Political history of medieval Karnataka

The Political history of medieval Karnataka spans from the fourth to the sixteenth centuries C.E. when those empires that emerged from the Karnataka region of India made a lasting impact on modern India. This era can be broadly divided into several periods. First came the assertion of the earliest native kingdoms and the early imperialism, followed by the successful domination of the Gangetic plains in northern India and rivalry with the empires of Tamilakam over the Vengi region, domination of the southern deccan and consolidation against Muslim invasion. The origins of the rise of the Karnataka region as an imperialistic power dates back to the fourth century birth of the Kadamba Dynasty of Banavasi, the earliest of the native rulers to come to power and who gave administrative powers for the first time to the language of Kannada, the language of the soil, in addition to the official Sanskrit. This is the historical starting point in studying the development of the region as an enduring geo-political entity and of Kannada as an important regional language.

In the southern regions of Karnataka, the Gangas of Talakad were contemporaries of the Kadambas. The Kadambas were followed by the imperial dynasties of the Badami Chalukyas, the Rashtrakuta Dynasty, the Western Chalukya Empire, the Hoysala Empire and the Vijayanagara Empire, all giving ample patronage to the ancient Indic religions while showing tolerance to the new cultures arriving from the west. The Muslim invasion of the deccan resulted in the breaking away of the feudatory Sultanates in the fourteenth century. The rule of the Bahamani Sultanate of Bidar and the Bijapur Sultanate from the northern deccan region caused a mingling of the ancient Hindu traditions with the nascent Islamic culture in the region. Ably serving these large empires and upholding the local culture and traditions were the local hereditary ruling families and clans.

Early native kingdoms

See also: Kadamba Dynasty and Western Ganga Dynasty

File:Doddagaddavalli Lakshmidevi temple1.JPG

Kadamba tower at Doddagaddavalli

Gomateshwara (982 CE) at Shravanabelagola

The fourth century beginning of Kadamba Dynasty of Banavasi, identified the Karnataka region as an independent political entity and Kannada as an administrative language from the middle of 5th century onwards. The Kadambas were natives of the Talagunda region (in modern Shivamogga district) as proven by inscriptions. Mayurasharma, a Brahmin native of Talagunda who was humiliated by a Pallava guard, rose in rage against the Pallava control of the Banavasi region and declared his independence in 345. After many wars, the Pallava King had to accept the soveriegnty of the Kadambas and Mayurasharma, the founding king coronated himself at Banavasi in the present day Uttara Kannada district.

The fact that the Kadambas cultivated marital ties with the imperial Vakatakas and Gupta dynasties attests to their power. Kakusthavarma, the most powerful ruler of the dynasty who has been described as "ornament of the Kadamba family" and "Sun among the kings of wide spread flame", gave one daughter in marriage to Vakataka Narendrasena and another to Skanda Gupta, grandson of Chandra Gupta II of the Gupta dynasty. Historians trace their rise to political power through the examination of the contemporaneous Sanskrit writing, Aichitya Vichara Charcha by Kshemendra, which quotes portions of Kunthalesvara Dautya by the famous poet Kalidasa. Here Kalidasa describes his visit to the Kadamba kingdom as an ambassador where he was not offered a seat in the court of the Kadamba king and had to sit on the ground. Historians view this act as one of assertion by the Kadambas who considered themselves equal to the imperial Gupta dynasty.

Family feuds and conflicts ended the Kadamba rule in the middle of sixth century when the last Kadamba ruler Krishna Varma II was subdued by Pulakesi I of the Chalukya feudatory, ending their sovereign rule. The Kadambas would continue to rule parts of Karnataka and Goa for many centuries to come but never again as an independent kingdom. Some historians view the Kadambas as the originators of the Karnataka architectural tradition although there were also elements in common with the structures built by the contemporaneous Pallavas of Kanchi. The oldest surviving Kadamban structure is one dating to late fifth century in Halsi in modern Belgaum district. The most prominent feature of their architectural style, one that remained popular centuries later and was used by the Hoysalas and the Vijayanagar kings, is the Kadamba Shikara (Kadamba tower) with a Kalasa (pot) on top.

The Western Ganga Dynasty, contemporaries of the Kadambas, came to power from Kolar but in the fifth century moved their capital to Talakadu in modern Mysore district. They ruled the region historically known as Gangavadi comprising most of the modern southern districts of Karnataka. Acting as a buffer state between the Kanarese kingdoms of Karnataka region and the Tamil kingdoms of Tamilakam, the Ganga architectural innovations show mixed influences. Their sovereign rule ended around the same time as the Kadambas when they came under the Badami Chalukyas. The Gangas continued to rule as feudatories till the beginning of the eleventh century when they were defeated by the Cholas of Tanjore. Important figures among the Gangas were King Durvinita, admired as an able warrior and an early writer in the Kannada language, King Shivamara II and minister Chavundaraya, both known to be courageous warriors and writers in Kannada and Sanskrit. The most important architectural contributions of the Gangas are the monuments and Basadis of Shravanabelagola, the monolith of Gomateshwara, termed as the mightiest achievement in the field of sculpture in ancient Karnataka, and the Basadi at Kambadahalli. Their free standing pillars (called Mahasthambhas and Brahmasthambhas) are also considered a unique contribution.

Age of imperialism

File:Pattadakal Virupaksha temple.jpg

Virupaksha Temple at Pattadakal

See also: Chalukya dynasty

The Chalukya dynasty, natives of the Aihole and Badami regions in Karnataka, were at first the feudatories of the Kadambas. They encouraged the use of Kannada in addition to the Sanskrit language. In the middle of the sixth century the Chalukyas came into their own when Pulakesi I made the hill fortress in Badami his center of power. During the rule of Pulakesi II a south Indian empire sent expeditions past the Tapti River and Narmada River for the first time and successfully defied Harshavardhana, the King of Northern India (Uttarapatheswara). The Aihole inscription of Pulakesi II, written in classical Sanskrit language and old Kannada script dated 634, proclaims his victories against the kingdoms of Kadambas, Gangas, Alupas of South Canara, Mauryas of Puri, Kingdom of Kosala, Malwa, Lata and Gurjaras of southern Rajasthan and describes how King Harsha of Kannauj lost his Harsha (joyful disposition) on seeing a large number of his war elephants die in battle against Pulakesi II.

These victories earned him the title Dakshinapatha Prithviswamy (lord of the south). Pulakesi II continued his conquests in the east where he conquered all kingdoms in his way and reached the Bay of Bengal in present day Orissa. A Chalukya vice royalty was set up in Gujarat and Vengi (coastal Andhra) and princes from the Badami family were dispatched to rule over them. Having subdued the Pallavas of Kanchi he accepted tributes from the Pandyas of Madurai, Chola dynasty and Cheras of Kerala region, Pulakesi II thus became the master of India, south of the Narmada River. Pulakesi II is widely regarded as one of the great Kings in Indian history. Hiuen-Tsiang, a Chinese traveller visited the court of Pulakesi II at this time and Persian emperor Khosrau II exchanged ambassadors. A century later, Chalukya Vikramaditya II marched victoriously into Kanchipuram and occupied it on three occassions, the third time under the leadership of his son and crown prince Kirtivarman II to avenge an earlier humiliation of the Chalukyas by the Pallavas and engraved a Kannada inscription on the victory pillar at the Kailasanatha Temple. He further overran the other traditional kingdoms of Tamil country, the Pandyas, Cholas and Keralas in addition to subduing the Kalabhras.

The Kappe Arabhatta record from this period (700) in tripadi (three line) metre is considered the earliest available work in Kannada poetics. Some contemporary literary writings in Kannada now considered extinct are, Karnateshwara Katha (a eulogy of Pulakesi II), Prabhrita by Syamakundacharya and Chudamani by Tumubuluracharya both of 650 have been referenced in later centuries. The most enduring legacy of the Chalukya dynasty is the architecture and art that they left behind. More than one hundred and fifty monuments attributed to the Badami Chalukya, built between 450 and 700, have survived in the Malaprabha basin in Karnataka. The temples of Pattadakal, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the cave temples of Badami and early experiments in temple building at Aihole, are their most celebrated monuments. Two of the famous paintings at Ajanta cave no. 1, "The Temptation of the Buddha" and "The Persian Embassy" are also credited to them. Further, they influenced the architecture in Gujarat and Vengi as evidenced in the Nava Brahma temples at Alampur.

South conquers North

See also: Rashtrakuta Dynasty

Kailasanatha Temple at Ellora

In the middle of eight century the Chalukya rule was ended when they were invaded by their feudatory, the Rashtrakuta family rulers of Berar (in present day Amravati district of Maharashtra). Sensing an opportunity during a weak period in the Chalukya rule, Dantidurga trounced the great Chalukyan "Karnatabala" (power of Karnata). Having overthrown the Chalukyas, the Rashtrakutas made their capital at Manyakheta (modern Malkhed in Gulbarga district. Although the origins of the early Rashtrakuta ruling families in central India and the Deccan in the sixth and seventh centuries is controversial, during the eighth through the tenth centuries they emphasised the importance of the Kannada language in conjunction with Sanskrit. Rashtrakuta inscriptions are in Kannada and Sankrit only. They encouraged literature in both languages and thus literature flowered under their rule.

The Rashtrakutas quickly became the most powerful Deccan empire, making their initial successful forays into the doab region of Ganga River and Jamuna River during the rule of Dhruva Dharavarsha. The rule of his son Govinda III signaled a new era with the Rashtrakuta victories against the Pala Dynasty of Bengal and Gurjara Pratihara of north western India and the capture of Kannauj. The Rashtrakutas held Kannauj intermittently during a period of a tripartite struggle for the resources of the rich Gangetic plains. Because of Govinda III's victories, historians have compared him to Alexander the Great and the mystical figures of Pandava and Arjuna of the epic Mahabharata. The Sanjan inscription states the horses of Govinda III drank the icy water of the Himalayan stream and his war elephants tasted the sacred waters of the Ganges River. Amoghavarsha I succeeded Govinda III to the throne and ruled during an important cultural period that produced landmark writings in Kannada and Sanskrit. The benevolent development of Jain religion was a hallmark of his rule. Because of his religious temperament, his interest in the arts and literature and his peace loving nature, he has been compared to emperor Ashoka The rule of Indra III in the tenth century enhanced the Rashtrakuta position as an imperial power as they conquered and held Kannauj again.

An Arabic writing Silsilatuttavarikh (851) called the Rashtrakutas one among the four principle empires of the world. Kitab-ul-Masalik-ul-Mumalik (912) called them the "greatest kings of India" and there were many other contemporaneous books written in their praise. The Rashtrakuta empire at its peak spread from Cape Comorin in the south to Kannauj in the north and from Banaras in the east to Broach (Bharuch) in the west. While the Rashtrakutas built many fine monuments in the deccan, the most extensive and sumptuous of their work is the monolithic Kailasanatha temple at Ellora, the temple being a splendid achievement. In Karnataka their most famous temples are the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal. All of the monuments are designated UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

Chalukya Vikrama era

See also: Western Chalukya Empire

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Trimurthi sculpture at Balligavi

In the late tenth century the Rashtrakutas were overthrown by their Western Chalukya feudatory, also known as the Kalyani Chalukyas. Whether the kings of this empire belonged to the same family line as the Badami Chalukyas is still debated. Whatever the Western Chalukya origins, Kannada was their language of administration, Kannada and Sanskrit literature during this time was prolific. Tailapa II, a feudatory ruler from Tardavadi (modern Bijapur district), re-established the Chalukya rule and defeated the Rashtrakutas during the reign of Karka II, timing his rebellion to coincide with the confusion caused by the invading Paramara of Central India to the Rashtrakutas capital in 973. This era produced prolonged warfare with the Chola Dynasty of Tamilakam for control of the resources of the Godavari River - Krishna River doab region in Vengi. Somesvara I, a notable Chalukyan king, successfully curtailed the growth of the Chola Empire to south of the Tungabhdra River region while maintaining control over his feudatories in the Konkan, Gujarat, Malwa and Kalinga areas. For approximately 100 years, beginning in the early 11th century, the Cholas occupied large areas of South Karnataka region (Gangavadi).

The ascent of the most famous king of this Chalukya family in 1076, Vikramaditya VI, changed the balance of power in favour of the Chalukyas. The fifty year reign of Vikramaditya VI, the most successful of the later Chalukya rulers, was an important period in Karnataka's history, referred to by historians as the "Chalukya Vikrama era". His victories over the Cholas in the late 11th and early 12th centuries eliminated the Chola influence in the Vengi region permanently. Some of the well known contemporaneous ruling feudatory families of the Deccan under Chalukya control were the Hoysalas, the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri, the Kakatiya dynasty and the Southern Kalachuri. At their peak the Western Chalukyas ruled a vast empire stretching from the Narmada River in the north to the Kaveri River in the south. Vikramaditya VI is considered one of the noteworthy kings of Indian history. Important architectural works were created during the rule of the Chalukyas, especially in the Tungabhadra River valley, works that served as a conceptual link between the building idioms of the early Badami Chalukyas and the later Hoysalas. With the weakening of the Chalukyas in the decades following the death of Vikramaditya VI in 1126, the feudatories of the Chalukyas gained their independence.

The Kalachuris of Karnataka, whose ancestors were immigrants into the southern deccan from cental India, had ruled as a feudatory from Mangalavada (modern Mangalavedhe in Maharashtra). Bijjalla II, the most powerful ruler of this dynasty, was a commander (mahamandaleswar) during the reign of Chalukya Vikramaditya VI. Seizing an opportune moment in the waning power of the Chalukyas, Bijjalla II declared independence in 1157 and annexed the Chalukya capital of Kalyani. His ruled was cut short by his assassination in 1167, and the ensuing civil war caused by his sons fighting over the throne ended the dynasty as the last Chalukya scion regained control of Kalyani.

Hegemony over southern Deccan

See also: Hoysala empire

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ChennakeshavaTemple at Belur

The Hoysala Empire, even during their rule from Belur in the eleventh century as a feudatory of the Chalukyas (in the south Karnataka region), became a powerful force. In the early twelveth century they successfully fought the Cholas in the south, convincingly defeating them in the battle of Talakad and moved their capital to nearby Halebidu. Historians refer to the founders of the dynasty as natives of Malnad Karnataka, based on the numerous inscriptions calling them Maleparolganda or "Lord of the Male (hills) chiefs" (Malepas). With the waning of the Chalukya power, the Hoysalas declared their independence in the late 12th century.

During this period of Hoysala control, distinctive Kannada literary metres became widely accepted. The Hoysalas expanded the Vesara architecture stemming from the Badami Chalukyas and culminating int the Hoysala architectural articulation and style as examplified in the construction of the Chennakesava Temple at Belur and the Hoysaleswara temple at Halebidu, both in commemoration of the victories of the Hoysala Vishnuvardhana against the Cholas in 1116. Veera Ballala II, the most effective of the Hoysala rulers, defeated the aggressive Pandya when they invaded the Chola kingdom and assumed the titles "Establisher of the Chola Kingdom" (Cholarajyapratishtacharya), "Emperor of the south" (Dakshina Chakravarthi) and "Hoysala emperor" (Hoysala Chakravarthi). The Hoysalas extended their foothold in areas known today as Tamil Nadu around 1225, making the city of Kannanur Kuppam near Srirangam a provincial capital and giving the Hoysalas control over South Indian politics that began a period of Hoysala hegemony in the Southern deccan.

In the early thirteenth century, with the Hoysala power remaining unchallenged in the southern Deccan, the first of the Muslim incursions into South India began. After two decades of waging war against a foreign power, the Hoysala ruler at the time, Veera Ballala III, died in the battle of Madurai in 1343, resulting in the merger of the sovereign territories of the Hoysala empire with the areas administered by Harihara I, founder of the Vijayanagara Empire located in the Tungabhadra region in present day Karnataka. The new kingdom, building its capital city of Vijayanagara on the banks of the Tungabhadra River, thrived.

Bulwark against Muslim invasion

See also: Vijayanagara Empire

Balakrishna Temple at Hampi

The Vijayanagara Empire quickly rose to imperial status as early as the late fourteenth century. During the reign of Bukka Raya I, the island of Lanka paid tributes and ambassadors were exchanged with the Ming Dynasty of China. The empire's most famous rulers were Deva Raya II and the Tuluva King Krishnadevaraya. Deva Raya II (Gajabetekara or hunter of elephants) succeeded to the throne in 1424 and was the most effective of the Sangama dynasty rulers. He quelled rebelling feudal lords, the Zamorin of Calicut and the Quilon in the south, and invaded the island of Lanka while becoming overlord of the kings of Burma at Pegu and Tanasserim. The empire reached its peak in early sixteenth century during the rule of Krishnadevaraya when the Vijayanagara armies were consistently victorious. The empire annexed areas formerly under the Sultanates in the northern Deccan and the territories in the eastern Deccan, including Kalinga, while simultaneously maintaining control over all its subordinates in the south.

Many important monuments at Hampi were either completed or commissioned during the time of Krishnadevaraya. The enduring legacy of this empire is the vast open air theatre of monuments at their regal capital, Vijayanagara, a the UNESCO World Heritage site. Vijayanagara architecture is a vibrant combination of the Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya and Chola styles, idioms that had prospered in previous centuries. In a prolific age of literature in Kannada, Tamil and Sanskrit, the Telugu language also attained its height in popularity reaching its peak under the patronage of Krishnadevaraya. With the demise of the Vijayanagara Empire after a major defeat in the Battle of Talikota in 1565 by the Deccan sultanates, the Karnataka region and South India became fragmented and subsumed under the rule of various former feudatories of the Vijayanagara Empire. A diminished Vijayanagara Empire now moved its capital to Penukonda in modern Andhra Pradesh and later to Chandragiri and Vellore before disintegrating. In the coastal and south Karnataka region, the Kingdom of Mysore and the Keladi Nayaka of Shimoga were the main rulers while the northern regions were under the control of the Adilshah Sultanate. The Nayaka kingdom lasted into the 18th century before merging with the Kingdom of Mysore. The Mysore Kingdom remained a princely state until Indian Independence in 1947 even though they came under the British Raj in 1799 after the death of Tipu Sultan.

Bahamani Sultanate

The Bahmani Sultanate, contemporay to the Vijayanagara Empire, was founded in 1347 by Alla-ud-din-Hasan, a breakaway commander from the armies of the northern invaders led by Mohammed-bin-Tughlaq. Gulbarga was the initial capital, later moved further north to Bidar. The first of the Muslim invasions to the Deccan came in the early decades of the fourteenth century. At its peak, the Bahamani kingdom extended its territories from the the Krishna River in the south to Penganga River in the north, thus covering the regions in modern northern Karnataka, of Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh. The most notable of the Bahamani Kings was Firuz Shah who ruled from 1397 to 1422. Militarily, the rule of Firuz Shah had uneven success against the Vijayanagara kings while he was more convincingly successful against the Kherla rulers of Madhya Pradesh and the Vema Redies of Rajamundry, areas that he annexed in 1417. His last encounter with the Vijayanagara armies in 1417 was disastrous and led to his defeat, ill health and ultimate death in 1422.

Contemporary writers, such as Tabataba in his writings, have heaped praise on Firuz Shah. Tabataba wrote of the king as, "[a]n impetuous, mighty monarch who patronised learned men, Sheiks and hermits", while Shirazi described him as "a just, pious and generous king and one without equal". In the opinion of one historian, Firuz Shah was one of the most notable Sultans to rule in India. Another well known figure from this kingdom was Kwaja Mahamud Gavan, the prime minister, who served under several kings and regents. He rose above the kings and princess of the dynasty by virtue of his ministerial, administrative, martial, literary and philanthrophic abilities. A Persian and a visitor to Bidar in 1445, he impressed the ruling Sultan Alla-ud-din II and was chosen to become a minister in his court. As a commander he was able to extend the kingdom from Hubli in the south to Goa in the west and Kondavidu and Rajamahendri in the east. He soon rose to the position of prime minister (Vakil-Us-Sultanat).

The Bahamanis introduced large scale use of paper for administrative use and begain the Indo-Sarasenic architectural style (also known as Deccani architecture) with its local influences in Karnataka. The Sultanate monuments of Bidar and Gulbarga are testimony to their interest in architecture. The Bande Nawaz tombs and a Jama Masjid with its Spanish influence in Gulbarga are well known. In Bidar, their buildings have Persian, Turkish and Arabic and Roman influences (the Solah Khamba mosque being an example). Rangin Mahal, Gangan Mahal, Tarkash Mahal, Chini Mahal, Nagina Mahal and the Taqk Mahal are some of the palaces built by them that have retained their beauty. The Ahmad Shah Wali tombs are noted for their decor and the school of learning (madrasa) built by Gavan in Bidar are also famous. In the later part of 15th century, with a growing rift between the local Deccani Muslims and the Pardeshi Muslims (foreign) who occupied influential positions in the kingdom, the execution of Gavan under dubious circumstances and constant wars with the Vijayanagara kings weakened the Bahamani Kingdom bringing about its end in 1527.

Bijapur Sultanate

Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur

The Bijapur Sultanate (or Adilshahi Kingdom) came into existance with the weakening of the Bahamani Kingdom towards the end of the fifteenth century. The main sources of information about this kingdom comes from contemporeneous inscriptions and writings in Persian and Kannada, travelogues of european visitors to the deccan and inscriptions of neighbouring kingdoms. Yusuf Adilkhan, a Turkish general in the Bahamani army broke waya to originate the kingdom from modern Bijapur in 1489. Thrughout its rule, the Sultanate was at war with the Vijayanagara Empire over the strategic Raichur doab, the Portuguese over Goa, the Barid Shahis of Bidar and later with the erstwhile feudatories of the Vijayanagara Empire who had gaine independence after 1565. The Italian writer Varathema wrote about the founder Adilkhan and Bijapur, "A powerful and prosperous king", "the city was encircled by many fortifications and contained beautiful and majestic buildings".

Inter-Sultanate marraiges normalised relations and Ali I (1557 - 1580) took sides with a confideracy of Sultanates who eventually inflicted a crushing defeat on the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565. The most notable ruler of the dynasty was Ibrahim II (1580 - 1626). He was only a mere lad of nine when he came to power when the kingdom was run by the Chandbibi, the king's aunt who acted as regent. Later when Ibrahim II was defeated by the first of Mogul incursions into the deccan, he gave his daughter in marraige to Daniyal, a son of Emperor Akhbar, but managed to collect tributes from the former feudatories of the Vijayanagara Empire. According to a historian, the rule of Ibrahim II was the high point of the Bijapur Sultanate. A tolerant king inclined to the fine arts, the earliest book on music in Urdu language called Kitab-e-Nauras is ascribed to him. The opening song in the book is an invocation of the Hindu Goddess Saraswathi. During the rule of his son Muhammad, Shahji Bhosle from Ahmadnagar joined the Bijapur army and along with commander Ranadullah Khan conducted many successful campaings in the southern deccan collecting tribute from local rulers there. The final end of the diminished Vijayanagara Empire ruling from Vellore came during these campaigns.

However, the rise of Maratha Shivaji and constant invasions by the Moguls from the north took its toll bringing to an end the kingdom in the later part of seventeenth century. The contributions of the Bijapur Sultanate to the architectural landscape of Karnataka in the Indo-Saracenic idiom is praiseworthy. Their most famous monuments are the mausoleums called Ibrahim Rauza and the Gol Gumbaz as well as many palaces and mosques. The elegance, finish and beauty of Mehtar Mahal is claimed by a historian to be equal to anything in Cairo. Their Kali Masjid at Lakshmeshwar is a synthesis of Hindu and Muslim styles. The Ibrahim Rauza built by Ibrahim II is a combination of a mausoleum and a mosque and is called the Taj Mahal of the deccan. The Gol Gumbaz built by Muhammad is the fourth largest dome in the world and the largest in India with an impressive "whispering gallery". Its is considered one of the architectural marvels of the world. Persian language was given state patronage while the use of the local languages, Kannada and Marathi was popularised in local affairs.

Immigrants from Karnataka

In addition to these empires who ruled from the Karnataka region, based on inscriptions and literary evidence historians have discussed and debated the possibility that kingdoms of Kannada origin were established in other parts of India as well. The Karnatas of Mithila, the Chalukyas of Gujarat, the Chalukyas of Vengi (Eastern Chalukya), the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri, the Rashtrakuta family ruling from Berar, the Rashtrakutas branch of Gujarat, the Karnatak dynasty of Nepal, the Sena Dynasty of Bengal, the Chindaka Nagas of central India and the Gangas of Kalinga, were all kingdoms created by immigrants from the Karnataka region. Template:History of Karnataka

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