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Editing of anime in distribution

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Editing of anime in American distribution describes the process of altering anime to prepare it to be distributed in the United States and forms part of the process of localization. The process is generally applied only to series intended for broadcast on American television; series released directly to DVD are not subject to such heavy alterations.

On top of the translation of dialog into English, this process commonly includes the censorship of audio/visual content to adhere to Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and television network regulations and standards and the editing of content not covered by FCC guideline in order to conform to American cultural norms, or to prepare it for distribution to a younger audience than was originally intended.

This type of editing may involve removing nudity or sexual innuendo, removing violent scenes and softening/removing profanity (standards for these in Japan are generally less conservative than in the USA, and audiences are often older) or the making of changes for reasons of political correctness in relation to race and religion.

The process may also include editing a product to remove reference to issues that are accepted by the Japanese public and US media law, but which might provoke controversy among parents or conservative groups in the US, or which might confuse viewers who are unfamiliar with Japanese culture. Edits of this type commonly include the substitution of place names, food, and cultural elements not found in the US. This may also include the changing/removal of titles, character names, and honorifics and the removing of issues such as marriages between cousins, non-pornographic depictions of homosexuality and references to Japan's view of events such as WWII. Opening and closing credits or scenes may be shortened to allow more time for advertisements in a television time slot.

This type of censorship is not unique to anime, and is also practiced against imports from other countries and even original US productions; Spider-Man: The Animated Series was heavily censored for violence by Fox[1] during the production process, and the Canadian series ReBoot was censored post production by American Broadcasting Company for sexual content and scenes that executives believed would promote incest.[2]

This type of censorship remains highly controversial among fans, many of whom feel that censorship tampers with art and interferes with anime's creators' artistic visions or belittles the audience by attempting to hide more adult themes from them.

History

The first few anime series to be brought to the United States were all bowdlerized for American audiences, with violence, deaths of major characters, sexual references, etc., completely edited out, since the audience of the anime was assumed to be made up of young children (over time, anime has moved its target audience from young children to young adults and teenagers). These titles included the earliest anime films to be brought to the US, in 1961 (and the first three feature films ever released by Toei Animation):[3]

The first anime series to be translated were not exempt:

Star Blazers (宇宙戦艦ヤマト, Uchū Senkan Yamato, Space Battleship Yamato) (1979) and Robotech (which was adapted from three separate series) (1985) broke this tradition by leaving in some of those elements and preserving the drama of the original. However, they still had heavily modified plots.

Founded in 1987, Streamline Pictures was the first North American company founded primarily for the intention of distributing translated anime uncut and faithful to the original content. Streamline Pictures founder Carl Macek had worked for Harmony Gold USA during the mid-1980s, most notably on Robotech.

In the early 1990s, several American anime companies began to experiment with licensing less children-oriented material. Some, such as A.D. Vision and Central Park Media, and its imprints, achieved fairly substantial commercial success and went on to become major players in the now very lucrative American anime market (although, as of late, companies such as A.D. Vision and Central Park Media have come under financial stress). Others, such as AnimEigo, achieved more limited success. Many companies created directly by Japanese parent companies did not do as well, most releasing only one or two titles before folding their American operations.

The localization and editing processes were far more common in the past, when anime was largely unheard of in the United States. However, in recent years, these processes have been used less because of the demand for anime in its original form. This "light touch" approach to localization and editing has proved popular with fans, as well as viewers formally unfamiliar with anime. The "light touch" approach also applies to DVD releases, as they often include both the English-dubbed audio version and the original Japanese audio version with subtitles, are often uncut, and lack commercials. anime that have edited television versions may have "uncut" DVDs (such as YuYu Hakusho).

In recent years, a change in audience demographics has led to a greater emphasis being placed on releasing (or re-releasing) anime with fewer changes, especially on DVD, where there are fewer content limitations. Often, these releases (such as the Disney releases of Studio Ghibli productions) include both English-dubbed versions and the original Japanese versions, usually with subtitles.

Direct censorship

Political correctness

File:29-08-u.jpg
The edited version of the second Yu-Gi-Oh! series.
File:29-08-j.jpg
The uncensored version of Yu-Gi-Oh! Duel Monsters containing a hexagram (used in occultism).

Due to cultural differences between America and Japan, some anime contains images that are publicly acceptable in Japanese society, but which are considered politically incorrect in the US, or which carry connotations of racism or ethnic stereotyping in the US which do not exist in Japanese culture.

Examples include an ancient Sanskrit religious symbol known as the manji, (representing "life, sun, power, strength, and good luck", and sometimes referred to as the “footsteps of the Buddha”) which was airbrushed out of series like Shaman King because it is commonly associated with the Nazism (see swastika). In some cases however, disclaimers have been included explaining the situation to readers. For example, the manga Blade of the Immortal, in which the protagonist of the series wears this symbol.

Religious symbols are also commonly airbrushed out if they appear in a context that is not acceptable in the US. Religious terminology is often removed from dialog for the same reason.

For example representations of the Christian cross were airbrushed out of Pokémon and One Piece, while references to Heaven and Hell were replaced with "HFIL (Home for Infinite Losers)" in Dragon Ball Z and Dragon Ball GT. Demonic imagery is also commonly removed or toned down, as are uses of pentagrams, because of their religious meanings, especially their association with Satanism.

The word "Bible" has also been removed from the covers of Bibles and names of certain monsters with religious origins are also commonly changed.

In the series Mobile Fighter G Gundam, a major plotline involves an annual competition in which each country builds a Gundam to battle those of other nations with the winning country gaining rulership over the world until the next competition. In order to show their origins, many of the Gundam designs are based on ethnic/cultural stereotypes (America's Gundam resembles a football player, Mexico's Gundam bears a giant turbine in the shape of a sombrero on its head, etc). For the official English language release of the show, Bandai/Sunrise ordered several of the Gundams to be renamed for the English language market with names that downplayed the stereotypes. Bandai employees have also implied that at one point the decision was almost made to completely remove the idea from the English dub that each Gundam specifically represented a country. However, this did not come to pass.

Censorship of recreational drugs, alcohol, and tobacco products

File:Ep001farmersnocigi.png
The edited version of the Dragon Ball Z
File:Ep001farmerscigj.jpg
The unedited version, depicting smoking

Due to FCC regulations and US social factors, alcohol and tobacco products are commonly airbrushed out of anime in the United States, or are replaced with more acceptable soft variations. However, the exact level of censorship varies between television networks and often depends on the target audience of the anime and the context in which the products appear. Wine or champagne may be acceptable in banquet or restaurant scenes and might escape censorship, while beer or saké consumed on the street might not for example, in Tenchi Muyo!, references to sake were substituted for tea, and cigarettes were airbrushed out when it screen on Cartoon Network's Toonami, but were left in when the series broadcast on KTEH. Naruto, however, was edited for a slightly more mature audience; consequently, the bridge builder was shown drinking alcohol, though kanji on the bottle and the redness in his cheeks were removed to lessen the effect of the scene. The Third Hokage was also shown smoking a pipe, while Asuma is shown smoking a cigarette. In the Cartoon Network airing of Ruroni Kenshin, Saito, a character who is commonly seen smoking cigarettes, instead is depicted with a toothpick in his mouth - sometimes resulting in some inconsistency when in some scenes he takes a drag of what appears to be a toothpick and somehow exhales smoke.

In the Toonami versions of Mobile Suit Gundam and Mobile Suit Gundam 0080 bottles had the word "SODA" applied to them to show that they were not alcohol, and direct references to alcoholic drinks were substituted for references to drinks such as coffee. In the anime One Piece, Dr. Kureha was drinking a bottle of alcohol, but the dialog was changed to state that it was "bug juice". Another character from One Piece named Sanji is commonly seen smoking a cigarette, though in the English dub, the cigarette is replaced with a lollipop.

Violence, death, and weapons

File:Sd helmeppo.jpg
One Piece. The original Japanese version is on the right (with a villain, Helmeppo, threatening another character, Coby, with a handgun), while the censored version is on the left (with Helmeppo holding a hammer attached to a spring.)

The hypodermic needle model holds that people who are exposed to violence through media, especially during childhood, will be desensitized to violence and violent acts. Because of this, anime that is released for children in the US is often modified to remove violence, death, and weapons, particularly if the series is aimed at key markets like the 6-11 boy demographic. This can be problematic, as anime produced in this age range often involve martial arts, war, and deadly combat.

Commonly, the censorship of violence is done by removing the exact moment when a physical attack, such as a punch or kick, connects with a person. In some cases this is achieved by airbrushing the scene to include a caption or object (such as an explosion or movement lines) over the point of impact, or by flashing the screen so that the impact is never seen. In other cases, the frames containing the connecting blow are removed and the frames immediately before and after it are extended to procure a slow motion or comic book frame effect.

Under the same principle, weapons are also commonly airbrushed to take a less threatening form, and blood is either airbrushed out or covered with bandages. Where this is considered impractical or too time consuming, an entire scene might be deleted, leading to fights appearing highly contracted, or series missing details that are referenced later on.

For example, the Pokémon episode "The Legend of Dratini" was entirely deleted because of the prolific use of guns being pointed and shot at characters. This caused much confusion as the missing episode explained how Ash captured 30 Tauros.

Plots are often changed to explain the absence of a deceased character by other means. For example, in the original version of Sonic X Maria Robotnik was killed by G.U.N. soldiers, but she was "captured" in the censored version, and in One Piece, the death of the character Kuina, which inspired Zoro's vow to the greatest swordsman in the world, was changed to a crippling injury that kept her from fighting.

In some censored shows death is also either never mentioned, or referenced in some other way; words such as "kill" were substituted for "destroy" in the Gundam series. In early seasons of Dragon Ball Z, they had voice actors do nothing but breathe heavily so that a pile of dead civilians seemed like a pile of civilians that had been simply beaten up. In Saber Rider, the death of enemy foot soldiers was removed by having them teleport to their own dimension rather than die. In Battle of the Planets, voice overs were added telling the audience that cities were evacuated prior to their destruction, and the dialog was altered to implicitly describe all combatants as being robot soldiers. The afterlife, Heaven, and Hell, are called by different names: the "Shadow Realm" in Yu-Gi-Oh! (Also used as a concept to substitute character death for banishment) or "Another Dimension" in early episodes of Dragon Ball Z.

As the teen, young adult, and DVD market becomes more important, a greater number of anime are now adapted without significant cuts to the violence and some networks devoted to animation such as the Cartoon Network are now increasingly setting aside time slots in the evening and at night for uncut or lightly cut anime.

Although not supported across the board, the principle under which this type of censorship it done it has been supported experimentally (for example, by the Bobo doll experiment conducted by Albert Bandura), and the media is widely believed to have some impact on behavior by parents and family groups.

Swearing and profanity

While anime intended for a young audience or for television broadcasting in the US does not include profanities, and broadcast anime is routinely censored if it does contain them, this form of censorship is among the least common.

As in the US, Japanese series targeted at school age children rarely use overtly strong language. However, translators producing English-language fansubs are often known to use stronger interpretations for certain words, common resulting in the incorrect impression that the original version of the anime contains notably stronger language than its English counterpart. Most prominently, the commonly-used word "kuso" (糞) is an expression of discontent with a situation; it is regularly translated by fansubbers as "shit." For a series targeted at school-age children, this is not an appropriate English equivalent, as "shit" is considered a taboo word, while "kuso" is not.

Nudity and sexuality

File:Ep004-d2.jpg
The censored version of Sailor Moon (if one notices, there is not as much reflection in the water, and the distance between her and where the reflection begins is greater).
File:Ep004-s7.jpg
The uncensored version, containing cleavage.

Although Japan has laws governing indecency, they are much more relaxed than US laws and the display of breasts and young boys' genitals is both permitted and common in anime, as is non-sexual nudity that is included in context (for example, mild nudity during bathing). However, nudity of any kind is far more stigmatized in the US, and is not permitted on broadcast television prior to the watershed (not between the hours of 6 a.m. and 10 p.m.), even if shown in context, and so must be removed from broadcast anime.

In some series like Dragon Ball Z, nudity is concealed by painting in foreground objects to hide exposed parts of characters' bodies. In others, such as Tenchi Muyo!, bathing suits have been airbrushed on to hide nudity and additional clothing has been digitally painted on to help make clothing less revealing.

Mention of sex is also commonly toned down to just "hugs and kisses." Scenes of male characters that have perverted natures may be toned down too. One example of this is with the Dragon Ball character Master Roshi; many of his lines were changed to remove or tone down adult references.

Due to US media owners sensibilities, suggested nudity is also commonly censored, often by airbrushing. For example in the US release of Sailor Moon all of the female leads (except for Moon and Chibi-Moon) were airbrushed to remove the lines tracing their breasts during transformation scenes, even though the characters were shown in silhouette form only.

A nosebleed in Japan indicates sexual arousal and is a visual euphemism for an erection. However, it is often edited out of anime because American audiences would simply not understand the implication.

In recent[citation needed] years however, attitudes as to what is considered acceptable have begun to become more relaxed, with some networks allowing the screening limited rear view nudity of males and prepubescent females in non-sexual contexts (for example, Turner's screening of female rear section nudity the bathing scene in My Neighbor Totoro). Where permitted, male rear view nudity remains more common than female rear section nudity.

When Sci Fi Channel showed anime like Fatal Fury: The Motion Picture, most scenes with nudity like Mai Shiranui's exposed backside and her breasts were blurred.

Censorship of homosexuality

In Japan, views on sexuality and a tradition of celebrating strong male-male bonds (See shudo) mean that there is less prejudice against homosexuals (particularly male homosexuals) in Japan than in the US.[4][5] This level of social acceptance means that anime, including many series aimed at children, often includes male and/or female homosexuals as recurring characters. However, there is still considerable social stigma attached to homosexuality in the US, particularly where children's entertainment is concerned, and there is a strong association between homosexuality and sexual acts. Due to this, anime containing homosexual characters is often heavily censored through plot changes, dialog editing, and the deletion of scenes. Where such edits are not possible or practical, the entire anime may be considered unsuitable for broadcast television and never imported.

Examples include the American version of Sailor Moon in which lesbian characters Sailor Neptune and Sailor Uranus, were changed to "cousins" to cover up the fact that they were a romantic couple,[6] and some scenes that could not be explained away by their new relationship were cut.[citation needed] The character Zoicite was also changed to a woman in order to conceal his relationship with the character Malachite. The character Fisheye was also changed to a woman because he would impersonate women to seduce men to obtain the type of energy he and the other villains of that particular story-arc needed.

Censorship usually occurs even in cases when homosexual characters do not make sexual contact with one another on screen. Toya and Yukito's relationship was completely removed from Cardcaptor Sakura despite them never being openly referred to as homosexual, and despite them never having any sexually intimate moments (they were never even pictured holding hands).

In some instances, censorship on the grounds of homosexuality has taken place even when no homosexual relationship exists. For example, Syaoran Li's attraction to the power of the moon contained within Yukito Tsukishiro in Cardcaptor Sakura, was deleted on the grounds that it could be construed as homosexuality.

Similar censorship is applied to conceal transgenderism. For example, in Battle of the Planets a key villain with a male and female alter ego was divided into two separate characters, while in Sailor Moon, the character Sailor Uranus, who frequently dressed and acted as a male, was toned down by dialog edits and scene changes.

Censorship of underage sexual images

In 1996, the Child Pornography Prevention Act (CPPA) was put in place, expanding a federal ban on child pornography from including only pornographic images including real children, to include any images, including computer-generated images, which appear to show minors engaged in sexually explicit conduct. The act defined a minor as any person being, or appearing to be, under the age of 18.

Many US distributors solved this problem by changing the ages of the anime characters to 18 or older. Altering dialog to move characters from high-school to college (thus raising their age ceiling), or by amending character back story to indicate that they were over 18, but remained in high school for some reason (an extended period illness or injury, lack of study, time spent traveling). Others complied with the law by removing adult scenes, or airbrushing them to include towels, swimsuits or clothes, (the so called "digital bra/bikini" method).

In 2002 the US Supreme court ruled that the 1996 act violated the first amendment "The (Act) also prohibits speech having serious redeeming value, proscribing the visual depiction of an idea -- that of teenagers engaging in sexual activity -- that is a fact of modern society and has been a theme in art and literature for centuries." [5] in Ashcroft v. Free Speech Coalition and Ashcroft v. American Civil Liberties Union thus being unconstitutional.

Although Japan also has laws governing the use of underage imagery its laws define a lower range limit for the purposes of child pornography. Japan also has a more relaxed attitude towards nudity that separates contextual nudity (bathing, transformation sequences) from sexual nudity (physical sexual contact or nudity for the purpose of arousing the audience).

Non-censorship modification

Plot modification

Plots have been sometimes changed to American distributors' likings.

In the case of Robotech, one part of the three-part series, The Super Dimension Fortress Macross, was originally aired in Japan as a weekly series. Harmony Gold USA, the American company that produced Robotech [6], decided to combine it with two other weekly series, The Super Dimension Cavalry Southern Cross and Genesis Climber Mospeada, in order to make a show that had enough episodes to market it as a daily series on American syndicated television.

It is also possible to change the plot of anime through dialogue. An example of this is in the show YuYu Hakusho in the final fight between Yusuke Urameshi and the Younger Toguro. We see the faces of Yusuke and Toguro, and they are talking. In a shot of Yusuke, we see his girlfriend, Kayko Yukimura, in the background. The dialogue between Yusuke and Toguro, in which Yusuke talks about how he and Kayko will grow old together, is added in the English version.

Cultural streamlining

File:Onigiri05e.jpg
The edited version of Pokémon. Ash Ketchum is carrying a submarine sandwich.
File:Onigiri05j.jpg
The unedited version. Satoshi is carrying an Onigiri, a food item unfamiliar to most Americans.

In order to allow easier access to American audiences, anime is commonly modified to state or imply that it takes place within the United States or a fictionalized country with a culture that resembles America's own. This is commonly achieved by substituting Japanese elements in a series for elements drawn from American popular culture, modifying food or other products to resemble their American equivalents, and by replacing Japanese writing with English.

Examples include Street Fighter II: The Animated Movie in which the Japanese newspaper at the end of the feature is changed to the New York Times newspaper, the early episodes of Dragon Ball in which Japanese currency is changed to US dollars.

Although once common, recent years have seen a decline this process, as American audiences have come to identify various aspects of Japanese and Asian culture as "exotic," and they have actually become factors which attract them to the show. This trend has been mirrored in original North American animation, with series such as Hi Hi Puffy AmiYumi, Xiaolin Showdown, American Dragon: Jake Long, Shuriken School, Yin Yang Yo and more being constructed around aspects of Asian culture due to its current popularity. Consequently, fewer companies are carrying out the process of eliminating such aspects in anime.

Despite this trend, however, some companies, 4Kids Entertainment in particular, continues to heavily edit most of its productions in order to remove non-American elements.

Audience stereotyping

Some series have been heavily edited in order to comply to American audience stereotypes, either to add elements that increase the series appeal to a key demographic, or to remove elements that may detract from that demographic. For example, in order to attract male audience in the 6 to 9 age range, the company who distributed the US release of Card Captor Sakura (a series originally aimed primarily at a female audience) Warner brothers, retitled the series Cardcaptors (note: plural and non gender specific) and deleted the first 8 episodes of the first series in order to give a male sub-character equal status to the original female lead. It also deleted every episode from the show's continuity that did not sufficiently feature the male character. To this end, most elements of romance were also removed from the series,thus, damaging the plot. Including the 3 romance based subplots that formed much of the shows appeal to female demographics. However, all 70 episodes aired in other countries, such as Australia, United Kingdom (But only on its first run, the second was in US order) and Canada, albeit still titled Cardcaptors.

In some cases, changes made to fit with audience demographics can be so pronounced that they result in the production of a second unique series. For example, in order to take advantage of the popularity of space themed features among 6-9 year old boys that was created by the 1977 release of Star Wars, footage was taken from 85 of the 105 episodes of Gatchaman and heavily modified to create the new series Battle of the Planets.[7] Whereas Gatchaman was a dark series set on Earth and containing a heavy environmental protection message, its American counterpart was a light space based series which contained none of the original environmental message and was aimed at a younger audience.

Modification of opening and closing credits

File:Japanese Digimon Logo.jpg
The Japanese logo for Digimon: Digital Monsters.
File:LOGODIGIMON.jpg
English version logo for Digimon.

Changing the visuals of the opening and closing credits is common for demographic reasons, and to allow for the names of US-based production staff and voice actors to be included. Credits may be completely remade, replaced with an English language version of the original credits, or retained but with a unique English language musical score.

When Cardcaptor Sakura was dubbed, its primary demographic was changed from female to male, necessitating the complete replacement of its romance based credits (both audio and visual) with a more masculine alternative (though the Australian version retains the original opening with English words dubbed over the Japanese words), but when Neon Genesis Evangelion was broadcast (a show aimed at the same demographic - young adults and teenagers - in America and Japan, and at existing anime fans), the Japanese credits were retained in full, but with the addition of English and romaji lyrics being displayed on alternating episodes.

In many cases, credits are also altered for commercial reasons. Typical Japanese opening credits are 90 seconds long, and closing credits are about 60 seconds long. Shortening the credits to 30-60 seconds allows more time to be made available for advertisements.

Taking out eyecatches

An eyecatch is a scene or illustration used to begin and end a commercial break in a Japanese television program, especially in anime and tokusatsu programs, similar to how "commercial bumpers" into/out of commercial breaks are used in the United States.

Anime shown on television most frequently, if not always, have their eyecatches removed, an exception being Pokémon's "Who's that Pokémon" sequence. Eyecatches were also commonly left intact for the Cartoon Network run of Cowboy Bebop.

Modification of long titles

Sometimes companies, notably FUNimation Entertainment, will change the titles of episodes, specials, movies, or other things, because Japanese titles are sometimes much longer than English titles, because the titles do not clearly summarize the content, or because the title spoils what would otherwise be a surprising moment.

For example, the Dragon Ball GT special is, in Japanese, "Goku Sidestory!: The Proof of His Courage is the Si Xing Qiu," so it was changed to "A Hero's Legacy." Also, the thirteenth episode of Yu-Gi-Oh! is, in Japanese, "Morphing Jar's Trap: Flame Swordsman in Danger," although that action took place in one turn of the card game, equalling to less than a minute, so it was changed to "Evil Spirit of the Ring," describing the evil side of Ryo Bakura, Dark Bakura, who was dueling Dark Yugi.

The nicknames of series are sometimes used as the English titles. For example, the manga of Kareshi Kanojo no Jijō is published in English under its nickname, Kare Kano, instead of the literal translation His and Her Circumstances (which is used as the title of the anime). Saikano is the official English title of Saishū Heiki Kanojo ("She, the Ultimate Weapon" or "Ultimate Weapon Girlfriend").

Words and phrases that do not translate elegantly might be paraphrased. For example, the martial arts tournament that the characters in Dragon Ball, Dragon Ball Z and Dragon Ball GT participate in, the "Tenkaichi Budokai" (literally the "Foremost Under Heaven Martial Arts Tournament"), was changed to just the "World Tournament" or "World Martial Arts Tournament."

Untranslated titles

Sometimes, the titles of shows or other names are not translated.

Shows notable for this include YuYu Hakusho (although the show logo has the subtitle "Ghost Files," which is one translation of it; one of the two movies, done by a different studio from that of the show, U.S. Manga Corps, was translated to "Poltergeist Report"), Yu-Gi-Oh! (which translates to "The King of Games", or more accurately, "Game King"). and Fushigi Yūgi (literally "Mystery Game" but usually rendered "Mysterious Play", or "Curious Play" as aired on Animax in South Asia). This is not seen as often as one might expect, often because the original Japanese titles are in English, as is the case with Fruits Basket, One Piece, Perfect Blue, and .hack//SIGN (although, technically, the Romanized forms of the titles would be an attempt at pronouncing the English words), or because the title of shows are the names of the shows's main characters, as in Naruto or Lupin III.

Other things are sometimes not translated: the card in Yu-Gi-Oh! was merely shortened to "Jinzo" ("artificial" or "man-made") in America, from the original name "Jinzoningen ('cyborg' or "android') Psycho Shocker".

Modification of names and titles

Sometimes, the titles of shows and names of characters are completely changed.

The Japanese series "Konjiki no Gash bell!" had its name changed to "Zatch Bell" due to the gore connotations with the word "gash" which means a wound inflicted with a sharp object. In doing so, the title character Gash Bell had his name changed to Zatch Bell. Other character name changes in the show included changing "Tio" to "Tia", "Suzume" to "Suzy", "Kiyomaro" to "Kiyo", "Reira" to "Laila", and "Zophise" to "Zofis" (most of these cases were to shorten the names or to make them seem more American).

Another example, the show Case Closed was, in Japanese, Detective Conan, and the first English version of Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind was called Warriors of the Wind (although later Disney released it with the original Japanese title).

Sometimes character names are changed to "American" names to make them more familiar and memorable. For example, much of the casts of Yu-Gi-Oh! and Pokémon were renamed (Mazaki Anzu became Téa Gardner, Satoshi became Ash Ketchum). On the other hand, sometimes the changes are less drastic. For example, in Digimon Adventures, the characters' original names were shortened to nicknames (Ishida Yamato became "Matt" Ishida, Yagami Hikari became "Kari" Kamiya), and in Shaman King, Horohoro states that his nickname is Trey Racer.

In Disney's release of Studio Ghibli's Laputa: Castle in the Sky, the film was retitled Castle in the Sky, because "la puta" is extremely offensive in Spanish (translating into "the whore"). Hayao Miyazaki, the writer and director of the film, named the movie (and the titular castle located in the sky) after the fictional flying island of Laputa in Jonathan Swift's satirical novel Gulliver's Travels, and remarked that if he knew of the meaning of the word, he would not have used it. It is very possible that Swift knew of its meaning and intentionally used it because of that.[8]

Almost the entire cast of Sailor Moon were given Americanized names, especially if their Japanese names could not be modified easily. For example, "Usagi," the main character whose name translates to "bunny" or "rabbit" was renamed "Serena." However, Sailor Mercury, whose Japanese name is "Ami" was simply called "Amy" in the American release.

Modification the spellings of names and titles

Some names of characters have been changed because those characters's names were trademarked:

More rarely, a company might decide to change the romanization of Japanese names, so that the names can be more easily read by English-speaking viewers. For example, "Keiko Yukimura" became "Kayko Yukimura" on the show YuYu Hakusho. In all versions of Dragon Ball, Dragon Ball Z, and Dragon Ball GT, "Yamucha" (which is the Japanese rendering of the Cantonese term "Yum cha") was romanized as "Yamcha" possibly because the "u" in the name is an epenthetic vowel not found in the original Chinese pronunciation, and in the anime "Kuririn" was changed to "Krillin" for ease of pronunciation.[citation needed]

Anglicisation of pronunciation

The English language has rules for the phonetics reading of words written in the Latin alphabet. Based on those patterns, when people see a new word, they pronounce it in a certain way. Sometimes, the pronunciations of names and titles in anime are just the default native English pronunciations of the romanized titles, even if those pronunciations are different from the original Japanese pronunciations. For example, the "ur" in the name of the character Kurama in YuYu Hakusho is pronounced in the English version by FUNimation Entertainment to rhyme with the "ur" in "churn" (resulting in /kɚˈɹama/). But, in actuality, there is no "ur as in churn" sound in Japanese; it would be pronounced /kɯɺ̠ama/.

Music

Music is sometimes added to moments of silence, as in several English-language versions of Studio Ghibli features. While it is common in Japanese films and anime to have silent moments of reflection (or moments with only faint background noise for the same effect), it is not widely encountered in their American counterparts.

Music is sometimes replaced entirely, as it was in Dragon Ball Z, Dragon Ball GT, Yu-Gi-Oh! second series, Zatch Bell!, One Piece, and Pokémon (Many current episodes of Pokémon such as the Battle Frontier and Diamond & Pearl series has edited out some of the original musics composed by Shinji Miyazaki, which were the ones that can be heard in the one of the video games, with the exceptions of more interesting musics. They sometimes replace the songs of Pokemon with non-relating musics made by 4Kids and TAJ Productions). Other times, Japanese dialogue in theme songs is replaced with English (such as in YuYu Hakusho and Dragon Ball), or the theme music is replaced or altered, but the background music remains unchanged (as formerly seen in Naruto). In some cases, all of the music is completely unchanged (as in most of the Gundam series, Bleach, and currently Naruto). More dubbing companies have begun to use the original music, as it is usually preferred. One example is FUNimation. It had already released the entire Dragon Ball Z series and are currently releasing season box sets with the English audio and the original Japanese music. Fullmetal Alchemist was also released with its original music.

Expansion of dialogue

Lines of dialogue may be added that were not in the original to clarify certain concepts or scenes. For instance, in the anime Naruto, the kunai is often called a "kunai knife." In the film Spirited Away, the first time Chihiro sees the bath house in the English version, she says to herself, "It's a bath house." However, in the original version, she said nothing, as the Japanese audience would be expected to recognize what it was.

English dubbing

See also: Lip sync § Language dubbing

While it only makes sense that, in any language, the more information that is conveyed in speech, the more syllables it takes to convey that information (in other words, in all languages, the number of syllables it takes to convey information is at least somewhat proportional to the amount of information conveyed), it is unlikely that the same information spoken in two different languages will result in the same number of syllables it takes to convey that information.

When dubbing in English, the voice-overs have to either go by the number of mouth movements in the anime, or edit the video to modify the movements.

Therefore, it is almost always impossible to make the English scripts in anime to be the "direct" translations of the original, Japanese versions (the type of translation found in the subtitles of the Japanese versions on DVD's). So, the script has to be altered.

Getting uncut anime to the public unofficially

Fansubs

Main article: Fansub

A fansub (short for fan-subtitled) is a version of a foreign film or foreign television program which has been translated and subtitled by fans into a language other than that of the original. It is most commonly used to refer to fan-translated anime that is shared amongst other fans.

Anime comparison sites

Some individuals or small groups who have had access to the original, uncut, Japanese versions and the edited, English versions of anime have created internet sites comparing and contrasting those versions, to show the public what is missing from the edited version.

Current American companies licensing anime

Main article: Anime licensing

Most anime produced for the United States today is left uncut, but almost all uncut anime is only released on DVD; many anime series shown on television, such as One Piece, are still edited. That being said, most major distribution companies leave anime completely uncut, although they may make edited versions for television, as is the case with the show YuYu Hakusho and Naruto.

Here is a list of some of the major American anime companies today. NOTE: This list is based off the list found on Wikipedia's article List of anime companies [last updated on October 28, 2006].

Controversy

Many anime fans object to this editing on artistic grounds, claiming that modifying elements of the original stories amounts to tampering with works of art. Additionally, many fans feel that they do not get the genuine Japanese cultural learning experience they might have gotten had the anime been left uncut. Some fans object because editing is usually done without consulting the original creators of the anime that are edited. On the other hand, many fans are just glad to have anime in the United States and would rather have edited anime than no anime at all.

After several years of petitioning, 4Kids Entertainment released uncensored versions of Yu-Gi-Oh! and Shaman King on DVD. In addition to containing scenes originally cut from the features, the new versions contained the original music, Japanese language tracks and new English language tracks with unlocalized dialog that more closely matched the original Japanese dialog. [9]

These unedited DVDs sold poorly, being purchased only by a subset of fans within the wider anime market. Fans also contend that the uncut DVDs were poorly promoted, being pushed as a niche item within the franchise, rather than as a mainstream franchise in themselves. [10] Indeed, by the time that the unedited DVDs were released, both Yu-Gi-Oh! and Shaman King had been running on television in their localized forms for several years, and had been released in that format for years as well. [11]

The first two volumes of Yu-Gi-Oh were released uncut in 2004, and the third volume was released in 2005. Two volumes of Shaman King were released uncut. After time both projects were canceled. [12]

Despite the poor reaction to the uncut versions of Yu-Gi-Oh and Shaman King in the USA, other uncensored franchises have fared better. In 2005, Optimum Asia began releasing the Studio Ghibli collection in Europe with a Japanese audio track and an uncensored subtitle stream in addition to a censored English language audio track provided by Walt Disney. The collection was a commercial success, and was particularly notable because it included a subtitle only version of Only Yesterday, which had previously been deemed unsuitable for release in the US because it made references to menstruation.

One Piece made many fans furious for its extreme edits, including changing the music, cutting out entire story arcs (sometimes for no apparent reason) that leave plotholes in the series, adding in jokes and puns to make the show more childish, and making serious moments more silly. Funimation has acquired the exclusive American rights to dub One Piece as of April 2007.[13]

Editing of anime has also proven ineffective, as even edited anime still tends to be criticized by moral conservatives. The Parents Television Council has criticized imported anime programming on Cartoon Network for contributing to the violence and sexuality on the network as well as television in general, claiming it to be "morally ambiguous and dominated by violence" [14] without regards to its censorship. It also criticized the heavily censored 4Kids Entertainment dub of Shaman King for violence [15] and the "wide spectrum" of anime offerings available in America, from family-friendly material like My Neighbor Totoro to the more sexually explicit hentai genre, as PTC columnist Rod Gustafson claims that it contributes to the increasingly immoral media targeting American youth.[16]

Not one frame cut

In some instances Japanese studios have refused to allow their work to be censored as a precondition of signing a US release contracts.

One example is Studio Ghibli, which allowed its catalog to be dubbed into English by Walt Disney, on the condition that no frames were removed or airbrushed, and that the dialog was not significantly changed.

As a result of this, Disney released uncensored version of all but two of Studio Ghibli's works that included partial nudity, death, violence and other more adult concepts/moments. The exceptions to this were Pom Poko in which Ghibli permitted a low level dialog change to remove references to testicles (replacing it with the more innocuous term "raccoon pouch"), and Only Yesterday which Disney decided not to release because it contained several references to menstruation that it was not permitted to censor (Only Yesterday was released in Canada, and in the UK under a different distribution label. Disney still maintains the US release rights).

Original creators' thoughts

The original creators of the anime that have been edited are usually not directly notified of the editing. It is up to the studios/copyright owners of anime as to whether or not to allow editing in their anime, and the ample number of anime edited for the United States would seem to indicate that the studios/copyright owners normally do not object.

There is, however, one case in which an original anime creator and studio have voiced objections to the editing process in their anime. Hayao Miyazaki is one of the most renowned anime feature film creators of all time, his film Spirited Away being the top-grossing film of all time in Japan and one of his previous films, Princess Mononoke, holding that same title some time before, before being replaced by Titanic. He and his studio, Studio Ghibli, objected when their film Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind was severely edited by New World Pictures in the mid-1980s and released under the new title Warriors of the Wind on video and shown on HBO. About one-quarter of the film was cut, its lead character "Nausicaa (Naushika)" renamed "Princess Zandra," and its storyline simplified somewhat. Additionally, the voice actors and actresses who dubbed the English dialog were not informed of the story's plotline so they could not play the parts adequately.[17]

Miyazaki and Studio Ghibli were aware of this editing to the film, and were very unhappy about it. They asked those who had viewed the edited version "to dismiss it from their minds." As a result of this experience, Studio Ghibli instituted a policy of never allowing a foreign company to edit any of its films prior to release in a new market. Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind was re-released, uncut, with its original title, by Disney, in 2005.

In February 2006, Cartoon Network aired Spirited Away (also produced by Studio Ghibli) with a TV-PG-V rating, as the film contained some graphic violence (one scene had a character covered in a considerable amount of blood). Due to Studio Ghibli's strict "no-edits" policy, Cartoon Network had to run the film uncut, and took a risk by showing the film during their Fridays children's block (with an encore the following Sunday evening). No problems came about, however, and Cartoon Network did not receive any complaints. Cartoon Network re-aired the film on March 18, 2006, during Toonami's "A Month of Miyazaki."

Along with this, Cartoon Network felt confident, and went with the showing of Princess Mononoke (also produced by Studio Ghibli), which was rated TV-14-V. The movie was uncut, including all blood and gore (including decapitations), with a few objectional words. It was aired during "A Month of Miyazaki." It has only aired in early morning timeslots since, and only on two occasions.

See also

References

  1. ^ Interview With John Semper
  2. ^ Van Bakiel, Roger. "Before Toy Story, there was... Reboot." Wired 5.03, March 1997.
  3. ^ a b Patten, Fred. Watching Anime, Reading Manga: 25 Years of Essays and Reviews. 1st. Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge Press, 2004.
  4. ^ McLelland, Mark (2005). Queer Japan from the Pacific War to the Internet Age. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. ISBN 0-7425-3787-0.
  5. ^ Watanabe, Tsuneo (1990). The Love of the Samurai: A Thousand Years of Japanese Homosexuality. Gay Men's Press. ISBN 0-85449-115-5. {{cite book}}: Text "coautors Iwata Jun'Ichi" ignored (help)
  6. ^ Sebert, Paul (2000-06-28). "Kissing cousins may bring controversy Cartoon Network juggles controversial topics contained in the "Sailor Moon S" series". The Daily Athenaeum Interactive. Retrieved 2007-02-21.
  7. ^ Gatchaman (TV), News Network
  8. ^ Hairston, Marc, "Laputa: The Story of the Name." Marc R. Hairston, University of Texas at Dallas. November, 1998. University of Texas at Dallas. 15 August, 2006.
  9. ^ "Yu-Gi-Oh! and Shaman King Unedited Details". Anime News Network. 2004-08-02. Retrieved 2007-07-30. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  10. ^ [1]
  11. ^ Pennington, Steven (2005-04-24). "Alfred R. Kahn (Interview)". Anime News Network. Retrieved 2007-07-30. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  12. ^ Rodriguez, Kevin T. (2005-06-18). "Finally! Uncut "Yu-Gi-Oh!" DVD's...Right?". AnimeCauldron.com. Yu-Gi-Oh! Uncensored. Retrieved 2007-07-30. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  13. ^ Funimation Acquires One Piece. Anime News Network. 2007-04-13. Accessed 2007-07-30.
  14. ^ Gildemeister, Christopher (2006-11-06). "Cable's New Kind of Family". Parents Television Council. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  15. ^ "Wolves in Sheep's Clothing: A Content Analysis of Children's Television" (PDF). Parents Television Council. 2006-03-02. Retrieved 2007-07-30. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  16. ^ Gustafson, Rod (2006-04-03). "From Family to Pornographic: The Spectrum of Anime". Parents Television Council. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  17. ^ What is wrong with "Warriors of the Wind"?, Nausicaa.net
  • Clements, Jonathan, and Helen McCarthy. "The Anime Encyclopedia: A Complete Guide to Japanese Animation Since 1917". Revised & Expaned Edition (2nd ed). Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge Press, 2006.
  • "Nausicaä of the Valley of Wind." The Hayao MIYAZAKI Web.
  • "Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)." Kaze no Tani no Naushika. The Hayao MIYAZAKI Web.

Sites that generally are opposed to anime editing

Anime uncensored/episode comparison sites

Sites that compare and contrast the original, uncut, Japanese versions and the edited English versions of anime (categorized by show).

Miscellaneous

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