stated the conflict was also a front in the "War on Terrorism"[55] and President Bush reiterated it in a speech the day the ceasefire came into effect.[56]

Saudi Arabia

Main article: Insurgency in Saudi Arabia

South Asia

Afghanistan

Main article: 2001 war in Afghanistan
Soldiers in south-eastern Afghanistan check their coordinates during a combat patrol.

In October 2001, in the wake of the September 11, 2001 attacks on the United States, the US and some of its allies invaded the country of Afghanistan to remove al-Qaeda forces and oust the Taliban regime which had control of the country. On September 20, 2001 George W. Bush delivered an ultimatum to the Taliban regime to turn over Osama bin Laden and al-Qaeda leaders operating in the country.[57] The Taliban demanded evidence of bin Laden's link to the September 11th attacks and, if such evidence warranted a trial, they offered to handle such trial in an Islamic Court.[58] On October 7, 2001 the official invasion began with British and American forces conducting aerial bombing campaigns.[59]

Pakistan

The Saudi born Zayn al-Abidn Muhammed Hasayn Abu Zubaydah was arrested by Pakistani officials during a series of joint US and Pakistan raids during the week of March 23, 2002. During the raid the suspect was shot three times while trying to escape capture by military personnel. Zubaydah is said to be a high-ranking al-Qaeda official with the title of operations chief and in charge of running al-Qaeda training camps.[35] Later that year on September 14, 2002, Ramzi Binalshibh was arrested in Pakistan after a three-hour gunfight with police forces. Binalshibh is known to have shared a room with Mohammad Atta in Hamburg, Germany and to be a financial backer of al-Qaeda operations. It is said Binalshibh was supposed to be another hijacker, however the U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services rejected his visa application three times, leaving him to the role of financier. The trail of money transferred by Binalshibh from Germany to the United States links both Mohammad Atta and Zacarias Moussaoui.[36]

On March 1, 2003, Khalid Shaikh Mohammed was arrested during CIA-led raids on the suburb of Rawalpindi, nine miles outside of the Pakistani capital of Islamabad. Mohammed at the time of his capture was the third highest ranking official in al-Qaeda and had been directly in charge of the planning for the September 11th attacks. Escaping capture the week before during a previous raid, the Pakistani government was able to use information gathered from other suspects captured to locate and detain Mohammed. Mohammed was indicted in 1996 by the United States government for links to the Oplan Bojinka, a plot to bomb a series of U.S. civilian airliners. Other events Mohammed has been linked to include: ordering the killing of Wall Street Journal reporter Daniel Pearl, the USS Cole bombing, Richard Reid's attempt to blow up a civilian airliner with a shoe bomb, and the terrorist attack at the El Ghriba synagogue in Djerba, Tunisia. Khalid Shaikh Mohammed has described himself as the head of the al-Qaeda military committee[37].

Amidst all this, Pakistan has been accused by NATO commanding officers of aiding and abetting the Taliban in Afghanistan.[60] India, meanwhile continues to accuse Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence of planning several terrorist attacks in Kashmir and elsewhere in India, including the 11 July 2006 Mumbai train bombings.[61] Many other countries like Afghanistan and the UK have also accused Pakistan of State-sponsored terrorism and financing terrorism.

Waziristan
Main article: Waziristan War

In 2004 the Pakistani Army launched a campaign in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas of Pakistan's Waziristan region, sending in 80,000 troops. The goal of the conflict was to remove the al-Qaeda and Taliban forces in the region. After the fall of the Taliban regime many members of the Taliban resistance fled to the Northern border region of Afghanistan and Pakistan where the Pakistani army had previously little control. With the logistics and air support of the United States, the Pakistani Army captured or killed numerous al-Qaeda operatives such as Khalid Shaikh Mohammed, wanted for his involvement in the USS Cole bombing, Oplan Bojinka plot and the killing of Wall Street Journal reporter Daniel Pearl. However, the Taliban resistance still operates in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas under the control of Haji Omar.[62]

Southeast Asia

Indonesia

Main articles: 2002 Bali bombing, 2004 Jakarta embassy bombing, and 2005 Bali bombing
File:Australian embassy bombing flag.jpg
Australian Embassy in Jakarta after September 9, 2004 suicide bombing.

In 2002 and again in 2005, the Indonesian island of Bali has been struck by suicide and car bombings that killed over 200 people and injured over 300. The 2002 attack consisted of a bomb hidden in a backpack exploding inside of "Padds's Bar", a remote controlled car bomb exploding in front of the "Sari Club" and a third explosion in front of the American consulate in Bali. The 2005 attack consisted of 2 suicide bombings, the first near a food court in Jimbaran, the second in the main square of Kuta. The group Jemaah Islamiyah is suspected by Indonesian authorities of carrying out both attacks.

On September 9, 2004 a car bomb exploded outside of the Australian embassy in Jakarta, killing 10 Indonesians and injuring over 140 others; despite conflicting initial reports there were no Australian casualties.[63] Foreign Minister Alexander Downer reported that a mobile phone text message was sent to Indonesian authorities before the bombing warning of attacks if Abu Bakar Bashir was not released from prison.[64] Abu Bakar Ba'asyir was imprisoned on charged of treason for his support of the 2002 and 2005 Bali bombings.[65] Currently Jemaah Islamiyah is suspected of carrying out the attacks and Noordin Mohammed Top is a prime suspect. Top is a bomb maker and explosions expert for Jemaah Islamiyah.[66]

Philippines

Main article: Operation Enduring Freedom - Philippines

In January 2002 the United States Special Operations Command, Pacific deployed to the Philippines to advise and assist the Armed Forces of the Philippines in combating terrorism. The operations were mainly focused on removing the Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG) and Jemaah Islamiyah (JI) from their stronghold on the island of Basilan. The United States military has reported that they have removed over 80% of the Abu Sayyaf Group members from the region. The second portion of the operation was conducted as a humanitarian program called "Operation Smiles". The goal of the program was to provide medical care and services to the region of Basilan to prevent the ability for members of the terrorist groups to reestablish themselves.

International support

On September 12, 2001, less than 24 hours after the terrorist attacks in New York City and Washington, NATO invoked Article 5 of the North Atlantic Treaty and declared the attacks to be an attack against all 19 NATO member countries. Australian Prime Minister John Howard also declared that Australia would invoke the ANZUS Treaty along similar lines.

In the following months, NATO took a wide range of measures to respond to the threat of terrorism. On November 22, 2002, the member states of the EAPC decided on a Partnership Action Plan against Terrorism which explicitly states that "EAPC States are committed to the protection and promotion of fundamental freedoms and human rights, as well as the rule of law, in combating terrorism".[67] NATO started naval operations in the Mediterranean Sea designed to prevent the movement of terrorists or weapons of mass destruction as well as to enhance the security of shipping in general called Operation Active Endeavour.

The invasion of Afghanistan is seen as the first action of this war, and initially involved forces from the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Afghani Northern Alliance. Since the initial invasion period, these forces have been augmented by troops from Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, New Zealand and Norway. It was announced on January 27 2006 in the British Parliament that a NATO International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) would be replacing the U.S troops in the province as part of Operation Enduring Freedom. The British 16th Air Assault Brigade would be the core of the force in Southern Afghanistan, along with troops and helicopters from Australia, Canada and the Netherlands. The force will consist of roughly 3,300 British, 2,000 Canadian, 1,400 from the Netherlands and 240 from Australia.[68][69][70][71] Canada also supported coalition efforts in Operation Archer, Operation Apollo, Operation Altair, and Operation Athena as part of the ongoing support for Operation Enduring Freedom.[72] The Canadian government however, does not recognize Iraq as part of the informal network of support for the attacks of 9/11 and as such, has declined to send Forces to that theatre of operations, although scores of them are on assignment to US Forces - mostly assisting in AWACS operations. See the article Afghanistan War order of battle for the current disposition of coalition forces in Afghanistan.

Support for the United States cooled when America made clear its determination to invade Iraq in late 2002. Even so, many of the "coalition of the willing" countries that unconditionally supported the U.S.-led military action have sent troops to Afghanistan, particular neighbouring Pakistan, which has disowned its earlier support for the Taliban and contributed tens of thousands of soldiers to the conflict. Pakistan is also currently engaged in the Waziristan War. Supported by US intelligence, Pakistan is attempting to remove the Taliban insurgency and al-Qaeda element from the northern tribal areas.[73]

U.S. domestic initiatives

United States Customs and Border Protection officers.
Further information: [[:Detentions following the September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attack]]

A $40 billion emergency spending bill was passed by the United States Congress, and an additional $20 billion bail-out of the airline industry was also passed.

Investigations have been started through many branches of many governments, pursuing tens of thousands of tips. Thousands of people have been detained, arrested, or questioned.[citation needed]

The Justice Department launched a Special Registration procedure for certain male non-citizens in the U.S., requiring them to register in person at offices of the Immigration and Naturalization Service.

Several laws were passed to increase the investigative powers of law enforcement agencies in the United States, notably the USA PATRIOT Act. Many civil liberties groups have alleged that these laws remove important restrictions on governmental authority, and are a dangerous encroachment on civil liberties, possible unconstitutional violations of the Fourth Amendment. No official legal challenges have been started as of 2004, but governing bodies in a number of communities have passed symbolic resolutions against the act.

In a speech on June 9, 2005, Bush said that the USA PATRIOT Act had been used to bring charges against more than 400 suspects, more than half of whom had been convicted. Meanwhile the American Civil Liberties Union quoted Justice Department figures showing that 7,000 people have complained of abuse of the Act. The ACLU also maintains that many others do not know they have been subjected to a search because the law requires that searches be kept secret.

DARPA began an initiative in early 2002 with the creation of the Terrorism Information Awareness program, designed to promote information technologies that could be used to counter transnational threats to national security.[citation needed] This program, facing criticism, has since been defunded by Congress.

Various government bureaucracies which handled security and military functions were reorganized. Most notably, the Department of Homeland Security was created to coordinate "homeland security" efforts in the largest reorganization of the U.S. federal government since the consolidation of the armed forces into the Department of Defense. There was a proposal to create an Office of Strategic Influence for the purpose of coordinating propaganda efforts, but it was cancelled due to negative reactions.[citation needed] The Bush administration implemented the Continuity of Operations Plan (or Continuity of Government) to ensure that U.S. government would be able to continue in catastrophic circumstances.

U.S. media influences

One area often ignored concerning the understanding Americans have about the war on terror involves the role the mainstream news media plays. In Bush’s War: Media Bias and Justifications for War in a Terrorist Age Political Communication researcher Jim A. Kuypers illustrates “how the press failed America in its coverage on the War on Terror.” In each comparison, Kuypers “detected massive bias on the part of the press.” In fact, this researcher called the mainstream news media an “anti-democratic institution” in his conclusion. “What has essentially happened since 9/11 has been that Bush has repeated the same themes, and framed those themes the same whenever discussing the War on Terror,” said Kuypers. “Immediately following 9/11, the mainstream news media (represented by CBS, ABC, NBC, USA Today, New York Times, and Washington Post) did echo Bush, but within eight weeks it began to intentionally ignore certain information the president was sharing, and instead reframed the president's themes or intentionally introduced new material to shift the focus.”

This goes beyond reporting alternate points of view, which is an important function of the press. “In short,” Kuypers explained, “if someone were relying only on the mainstream media for information, they would have no idea what the president actually said. It was as if the press were reporting on a different speech.” The study is essentially a “comparative framing analysis.” Overall, Kuypers examined themes about 9/11 and the War on Terror that the President used, and compared them to the themes that the press used when reporting on what the President said.

“Framing is a process whereby communicators, consciously or unconsciously, act to construct a point of view that encourages the facts of a given situation to be interpreted by others in a particular manner,” wrote Kuypers. At the core of the book are these questions: What did President Bush talk about, and how did he want us to think about it? What did the mainstream news media talk about following President Bush’s speeches, and how did they want us to think about it? The answers to such questions lead one to consider the role the mainstream news played in developing Americans’ understanding of the war on terror. For example, in his November 2005 commemoration of Veteran’s Day, the President publicly attacked his Democrat critics over their remarks on the War on Terror. However, the President also laid out his administration's specific plans for Iraq and the War on Terror in this speech. Americans would not know this, however, unless they actually listened to or read the President’s speech; the press failed to mention that portion of the speech (roughly 85% of the entire speech). Additionally, in the coverage that followed this speech, the press demanded the very information war plans that the President had shared in the speech.

Military decorations

Since 2002, the United States military, has created several military awards and decorations related to the "War on Terrorism" including:

The US Department of Transportation created two awards related to the "War on Terrorism" which are authorized to be worn on U.S. military uniforms:

NATO has also created military decorations related to the "War on Terrorism":

Criticisms of the "War on Terrorism"

Main article: Criticisms of the War on Terrorism

Some have criticized the name "War on Terrorism," by arguing you cannot have a war against a tactic — you can only have a war with a country or an entity[38] (such as against Germany in World War Two, or possibly against an organisation such as al Qaeda). In addition, since "terrorism" is difficult to define (for example, the United Nations still has not reached consensus on a definition of "terrorism") a "War Against Terrorism" has no uncontroversial meaning. Further, this criticism that the title is a misnomer is linked to the argument that "one man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter". It has also been noted that by openly declaring "war" on terrorism, this could be read as entitling any terrorists to engage in militant or offensive acts of war with some legitimacy.

It should be noted that, since the 1960s the United States government has declared several "wars" on intangible concepts. There was, or is, the War on Poverty, the War on Drugs, the "War on Inflation" (better known as the Whip Inflation Now Campaign), Richard Nixon's declared "War on Cancer", and a general "War on Crime". These programs have met with varying success although, particularly in the case of drugs, have led to a great increase in federal law enforcement activities.

Others have criticized the War on Terrorism as counterproductive. British Liberal Democrat politician Shirley Williams writes that the American and United Kingdom governments "must stop to think whether it is sowing the kind of resentment which is the seedbed of future terrorism".[74] The United Kingdom ambassador to Italy, Ivor Roberts, said that U.S. President Bush is "the best recruiting sergeant ever for al Qaeda".[75] Brigitte L. Nacos has published research indicating a correlation between increases in terrorism alert levels and increases in Bush's poll ratings. Referring to her study of terrorism alerts, media coverage and Bush's popularity, journalist Matthew Stannard wrote in the San Francisco Chronicle that "The media will repeat the president's remarks. Public fear of terrorism will increase. And the president's poll numbers will rise." [39]

The very premise that the War on Terrorism intends to reduce or eliminate acts of terrorism is rejected by some who claim it is an artifice that can be evoked when it is politically desirable and ignored otherwise. For instance, critics point out that many terror "suspects" are targeted without evidence[76] while known anti-Cuba terrorists such as Luis Posada Carriles and Roberto Ferro are spared.[77]

Civilian deaths caused by United States and Coalition military action have been criticized. Estimates of civilian deaths vary greatly. Within Iraq, these estimates are between 4,000 to 655,000. The United States Department of Defense claims that it does not record the deaths of non-Coalition persons, a so-called "body count".[78] Estimates prominently cited have come from IraqBodyCount, a database of deaths reported on the mass media; the Iraqi Ministry of Health; and the two independent reports both entitled "Mortality before and after the 2003 invasion of Iraq" in The Lancet. In any estimate, non-Coalition civilian deaths exceed those of the United States in the attacks of September 11 2001 from which the "war on terrorism" began.

U.S. President George W. Bush articulated the goals of the "War on Terrorism" in a September 20, 2001 speech, in which he said it "will not end until every terrorist group of global reach has been found, stopped and defeated".[79] Critics argue that such goals create a state of perpetual war, and that "terrorist groups" could continue to arise indefinitely.[80] Ira Chernus, professor at the University of Colorado, argues that the ideology underlying the war on terrorism inevitably leads to a state of perpetual war, because it is based on Bush's domestic crusade against sin and evil.[81] Giorgio Agamben, the Italian philosopher, has also offered a critique of the logic of pre-emptive war.

Others have criticized the double standards of the US when dealing with countries known to support terrorism, but are yet key allies, like Pakistan. Apart from India and several states like UK stating that Pakistan is involved in state sponsored terrorism in Kashmir, and Afghan President Hamid Karzai has repeatedly stated that in the war against terrorism, “the central front is Pakistan”, and several eminent authors stating that Pakistan was covertly supporting the Taliban via the ISI.[82]

In December 2006 it was reported that the British Foreign Office had asked British government ministers to abandon the phrase "War on Terror" because of its perceived role in increasing tensions with the Islamic world. [83]

Use of the term "Global War on Terror" might also be a euphemism or diversion from calling the conflict a "World War on Terrorism," which is alleged by those who assert that the current conflict of the powerful western states against radical Islamists, or more broadly anti-western terrorist organizations comprises World War IV. Many people have also feared that this war could esculate into a third world war (World War III) of sorts. Though recents events have shown this to be unlikely.

Casualties

Killed in the war on terrorism

There is no widely agreed on figure for the number of people that have been killed so far in the war on terrorism:

  • Iraq - between 396,185 and 945,842
  • Between 392,979 and 942,636 estimated Iraqi (655,000 with a confidence interval of 95%), civilian and combatant, according to the second Lancet survey of mortality.[84]
  • A minimum of 51,071 civilian deaths reported in the mass media up to 13 December 2006 according to IraqBodyCount.
  • 100,000 to 150,000 estimated civilian deaths in hospitals according to the Iraqi Health Ministry in November 2006, based on extrapolating current rate of death back to March 2003.
  • 3,000 US military dead. 22,401 wounded in action, of which 10,050 were unable to return to duty within 72 hours. 6,640 non-hostile injuries and 18,183 diseases (both requiring medical air transport).[85]
  • 249 Coalition military dead. Breakdown: Australia 2. Bulgaria 13. Denmark 6. El Salvador 5. Estonia 2. Hungary 1. Italy 33. Kazakhstan 1. Latvia 3. Netherlands 2. Poland 18. Romania 2. Slovakia 4. Spain 11. Thailand 2. Ukraine 18. United Kingdom 126.
  • Afghanistan - between 1,300 and 49,600
  • Turkey - 1,474
  • Lebanon - 1,347
  • Philippines - 1,158
  • Indonesia - 620

Further reading

References

  1. ^ "9/11 Hijacker Video Surfaces". Washington Post. October 2, 2006.
  2. ^ "New video of bin Laden with hijackers". The Australian. September 08, 2006. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  3. ^ "BIN LADEN ADMITS 9/11 RESPONSIBILITY, WARNS OF MORE ATTACKS". Online NewsHour Update. 2004-10-29. Retrieved 2006-10-03. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  4. ^ US Department of State. List of Foreign Terrorist Organizations. October 11, 2005.[1]
  5. ^ National Security Council. Strategy for Winning the War on Terror, 2006.[2]
  6. ^ The White House. National Strategy for Combating Terrorism.[3]
  7. ^ Dempsey, Thomas A., Colonel. Counterterrorism in African Failed States: Challenges and Potential Solutions. April 1, 2006.[4]
  8. ^ Bush, George Walker. Address to a Joint Session of Congress and the American People. September 20, 2001.[5]
  9. ^ The White House. Fact Sheet on Terrorist Financing Executive Order. September 24, 2001.[6]
  10. ^ "The Global War on Terrorism: The First 100 Days". White House. December 20, 2001. Retrieved 2006-12-14. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  11. ^ "Momentum & Sustainment: Supporting the Warfighter". Defense Supply Center, Columbus. September 23, 2004. Retrieved 2006-08-09. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  12. ^ Bush, George W. President Discusses Global War on Terror. September 5, 2006.[7]
  13. ^ The White House. National Strategy for Combating Terrorism.[8]
  14. ^ Hirsh, Michael. "Bernard Lewis Revisited." Washington Monthly, November 2004.[9]
  15. ^ BBC News. US names 'coalition of the willing'. 18 March, 2003.[10]
  16. ^ Amnesty International. Rubber stamping violations in the "war on terror": Congress fails human rights. 29 September 2006.[11]
  17. ^ US Supreme Court. Decision in Hamdan v. Rumsfeld.[12]
  18. ^ Amnesty International. Guantánamo Bay: A Human Rights Scandal.[13]
  19. ^ Pew Research Center: Pew Global Attitudes Project. 2006 report.[14]
  20. ^ A Coalition of the Willing?[15]
  21. ^ Washington Post. U.S. Figures Show Sharp Global Rise in Terrorism. April 26, 2005.[16]
  22. ^ President Bush Discusses Progress in the Global War on Terror. speech on September 7, 2006.[17]
  23. ^ CNN. U.S. deaths in Iraq, war on terror surpass 9/11 toll. September 3, 2006.[18]
  24. ^ Iraq Body Count.[19]
  25. ^ Tisdall, Simon and Ewen MacAskill. America's Long War. The Guardian, February 15, 2006.[20]
  26. ^ "Report of the Accountability Review Boards". U.S. Department of State. 1998-08-07.
  27. ^ "U.S. strikes terrorist targets in Afghanistan, Sudan". CNN. 1998-08-20.
  28. ^ "U.S. retaliates for Africa bombings". CNN. 08.20.98. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  29. ^ "U.S. sailors killed in attack on Navy vessel in Yemen". CNN. 2000-10-12.
  30. ^ "What proof of bin Laden's involvement". CNN. 2001-09-13.
  31. ^ "The Four Waves of Rebel Terror and September 11". Department of Political Science University of California at Los Angeles. Summer 2004. Retrieved 2006-08-09. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); line feed character in |publisher= at position 32 (help)
  32. ^ "War on Terrorism". Aljazeera.Com. 2003-01-01.
  33. ^ CRIMES AND CRIMINAL PROCEDURE [21]
  34. ^ Remarks by President Bush on the Global War on Terror[22]
  35. ^ NATIONAL STRATEGY FOR COMBATING TERRORISM[23]
  36. ^ a b CRS Report for Congress[24]
  37. ^ AP report on Sudan
  38. ^ Bin Laden releases Web message on Iraq, Somalia USA Today
  39. ^ U.S. says al Qaeda behind Somali Islamists Reuters
  40. ^ "Iraq accuses U.S., Turkey of 'illegally' meeting with Kurds". CNN. 2000-03-09.
  41. ^ "Clinton: Iraq has abused its final chance". CNN. 1998-12-16.
  42. ^ "Iraq weighs U.N. resolution". CNN. 2002-11-09.
  43. ^ "Bush's remarks after U.N. passes Iraq resolution". CNN. 2002-11-08.
  44. ^ "Joint Resolution to Authorize the Use of United States Armed Forces Against Iraq". White House. 2002-10-02. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  45. ^ "Bush:Join 'coalition of willing'". CNN. 2002-11-20.
  46. ^ "British House of Commons Research Paper 02/64" (PDF). British House of Commons. 11-22-02. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  47. ^ Sabrina Tavernises (2006-10-11). "Iraqi Dead May Total 600,000, Study Says". New York Times. Retrieved 2006-10-11. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  48. ^ "Rumsfeld memo admits Iraq strategy failing". CNN. 2006-12-03.
  49. ^ Bush ponders next Iraq move
  50. ^ Cracks appear between Bush and Blair over need for talks with Iran and Syria
  51. ^ Lauren Frayer (2006-08-18). "Lebanese army greeted in south". Indianapolis Star. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  52. ^ Robert Fisk (2006-08-17). "Robert Fisk: Lebanon's pain grows by the hour as death toll hits 1,300". The Independent. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  53. ^ Ben Wedeman (2006-08-14). "Refugees stream back to southern Lebanon". CNN. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  54. ^ "Israel needs int'l support for war against terror: DM". People's Daily Online. August 10, 2006. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help) "Israeli Defense Minister Amir Peretz said Wednesday morning that Israel is fighting a war of the free world against terror"
  55. ^ "Lebanon part of 'war on terror', says Bush". ABC News. July 30, 2006. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  56. ^ "Bush: 'Hezbollah suffered a defeat'". CNN. 2006-08-14. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  57. ^ "Transcript of President Bush's address". CNN. 9.20.01. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  58. ^ "Taliban rejects president Bush's demands". PBS. 09.21.01. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  59. ^ "Into Afghanistan: Rooting out the Taliban". United States Department of Defense. August 9, 2006. Retrieved 2006-08-10. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  60. ^ NATO faces defeat in Afghanistan
  61. ^ CNN (2006-09-30). "Pakistan spy agency behind Mumbai bombings". CNN. Retrieved 2006-09-30. {{cite news}}: |author= has generic name (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
  62. ^ "Top al Qaeda operative caught in Pakistan". CNN. 2003-03-01.
  63. ^ "JI 'claims Jakarta car bombing'". CNN. 2004-09-09.
  64. ^ "Text 'warned of Jakarta bomb'". CNN. 09.10.04. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  65. ^ "Jihad warning over Indonesian cleric arrest". CNN. 2002-10-10.
  66. ^ "'Walking bombs' are desperate". CNN. 2003-11-01.
  67. ^ "Partnership Action Plan against Terrorism". NATO. November 22, 2002. Retrieved 2006-08-09. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  68. ^ "UK troops take over Afghan duties". BBC. 2006-06-01. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  69. ^ "Canada set for longer Afghan stay". BBC. 2006-06-16. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  70. ^ "Australia outlines Afghan force". BBC. 2006-05-08. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  71. ^ "More Dutch troops for Afghanistan". BBC. 2006-02-03. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  72. ^ "Canadian Forces Operations in Afghanistan". Canada Department of National Defense. April 18, 2006. Retrieved 2006-08-09. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  73. ^ "New frontline in the war on terror". The Guardian. 05.04.06. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  74. ^ Williams, Shirley. "The seeds of Iraq's future terror". The Guardian, 28 October 2003.
  75. ^ Richburg, Keith B. "Kerry Is Widely Favored Abroad". The Washington Post, p. A14, 29 September 2004.
  76. ^ Socialism and Liberation, August 2006 [25], accessed September 22 2006
  77. ^ Socialism and Liberation, August 2006 [26], accessed September 22 2006
  78. ^ Davis, Matthew. "Counting the civilian cost in Iraq". BBC News Online, 22 September 2004.
  79. ^ "Address to a Joint Session of Congress and the American People". Speech delivered by George W. Bush to the United States Congress, 20 September 2001. Transcript by White House Office of the Press Secretary.
  80. ^ Richissin, Todd. "'War on terror' difficult to define" The Baltimore Sun, 2 September 2004.
  81. ^ Chernus, Monsters To Destroy.
  82. ^ ‘Pakistan must not harbour Taliban’ By Khalid Hasan
  83. ^ "Britain stops talk of 'war on terror'", The Observer, Sunday December 10 2006
  84. ^ "[27]". The Lancet.
  85. ^ "http://icasualties.org/oif/". Iraq Coalition Casualties
  86. ^ "http://pubpages.unh.edu/~mwherold/". Dossier on Civilian Victims of United States' Aerial Bombing
  87. ^ "http://www.comw.org/pda/0201oef.html". Operation Enduring Freedom: Why a Higher Rate of Civilian Bombing Casualties
  88. ^ "http://web.archive.org/web/20020604082553/http://www.latimes.com/templates/misc/printstory.jsp?slug=la-060202bombs". Los Angeles Times
  89. ^ "http://www.guardian.co.uk/afghanistan/comment/story/0,11447,718647,00.html". The Guardian

See also

Official sites by governments and international organizations
General "war on terrorism" news
Primary legal documents
Specific articles
Other
Video
  • The Dark Side – After 9/11 Vice President Cheney initiated an expansion of executive power, took on George Tenet's CIA for control over intelligence and brought the War on Terrorism to Iraq.
  • Macedonia Killings Video - 2002 confrontation at the US embassy in Macedonia
  • The Long War - Colbert highlights the new name for "war on terror" that the pentagon is now using.
  • The Power of Nightmares
Recent events


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