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Transgender (IPA: [tʰɹænz'dʒɛndɚ], from trans (Latin) and gender (English) ) is a general term applied to a variety of individuals, behaviors, and groups involving tendencies that diverge from the normative gender role (woman or man) commonly, but not always, assigned at birth, as well as the role traditionally held by society.

Transgender is the state of one's "gender identity" (self-identification as male, female, both or neither) not matching one's "assigned gender" (identification by others as male or female based on physical/genetic sex). Transgender does not imply any specific form of sexual orientation — transgender people may identify as heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual, pansexual or asexual.

A transgender individual may have characteristics that are normally associated with a particular gender, identify elsewhere on the traditional gender continuum, or exist outside of it as "other," "agender," "intergender," or "third gender". Transgender people may also identify as bigender, or along several places on either the traditional transgender continuum, or the more encompassing continuums which have been developed in response to the significantly more detailed studies done in recent years.[1]

Evolution of the term transgender

The term transgender was popularised in the 1970s[2] (but implied in the 1960s[3][4]) describing people who wanted to live cross-gender without gender reassignment surgery.[5] In the 1980s the term was expanded to an umbrella term[6] and became popular as a means of uniting all those whose gender identity did not mesh with their gender assigned at birth.[7] In the 1990s the term took on a political dimension [8][9] as an alliance covering all who have at some point not conformed to gender norms, and the term became used to question the validity of those norms,[10] or pursue equal rights and anti-discrimination legislation,[11][12] leading to its widespread usage in the media, academic world and law.[13] The term continues to evolve.

Current definition

The current definition for transgender remains in flux, but some definitions are:

"Of, relating to, or designating a person whose identity does not conform unambiguously to conventional notions of male or female gender, but combines or moves between these".[14]
"People who were assigned a gender, usually at birth and based on their genitals, but who feel that this is a false or incomplete description of themselves."[15]
"Non-identification with, or non-presentation as, the gender one was assigned at birth."[16]

Transgender identities

Transgender identity includes many overlapping categories. These include transsexual; cross-dresser; transvestite; androgynes; genderqueer; people who live cross-gender; drag kings; and drag queens. Usually not included, because it involves a paraphilia, not gender identification, are transvestic fetishists. These terms are explained below.

Many people also identify simply as transgender.

The extent to which intersex people (those with ambiguous genitalia or other physical sexual characteristics) are transgender is debated, since not all intersex people disagree with their gender assigned at birth.

The current definitions of transgender include all transsexual people, although this has been criticised.

The term "transman" refers to female-to-male ("FTM") transgender people, and "transwoman" refers to male-to-female ("MTF") transgender people, although some transgender people identify only slightly with the gender not assigned at birth. In the past, it was assumed that there were far more transwomen than transmen, but it now seems likely that the actual ratio is closer to 1:1.[17] There is a school of thought that says terms such as "FTM" and "MTF" are subjugating language that reinforces the binary gender stereotype.[18]

The term "cisgender" refers to non-transgender people, i.e. those who identify with their gender assigned at birth.

Transsexual

Main article: Transsexual

Transsexual people identify as, or desire to live and be accepted as, a member of the gender opposite to that assigned at birth.[19][20] Many transsexual people also want to change their bodies. These physical changes are collectively known as sex reassignment therapy and often include hormones and sex reassignment surgery. References to "pre-operative", "post-operative" and "non-operative" transsexual people indicate whether they have had, or are planning to have sex reassignment surgery. Although there are genetic, hormonal, and psychological theories, there is currently no known cause of transsexualism.

Cross-dresser

Main article: Cross-dresser

A cross-dresser is someone who wears clothing of the opposite gender for any reason. Cross-dressers may not identify with, or want to be the opposite gender, nor adopt the behaviors or practices of the opposite gender, and generally do not want to change their bodies medically. The majority of cross-dressers identify as heterosexual.[21]

Drag king and drag queen

Main articles: Drag king, Drag queen

Drag involves wearing exaggerated and outrageous costumes, or imitating celebrities of the opposite gender (e.g. Rupaul). It is a performing art practiced by drag queens and drag kings. Drag is theatrical, often comedic, sometimes grotesque, and has been occasionally considered a caricature of women by feminists. Drag is often found in a gay or lesbian context, although it is an aspect of straight culture as well, with many straight men wearing drag at Halloween and straight comics (e.g. Dame Edna, Monty Python) including drag in their acts. The word "drag" is sometimes applied to crossdressing in general and transgender people who are not performers may identify as drag queens or drag kings. The term "drag king" can also apply to female-to-male transgender people who do not exclusively identify as male, and can cover wider ground than "drag queen".

Transvestite

Main article: Transvestism
See also: Transvestic fetishism

A transvestite is someone who cross-dresses, but transvestic fetishism is a medical term for someone with a fetish for cross-dressing. To prevent confusion, the term "transvestite" has been rejected in favor of "cross-dresser". Transvestic fetishism has been considered a derogatory term, as it implies a hierarchy in which the sexual element of transgender behavior is of low social value. It is often difficult to distinguish between a fetish for cross-dressing, and transgender behaviour that includes sexual play.

Genderqueer

Main article: Genderqueer

Genderqueer is a recent attempt to signify gendered experiences that do not fit into binary concepts, and refers to a combination of gender identities and sexual orientations. One example could be a person whose gendered presentation is sometimes perceived as male, sometimes female, but whose gender identity is female, gendered expression is butch, and sexual orientation is lesbian. It suggests nonconformity or mixing of gendered stereotypes, conjoining both gender and gayness,[22] and challenges existing constructions and identities.[23] Genderqueerness is unintelligible and abjected in the binary sex/gender system.[24]

People who live cross-gender

People who live cross-gender live always or mostly as the gender other than that assigned at birth. If they want to be or identify as their gender assigned at birth, then the term "crossdresser" [25] may also be used. If they want to be or identify as the gender they always or mostly live in, then the term "transsexual" may also be used .[19] The term "transgender" [26][27][28]. or "transgenderist"[29] has been applied to people who live cross-gender without sex reassignment surgery.

Androgyne

Main article: Androgyny

An androgyne is a person who does not fit cleanly into the typical gender roles of their society. Androgynes may identify as beyond gender, between genders, moving across genders, entirely genderless, or any or all of these. Androgyne identities include pangender, bigender, ambigender, non-gendered, agender, gender fluid or intergender. Androgyne used to be a synonym for intersex people, but this usage has fallen out of favor. Androgyny can be either physical or psychological; it does not depend on birth sex and is not limited to intersex people. Occasionally, people who do not define themselves as androgynes adapt their physical appearance to look androgynous. This outward androgyny has been used in fashion, and the milder forms of it (women wearing men's pants or men wearing two earrings, for example) are not seen as transgender behavior.

Transgender in contrast with sexual orientation

Main article: Homosexuality and transgender
See also: LGBT, section “Controversy”

Gender identity and transgender identity are fundamentally different concepts than that of sexual orientation. Transgender people have more or less the same variety of sexual orientations as cisgender people.[30] In the past, the terms homosexual and heterosexual were used for transgender people based on their birth sex.[31] Professional literature now uses terms such as attracted to men (androsexual), attracted to women (gynosexual), attracted to both or attracted to neither to describe a person's sexual orientation without reference to their gender identity.[32] Therapists are coming to understand the necessity of choosing terms with respect to their clients' gender identities and preferences.[33][34] Transgender people's options for orientation identification are not defined by their birth sex.

Transgender and healthcare

Main article: Transgender transition
See also: Gender transitioning

Mental healthcare

The terms "gender dysphoria" and "gender identity disorder" are used in the psychiatric and medical community to explain transgender and transsexual tendencies as a psychological condition and the reaction to its social consequences. Strictly speaking, gender dysphoria and gender identity disorder are considered to be mental illnesses, as recorded in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV), the standard for mental health care professionals. Because of the countless historical recordings of such behavior, however, there is strong debate as to whether they should actually be considered a mental illness at all. Most transgender people reject the idea, on the grounds that homosexuality was once considered to be a mental illness, and consider their being transgender as a simple variation of human behavior rather than a mental illness. [35] Some have argued in favor of the idea of "gender giftedness."

Many mental healthcare providers know little about transgender life. People seeking help from these professionals often end up educating the professional rather than receiving help.[36] Among those therapists who profess to know about transgender issues, many believe that transitioning from one sex to another — the standard transsexual model — is the best or only solution. This usually works well for those who are transsexual, but is not the solution for other transgender people, particularly cross-gender people who do not identify as plainly male or female.

Physical healthcare

Medical procedures for transgender people are available in most Western and many non-Western countries. These procedures include hormone replacement therapy and may also include sexual reassignment surgery (a.k.a. gender reassignment surgery). Although a strong wish for surgery is part of the psychiatric diagnosis [37], a number of transsexual people do not undergo SRS, for a variety of reasons. For transwomen, electrolysis or laser hair removal for hair removal is often desired, while many transmen have breast reduction surgery as early as possible.

Transgender and the law

Main article: Legal aspects of transsexualism
See also: Category:Transgender law

Many Western societies have procedures whereby an individual can change their name, and sometimes their legal gender, to reflect their gender identity. In some countries, an explicit formal diagnosis of transsexualism is necessary. In others, a diagnosis of gender identity disorder, or the fact that one has established a different gender role, can be sufficient for some or all of the legal recognition available.

Transgender and criticism

Characterisation as lifestyle choice

Gender roles are an important part of many cultures and those engaged in strong challenges to the prevalence of these roles, such as many transgender people, often face considerable prejudice.[38] Some people, more often politicians than medical professionals, have claimed that being transgender is merely "a choice and a lifestyle" (for example U.S. Rep. John Culberson, R-Texas[39]); in this context, it is usually seen as an extreme form of homosexuality.

Transgender and transsexual

Transsexual people who identify as transgender state that the word "transgender" places the emphasis on gender identity, not sexual orientation.[40] Transsexual people who do not identify as transgender state that an umbrella term marginalises them, or that they do not wish to be confused with other transgender identities. In an effort to respect those transsexual people who do not identify as transgender, the terms "trans", "trans*", or "transgender and transsexual" have been used to describe all transpeople.

People who have transitioned and do not identify as either transgender or transsexual state that someone who has transitioned is simply a man or a woman.[41]

People who criticise the term "transsexual" state that gender reassignment surgery makes people infertile and does not change their chromosomes, rendering the transition cosmetic, not fundamental.[42] This argument has been used to dispute transsexual women's identification and association with other women.[43] This argument is seen as biological determinism [40] and ignores other women who are infertile (e.g. women with Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome with XY chromosomes) or intersex (e.g. women with severe Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia).

Transgender people in non-Western cultures

See also: Category:Transgender in non-Western cultures

This article describes transgender in the West, but other cultures have or have had similar phenomena.

North America

In what is now the United States and Canada, many Native American and Canadian First Nations peoples recognised [44] the existence of more than two genders, such as the Zuñi male-bodied Ła'mana,[45] the Lakota male-bodied winkte [46] and the Mohave male-bodied alyhaa and female-bodied hwamee.[47] Such people were previously [48] referred to as berdache but are now referred to as Two-Spirit,[49] and their spouses would not necessarily have been regarded as gender-different.[47] In Mexico, the Zapotec culture includes a third gender in the form of the Muxe.[50]

Asia

In Thailand, the term kathoey is used to refer to male-to-female transgender people [51] and effeminate gay men.[52] The cultures of the Indian subcontinent include people who are assigned male at birth and who later live as a third gender, referred to as hijra [53] in Hindi. There is a long history of transgender people in the greater Chinese region, including the People's Republic of China, Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan. Since the mid-1980s, transsexual people in Iran have been officially recognized following a fatwa from Ayatollah Khomeini, and expected to undergo gender reassignment surgery.

Other

In early Medina, gender-variant [54] male-to-female Islamic people were acknowledged [55] in the form of the Mukhannathun. In Ancient Rome, the Gallae were castrated [56] followers of the Phrygian goddess Cybele and can be regarded as transgender in today's terms.[57][58]

Citations

  1. ^ "Layton, Lynne. In Defense of Gender Ambiguity: Jessica Benjamin. Gender & Psychoanalysis. I, 1996. Pp. 27-43". Retrieved 2007-03-06
  2. ^ Kotula, D (2002), "...The term transgender was popularized...in the 1970s..." in A Conversation with Dr. Milton Diamond from "in the Realm of the "Phallus Palace": the female to male transsexual". Pages 35-56, Alyson Books, Los Angeles. Retrieved on 2007-04-10.
  3. ^ Ekins, R., King, D. (2004) "...As far as we can see, Virginia first used the term 'transgenderal' in print in 1969..." Rethinking 'Who put the "Trans" in Transgender?' GENDYS 2004, The Eighth International Gender Dysphoria Conference, Manchester England. Retrieved on 2007-04-10.
  4. ^ Prince, V. (1969), Men Who Choose to be Women, Sexology, February, pp. 441-444. Use of the term "transgenderal".
  5. ^ Stryker, S. (2004), "...lived full-time in a social role not typically associated with their natal sex, but who did not resort to genital surgery as a means of supporting their gender presentation..." in Transgender from the GLBTQ: an encyclopedia of gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender and queer culture. Retrieved on 2007-04-10.
  6. ^ Ekins R., King D. (1997), "...When one of us (Ekins) founded the Transgender Archive in 1986, that title was chosen to reflect the wide base of the archive and that it was not confined to material relating to medical conditions..." in Blending Genders: Contributions to the Emerging Field of Transgender Studies from the International Journal of Transgenderism 1,1. Retrieved on 2007-04-10.
  7. ^ Ekins, R., King, D. (2004), "...The mid-1980s, in the United Kingdom, for instance, saw the establishing of groups that welcomed both transvestites and transsexuals and their partners...Rather than advocate one particular view on transgender, the aim was to embrace all views in a spirit of acceptance and mutual support..." Rethinking 'Who put the "Trans" in Transgender?' GENDYS 2004, The Eighth International Gender Dysphoria Conference, Manchester England. Retrieved on 2007-04-10.
  8. ^ Feinberg, L. (1992) Transgender Liberation: A Movement Whose Time Has Come, published by World View Forum, New York, ISBN-10: 0895671050, ISBN-13: 978-0895671059.
  9. ^ Feinberg, L. (1997) Transgender Warriors : Making History from Joan of Arc to Dennis Rodman, published by Beacon Press ISBN-10: 0807079413, ISBN-10: 0807079413.
  10. ^ Boswell, H. (1991) "...The transgenderist, whether crossing over part-time or full even while masking their genital incongruity gives honest expression to a reality that defies cultural norms..." The Transgender Alternative, Chrysalis Quarterly, 1 (2): 29-31.
  11. ^ NCTE, (2003) Mission Statement "...The National Center for Transgender Equality is a national social justice organization devoted to ending discrimination and violence against transgender people through education and advocacy on national issues of importance to transgender people. By empowering transgender people and our allies to educate and influence policymakers and others, NCTE facilitates a strong and clear voice for transgender equality in our nation's capital and around the country..." National Center for Transgender Equality. Retrieved on 2007-04-10.
  12. ^ PFC, (1995) Mission Statement 1995 "...Press for Change is a political lobbying and educational organisation, which campaigns to achieve equal civil rights and liberties for all transsexual and transgender people in the U.K. through legislation and social change..." Press For Change. Retrieved on 2007-04-10.
  13. ^ Valentine, D. (2000) 'I know what I am': The Category 'Transgender' in the Construction of Contemporary U. S. American Conceptions of Gender and Sexuality." Ph. D. Dissertation, Anthropology Department, New York University, 2000.
  14. ^ Author unknown, (2004) "...Transgender, adj. Of, relating to, or designating a person whose identity does not conform unambiguously to conventional notions of male or female gender, but combines or moves between these..." Definition of transgender from the Oxford English Dictionary, draft version March 2004. Retrieved on 2007-04-07.
  15. ^ "USI LGBT Campaign - Transgender Campaign". Retrieved 2007-03-06.
  16. ^ Informed Consent 'Encyclopervia'
  17. ^ Landén, M., Wålinder, J. et al. (1996). Incidence and sex ratio of transsexualism in Sweden. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 93(4), 261–263.
  18. ^ Cromwell, Jason (1999):28 Transmen & FTMs: Identities, Bodies, Genders & Sexualities (Urbana and Chicago:University of Illinois Press).
  19. ^ a b APA task force (1994) "...There must be evidence of a strong and persistent cross-gender identification, which is the desire to be, or the insistence that one is of the other sex..." in DSM-IV: Sections 302.6 and 302.85 published by the American Psychiatric Association. Retrieved via Mental Health Matters on 2007-04-08.
  20. ^ World Health Organisation (1992) "...The desire to live and be accepted as a member of the opposite sex..." in ICD-10, Gender Identity Disorder, category F64.0 published by the World Health Organisation. Retrieved on 2007-04-09.
  21. ^ Docter, Richard F., Prince, Virginia (1997). Transvestism: A survey of 1032 cross-dressers. Archives of Sexual Behavior 26(6), 589-605.
  22. ^ Wilchins, Riki Anne (2002) ‘It’s Your Gender, Stupid’, pp.23-32 in Joan Nestle, Clare Howell and Riki Wilchins (eds.) Genderqueer: Voices from Beyond the Sexual Binary. Los Angeles:Alyson Publications, 2002.
  23. ^ Nestle, J. (2002) "...pluralistic challenges to the male/female, woman/man, gay/straight, butch/femme constructions and identities..." from Genders on My Mind, pp.3-10 in Genderqueer: Voices from Beyond the Sexual Binary, edited by Joan Nestle, Clare Howell and Riki Wilchins, published by Los Angeles:Alyson Publications, 2002:9. Retrieved on 2007-04-07.
  24. ^ Hale, J.C. (1998) "...[O]ur embodiments and our subjectivities are abjected from social ontology: we cannot fit ourselves into extant categories without denying, eliding, erasing, or otherwise abjecting personally significant aspects of ourselves . . . When we choose to live with and in our dislocatedness, fractured from social ontology, we choose to forgo intelligibility: lost in language and in social life, we become virtually unintelligible, even to ourselves..." from Consuming the Living, Dis(Re)Membering the Dead in the Butch/FTM Borderlands in the Gay and Lesbian Quarterly 4:311, 336 (1998). Retrieved on 2007-04-07.
  25. ^ Blumenfeld, W.J. (date unknown) "...full-time cross-dressers..., people who live and work in the other (of their physical anatomical) sex..." in A Glossary of Transgender Terms from OutProud, an American National Coalition for Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual & Transgender Youth. Retrieved on 2007-04-09.
  26. ^ Green, E & Peterson, E.N. (2006) "...Transgender – A person who lives as a member of a gender other than that expected based on anatomical sex...." in Trans and Sexuality Terminologies from Trans-academics. Retrieved on 2007-04-09.
  27. ^ Author and date unknown, "...Transgender (TG) - A person whose anatomical sex and gender identity are not congruent. They may live full-time in their self-identified gender role and may use hormone therapy but do not feel the need for SRS (Sex Reassignment Surgery)..." in A Glossary of Queer-Related Terms from Positive Images, an American community education resource and support group for Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgendered, Intersexed, Queer and Questioning youth and young adults. Retrieved on 2007-04-09.
  28. ^ Bakker, A; Acta Psychiatr Scand. The prevalence of transsexualism in The Netherlands
  29. ^ Xavier, J. (2007) "...transgenderists (persons living full-time in a gender opposite their birth sex with no desire to pursue surgery)..." in A Primer by Transgender Nation from the virtual library of PFLAG (Parents, Families and Friends of Lesbians and Gays). Retrieved on 2007-04-09.
  30. ^ Tobin, H.J (2003) "...It has become more and more clear that trans people come in more or less the same variety of sexual orientations as non-trans people..." Sexual Orientation from Sexuality in Transsexual and Transgender Individuals.
  31. ^ Blanchard, R. (1989) The classification and labeling of nonhomosexual gender dysphorias from Archives of Sexual Behavior, Volume 18, Number 4, August, 1989. Retrieved via SpringerLink on 2007-04-06.
  32. ^ APA task force (1994) "...For sexually mature individuals, the following specifiers may be noted based on the individual’s sexual orientation: Sexually Attracted to Males, Sexually Attracted to Females, Sexually Attracted to Both, and Sexually Attracted to Neither..." in DSM-IV: Sections 302.6 and 302.85 published by the American Psychiatric Association. Retrieved via Mental Health Matters on 2007-04-06.
  33. ^ Lev, A.I. (1998) "...As therapists working with clients struggling to attain a sense of gender integration, it is incumbent upon us to engage in thoughtful discussion of language with each person and not make assumptions about the meaning of words on their identity..." Transgender Lesbians? from Choices Counseling and Consulting, an American practice providing counseling on sexual, gender identity and other issues. Retrieved on 2007-04-06.
  34. ^ Goethals, S.C. and Schwiebert, V.L. (2005) "...counselors to rethink their assumptions regarding gender, sexuality and sexual orientation. In addition, they supported counselors' need to adopt a transpositive disposition to counseling and to actively advocate for transgendered persons..." Counseling as a Critique of Gender: On the Ethics of Counseling Transgendered Clients from the International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling, Vol. 27, No. 3, September 2005. Retrieved via SpringerLink on 2007-04-06.
  35. ^ http://www.transgender.org/gidr/
  36. ^ Brown, M.L. & Rounsley, C.A. (1996) True Selves: Understanding Transsexualism - For Families, Friends, Coworkers, and Helping Professionals Jossey-Bass: San Francisco ISBN 0787967025
  37. ^ APA task force (1994) "...preoccupation with getting rid of primary and secondary sex characteristics..." in DSM-IV: Sections 302.6 and 302.85 published by the American Psychiatric Association. Retrieved via Mental Health Matters on 2007-04-06.
  38. ^ Smith, G.A. (1998-ongoing) "...There is no safe way to be transgendered: as you look at the many names collected here, note that some of these people may have identified as drag queens, some as heterosexual crossdressers, and some as transsexuals. Some were living very out lives, and some were living fully stealth lives. Some were identifying as male, and some, as female. Some lived in small towns, and some in major metropolitan areas...Over the last decade, one person per month has died due to transgender-based hate or prejudice, regardless of any other factors in their lives. This trend shows no sign of abating..." from Remembering Our Dead, part of the Transgender Day of Remembrance, a project of Gender Education and Advocacy (GEA), an American national organization focused on the needs, issues and concerns of gender variant people in human society. The day is held on November 20th. The incomplete list is here. Retrieved on 2007-04-09.
  39. ^ Devlin, J. (2004-05-20). "Error in Webarchive template: Empty url.".
  40. ^ a b Califia, Patrick (2003) Sex Changes The Politics of Transgenderism,Cleis Press INC., California, ISBN 1-57344-180-5
  41. ^ Author and date unknown. "...For some, maintaining a link to their transness or their otherly-gendered-past is highly significant, while for others, they view themselves as no longer trans, but now fully as a man or woman..." Post transition identification as a man or ftm or other from FORGE (For Ourselves: Reworking Gender Expression), an American education, advocacy and support umbrella organization supporting FTMs and others. Retrieved 2007-04-03.
  42. ^ Bindel, J. (2004) "...I don't have a problem with men disposing of their genitals, but it does not make them women, in the same way that shoving a bit of vacuum hose down your 501s does not make you a man..." Gender benders, beware from the Guardian newspaper 2004-01-31. Retrieved 2007-04-03.
  43. ^ Raymond, Janice G. (1980) The Transsexual Empire Women's Press, London, ISBN 0704338572 (Pbk)
  44. ^ Fulton, R. and Anderson, S.W. (1992) The Amerindian "Man-Woman": Gender, Liminality, and Cultural Continuity in Current Anthropology: Vol. 33, No. 5, December 1992 pp. 603-610.
  45. ^ Parsons, E.P. (1916) "...of these 'men-women'..." from Zuñi Ła'mana in the American Anthropologist, New Series, Vol. 18, No. 4. (Oct. - Dec., 1916), pp. 521-528. Retrieved on 2007-05-21.
  46. ^ Schützer, M.A.N. (1994) Winyanktehca: Two-souls person, a paper presented to the European Network of Professionals in Transsexualism, August 1994
  47. ^ a b Parker, H.N. (2001) The myth of the heterosexual: anthropology and sexuality for classicists, from Arethusa 0004-0975, vol 34, p:313, 2001.
  48. ^ Stryker, S. Berdache, from the GLBTQ: an encyclopedia of gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender and queer culture.
  49. ^ Medicine, B. (2002) Directions in Gender Research in American Indian Societies: Two Spirits and Other Categories, taken from Online Readings in Psychology and Culture Center for Cross-Cultural Research, Unit 3, Chapter 2, Western Washington University.
  50. ^ Stephen, L (2002) Sexualities and Genders in Zapotec Oaxaca, Latin American Perspectives, Vol. 29, No. 2, pp. 41-59. Mar., 2002.
  51. ^ Jackson, P. (2003) Performative Genders, Perverse Desires: A Bio-History of Thailand's Same-Sex and Transgender Cultures in Intersections: Gender, History and Culture in the Asian Context, Issue 9, August 2003.
  52. ^ Winter, S. and Udomsak, N. (2002) Male, Female and Transgender : Stereotypes and Self in Thailand in the International Journal of Transgender, Volume 6, Number 1, January - March 2002.
  53. ^ Author unknown, (2003) Human Rights Violations against the Transgender Community: A study of kothi and hijra sex workers in Bangalore, India, full text,summary, by the Peoples’ Union for Civil Liberties, Karnataka (PUCL-K), September 2003. Retrieved on 2007-04-07.
  54. ^ Partial Translation of the Sunan Abu-Dawud, Book 41, Number 4910, USC-MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts, University of Southern California, translated by Prof. Ahmad Hasan.
  55. ^ Rowsen, E.K. (1991) "...They played an important role in the development of Arabic music in Umayyad Mecca and, especially, Medina, where they were numbered among the most celebrated singers and instrumentalists..." from The Effeminates of Early Medina in the Journal of the American Oriental Society 111 (1991), pp. 671-93. Retrieved on 2007-04-07.
  56. ^ Tillyard, E.M.W. (1917), A Cybele Altar in London, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 7 (1917), pp. 284-288.
  57. ^ Endres, N. Galli: Ancient Roman Priests from the GLBTQ: an encyclopedia of gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender and queer culture.
  58. ^ Brown, K. 20th Century Transgender History And Experience

See also


Template:Sexual Identities

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