Zhuge Liang

Template:Three Kingdoms infobox Template:Chinese name Zhuge Liang (181–234) was a chancellor of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history. He is often recognised as the greatest and most accomplished strategist of his era.

Often depicted wearing a robe and holding a hand fan made of crane feathers, Zhuge was not only an important military strategist and statesman; he was also an accomplished scholar and inventor. His reputation as an intelligent and learned scholar grew even while he was living in relative seclusion, earning him the nickname "Wolong" (臥龍; literally: "Crouching Dragon").

Zhuge is an uncommon two-character compound family name. His name – even his surname alone – has become synonymous with intelligence and strategy in Chinese culture.

Biography

Early life

Zhuge was born in Yangdu County, Langya Commandery (present-day Yinan County, Shandong). He was orphaned at an early age, and was raised by his uncle, Zhuge Xuan. He followed his uncle to live in Jing Province under Liu Biao later. After his uncle died, Zhuge and his brothers settled in Longzhong (in present-day Hubei) for the next ten years or so, leading simple peasant lives – farming by day and studying at night. Zhuge's two older sisters married members of influential clans with strong connections in the region.

The Temple of the Marquis of Wu in Chengdu, a temple worshipping Zhuge Liang.

Zhuge enjoyed reciting Liangfu Yin (梁父吟), a folk song popular in Shandong, his birthplace. He also liked to compare himself to Guan Zhong and Yue Yi, two famous historical figures. He developed close friendships with members of the local literati, such as Xu Shu, Cui Zhouping, Meng Jian and Shi Tao, who recognized his talent. Zhuge also maintained close relations with other well known intellectuals, such as Sima Hui, Pang Degong and Huang Chengyan. Huang once told Zhuge, "I heard that you're seeking a spouse. I've an ugly daughter with a yellow face and dark complexion, but her talent matches yours." Zhuge agreed and married Huang's daughter.

Joining Liu Bei

At that time, Liu Bei resided at Xinye while he was taking shelter under Jing Province's governor, Liu Biao. Liu Bei visited Sima Hui, who told him, "Confucian academics and common scholars, how much do they know about current affairs? Those who analyze current affairs well are elites. Crouching Dragon and Young Phoenix are the only ones in this region." Xu Shu later recommended Zhuge to Liu Bei again, and Liu wanted to ask Xu to invite Zhuge to meet him. However, Xu replied, "You must visit this man in person. He cannot be invited to meet you." Liu succeeded in recruiting Zhuge in 207 after paying three personal visits.^[I] Zhuge presented the Longzhong Plan to Liu and left his residence to follow Liu. Since then, Liu became very close to Zhuge and often had discussions with him. Guan Yu and Zhang Fei were not pleased and complained. Liu explained, "Now that I've Kongming, it's just like a fish getting into water. I hope you'll stop making unpleasant remarks." Guan and Zhang then stopped complaining.

Battle of Red Cliffs

Main article: Battle of Red Cliffs

In 208, Liu Biao died and was succeeded by his younger son, Liu Cong, who surrendered Jing Province to Cao Cao. When Liu Bei heard of Liu Cong's surrender, he led his followers (both troops and civilians) on an exodus southward to Xiakou, engaging Cao's forces in a brief skirmish at the Battle of Changban along the way. While in Xiakou, Liu Bei sent Zhuge to follow Lu Su to Eastern Wu to discuss the formation of an alliance between him and Sun Quan.

Zhuge met Sun in Chaisang and proposed two solutions to Sun, "If you can use the forces of Wuyue to resist the Middle Kingdom, why not break ties (with Cao Cao) in advance? If you cannot oppose, why not demobilize the troops, discard your armour and surrender to the north?" Zhuge succeeded in persuading Sun to ally with Liu in resisting Cao Cao, and analyzed the situation for Sun, pointing out weaknesses in Cao's army that would eventually lead to his defeat.

In late 208, the allied armies of Liu Bei and Sun Quan scored a decisive victory over Cao Cao's forces at the Battle of Red Cliffs. Cao retreated to Ye, while Liu Bei proceeded to conquer territories in Jiangnan, covering most of southern Jing Province. Zhuge was appointed "Military Advisor General of the Household" (軍師中郎將). He was put in charge of governing Lingling (present day Yongzhou, Hunan), Guiyang and Changsha commanderies and collecting taxes to fund the military.

Establishment of Shu Han

See also: Liu Bei's takeover of Yi Province

In 211, Liu Zhang, governor of Yi Province (covering present-day Sichuan basin), requested aid from Liu Bei in attacking Zhang Lu of Hanzhong. Liu left Zhuge, Guan Yu, Zhang Fei and others in charge of Jing Province while he led an army into Sichuan. The following year, Liu Bei and Liu Zhang turned hostile and waged war on each other. Zhuge, Zhang Fei and Zhao Yun led separate forces to reinforce Liu Bei in the attack on Chengdu, while Guan Yu stayed behind to guard Jing Province. In 214, Liu Zhang surrendered and Liu Bei took control of Yi Province.

Liu Bei appointed Zhuge "Military Advisor General" (軍師將軍) and let his administer affairs of the office of the General of the Left (左將軍). Whenever Liu embarked on military campaigns, Zhuge remained to defend Chengdu and ensure a steady flow of supply of troops and provisions. In 221, in response to Cao Pi's usurping of Emperor Xian's throne, Liu Bei's subordinates advised him to declare himself emperor. Liu initially refused, but was persuaded by Zhuge to do so eventually, and he became ruler of Shu Han. Liu named Zhuge as his chancellor and put him in charge of the Imperial Secretariat's affairs. Zhuge was appointed "Director of Retainers" (司隸校尉) after Zhang Fei's death.

After Liu Bei's death

In the spring of 222, Liu Bei retreated to Yong'an (present-day Fengjie County, Chongqing) after his defeat at the Battle of Xiaoting and became seriously ill. He summoned Zhuge from Chengdu and said to him, "You're ten times more talented than Cao Pi, so you should be able to bring peace to the country and stabilize the empire. If you can support my son, please do so. If he's not competent, you can take over him." Zhuge replied tearfully, "I'll do my utmost and serve with unwavering loyalty until death." Liu Bei then ordered his son, Liu Shan, to administer state affairs together with Zhuge and regard Zhuge as his father.

After Liu Bei's death, Liu Shan ascended to the throne of Shu Han. He granted Zhuge the title of "Marquis of Wuxiang" (武鄉侯) and opened an office for him. Not long later, Zhuge was appointed governor of Yi Province and put in charge of all state affairs. At the same time, the commanderies in Nanzhong rebelled against Shu Han, but Zhuge did not send troops to suppress the revolt as Liu Bei's death was still recent. He sent Deng Zhi and Chen Zhen to make peace with Eastern Wu and improve diplomatic relations between the two states.

Southern Campaign

Main article: Zhuge Liang's Southern Campaign

During his reign as regent, Zhuge set Shu Han's objective as the restoration of the Han Dynasty, which from Shu's point of view, had been usurped by Cao Wei. He felt that in order to attack Cao Wei, a complete unification of Shu Han was first needed. Worried that the Nanman tribes in Nanzhong might rebel and press into areas surrounding the capital city of Chengdu while he was attacking Cao Wei in the north, Zhuge decided to pacify the southern tribes first.

In the spring of 225, Zhuge led a southern campaign on Nanzhong. Ma Su proposed that Zhuge should attempt to win the hearts of the Nanman and rally their support instead of using military force to subdue them. Zhuge heeded Ma's advice and defeated the rebel leader, Meng Huo, on seven different occasions. He released Meng each time in order to achieve Meng's genuine surrender.

Meng agreed to join Zhuge in a genuine acquiescence. Zhuge appointed him as governor of the region to keep the populace content and secure the southern Shu border. This would ensure that the future Northern Expeditions would proceed without internal disruptions. Rich and abundant resources acquired from Nanzhong were used to fund Shu Han's military and the state became more prosperous.

Northern Expeditions and death

Main article: Zhuge Liang's Northern Expeditions

After pacifying the Nanman, Zhuge ordered the Shu Han military to make preparations for a large scale offensive on Cao Wei. In 227, while in Hanzhong, he wrote a memorial, titled Chu Shi Biao, to Liu Shan, stating his rationale for the campaign and giving advice to the emperor on good governance. From 228 until his death in 234, Zhuge launched a total of five Northern Expeditions against Cao Wei, all except one of which failed. The failures were usually caused by the shortage or exhaustion of food supplies, rather than defeat on the battlefield. The only permanent gains by Shu Han were the conquests of Wudu and Yinping prefectures, as well as the relocation of Cao Wei citizens to Shu Han on occasion.

During the first Northern Expedition, Zhuge persuaded Jiang Wei, a young general of Cao Wei, to surrender and defect to his side. Jiang became a prominent general of Shu Han later and inherited Zhuge's ideals. In late 234, Zhuge and Sima Yi (the Cao Wei commander) reached a stalemate at the Battle of Wuzhang Plains. Zhuge fell seriously ill and eventually died in camp at the age of 54. Before his death, Zhuge recommended Jiang Wan and Fei Yi to succeed him as regent of Shu Han. He was buried on Mount Dingjun according to his dying wish and posthumously granted the title of "Marquis of Zhongwu" (忠武侯) by Liu Shan.

Family

• Ancestor: Zhuge Feng (諸葛豐), served as Director of Retainers during the reign of Emperor Yuan of Han

• Father: Zhuge Gui (諸葛珪), served as Assistant in Mount Tai Commandery during the late Han Dynasty

• Uncle: Zhuge Xuan (諸葛玄), served as Administrator of Yuzhang, joined Liu Biao later. Raised Zhuge Liang and Zhuge Jun.

• Siblings:
  • Zhuge Jin, older brother, served Eastern Wu
  • Zhuge Jun (諸葛均), younger brother, served Shu Han
  • Older sister, unknown name, married Pang Shanmin (Pang Tong's older cousin)
  • Older sister, unknown name, married a member of the influential Kuai clan in Xiangyang

• Cousins:
  • Zhuge Dan, served Cao Wei, participated in the Three Rebellions in Shouchun, killed after his defeat

• Spouse: Lady Huang, daughter of Huang Chengyan. Commonly known as Huang Yueying or Huang Shou (黃綬) in folk tales.

• Children:
  • Zhuge Zhan, served Shu Han, killed in action during the Conquest of Shu by Wei
  • Zhuge Huai (諸葛懷), lived as a commoner during the Jin Dynasty

• Adopted children:
  • Zhuge Qiao, son of Zhuge Jin, adopted by Zhuge Liang. Served Shu Han. Died at a young age.

• Grandchildren:
  • Zhuge Pan (諸葛攀), son of Zhuge Qiao, returned to Eastern Wu to continue the Zhuge family line there after Zhuge Ke's death
  • Zhuge Shang, oldest son of Zhuge Zhan, killed in action with his father during the Conquest of Shu by Wei
  • Zhuge Jing (諸葛京), second son of Zhuge Zhan, moved to Hedong in 264 with Zhuge Pan's son Zhuge Xian (諸葛顯), served the Jin Dynasty
  • Zhuge Zhi (諸葛質), youngest son of Zhuge Zhan

Legacy

Inventions

File:Zgn-1.jpg

A repeating crossbow

Zhuge was believed to be the inventor of mantou, the landmine and a mysterious, efficient automatic transportation device (initially used for grain) described as a "wooden ox and flowing horse" (木牛流馬), which is sometimes identified with the wheelbarrow.

Although he is often credited with the invention of the repeating crossbow that is named after him and called "Zhuge Crossbow", this type of semi-automatic crossbow is an improved version of a model that first appeared during the Warring States Period (though there is debate whether the original Warring States Period bow was semi-automatic, or rather shot multiple bolts at once). Nevertheless, Zhuge's version could shoot farther and faster.

Zhuge is also credited with constructing the mysterious Stone Sentinel Maze, an array of stone piles that is said to produce supernatural phenomenon, located near Baidicheng.

An early type of hot air balloon used for military signalling, known as the Kongming lantern, is also named after him. It was said to be invented by Zhuge when he was trapped by Sima Yi in Pingyang. Friendly forces nearby saw the message on the lantern paper covering and came to Zhuge's aid. Another belief is that the lantern resembled Zhuge's headdress, so it was named after him.

Literary works

Some books popularly attributed to Zhuge can be found today. For example, the Thirty-Six Stratagems, and Mastering the Art of War (not to be confused with Sun Tzu's The Art of War) are two of Zhuge's works that are generally available. Supposedly, his mastery of infantry and cavalry formation tactics, based on the Taoist classic I Ching, were unrivalled. His memorial Chu Shi Biao, written prior to the Northern Expeditions, provided a salutary reflection of his unwavering loyalty to Shu Han. The memorial moved readers to tears.

Zhuge is also the subject of many Chinese literary works. A poem by Du Fu, a prolific Tang Dynasty poet, was written in memory of Zhuge and his unwavering dedication to his cause, against overwhelming odds. Some historians believe that Du had compared himself with Zhuge in the poem. The full text is:

蜀相 （武侯祠） 丞相祠堂何處尋？ 錦官城外柏森森。 映階碧草自春色， 隔葉黃鸝空好音。 三顧頻煩天下計， 兩朝開濟老臣心。 出師未捷身先死， 長使英雄淚滿襟

Premier of Shu (Temple of the Marquis of Wu) Where to seek the temple of the noble Premier? In the deep pine forests outside the City of Silk: Where grass covered steps mirror the colours of spring, And among the leaves orioles empty songs sing. Three visits brought him the weight of the world; Two emperors he served with one heart. Passing ere his quest was complete, Tears damp the robes of heroes ever since.

People likened to Zhuge Liang

Bai Chongxi, a Republican military leader and warlord from Guangxi, earned the laudatory nickname "Little Zhuge" for his tactical decisions during the Second Sino-Japanese War.

Takenaka Shigeharu, a Sengoku period samurai who served under Toyotomi Hideyoshi, was often likened to Zhuge for his reputation as an exceptional strategist. There is also a fictional account of Shigeharu entering Hideyoshi's service after the latter visited him thrice in a manner reminiscent of Liu Bei's three visits to the thatched cottage.

In fiction

Further information: List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms

The wisdom and achievements of Zhuge were popularized by the historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, written by Luo Guanzhong during the Ming Dynasty. The novel is based on historical sources, including Chen Shou's Records of Three Kingdoms. Other major influences include Liu Yiqing's A New Account of the Tales of the World, and Sanguozhi Pinghua, a chronological collection of 80 sketches starting with the Oath of the Peach Garden and ending with Zhuge's death.

Some fictitious accounts involving Zhuge from Romance of the Three Kingdoms include:

Borrowing of arrows with straw boats

Prior to the Battle of Red Cliffs, Zhuge visited the Eastern Wu camp to assist Zhou Yu. Zhou was jealous of Zhuge's talent and felt that Zhuge would become a threat to Eastern Wu in future. He assigned Zhuge the task of making 100,000 arrows in ten days or face execution for failure in duties under military law. Zhuge promised that he could complete the mission in three days. With help from Lu Su, Zhuge prepared 20 large boats, each manned by a few soldiers and filled with human-like figures made of straw and hay.

At dawn, when there was a great fog, Zhuge deployed the boats and they sailed towards Cao Cao's camp across the river. He ordered the troops to beat war drums loudly and shout orders to imitate the noise of an attack. Upon hearing the noise, Cao's troops rushed out to engage the enemy, but they were unsure of the enemy's strength, because their vision was obscured by the fog. They fired volleys of arrows towards the sound of the drums and the arrows became stuck in the straw figures. In the meantime, Zhuge was enjoying wine with Lu Su inside the cabin and they returned to the Eastern Wu camp when the fog cleared. Zhuge acquired more than 100,000 arrows with this ingenious strategy and Zhou Yu had no choice but to let him off.

Praying for the eastern wind

Before the Battle of Red Cliffs, when all preparations for the fire attack on Cao Cao's fleet had been made, Zhou Yu suddenly realized that the wind was not blowing to their advantage, because the eastern wind was required to enhance the fire attack. He collapsed and became ill. Zhuge visited him and prescribed a "cure" for him, by offering to pray for the eastern wind. Days later, the eastern wind started blowing, much to everyone's surprise. Zhou Yu was pleased, but became worried because he thought Zhuge possessed magical powers and would become a greater threat to Eastern Wu. He sent men to kill Zhuge at the altar, but Zhuge anticipated his move and had already escaped under Zhao Yun's protection.

Stone Sentinel Maze

See also: Stone Sentinel Maze

In Chapter 84, Liu Bei was defeated by Eastern Wu's Lu Xun at the Battle of Xiaoting and he fled towards Baidicheng with Lu hot on pursuit. When Lu arrived at Yufupu by the Yangtze River near Baidicheng, he felt a strong enemy presence and cautioned his troops of a possible ambush. He sent men to scout ahead, who reported that the area was deserted except for some scattered piles of rocks. Bewildered, Lu asked a local, who told him that qi started emerging from the area after Zhuge arranged the rocks there when he first entered Sichuan.

Lu personally inspected the area and believed that the "maze" was only a petty display of deception, so he lead a few men inside. Just as he was about to leave, a strong gust of wind blew. Dust storms overshadowed the sky and the rocks seemed like swords, mountainous piles of dirt emerged while the river waves sounded like an attacking army. Lu exclaimed, "I have fallen into Zhuge's trap!", and attempted to escape from the maze but to no avail.

Suddenly, Lu saw an old man, who offered him assistance in exiting the labyrinth. Lu followed him and got out of the maze unharmed. The old man identified himself as Huang Chengyan, Zhuge's father-in-law. He explained to Lu that the maze was constructed based on the ba gua concept. Huang also told Lu that Zhuge had predicted that a Eastern Wu general would chance upon the maze when he first built it, and had asked him not to lead the general out when he fell into the trap. Lu dismounted and thanked Huang. When he returned to camp, he exclaimed that he was inferior to Zhuge in terms of intelligence.

Empty Fort Strategy

Further information: Empty Fort Strategy

During the first Northern Expedition, Zhuge's efforts to conquer Chang'an were undermined by the Shu Han defeat at the Battle of Jieting. With the loss of Jieting, Zhuge's current location, Xicheng, was in peril of being attacked by the Cao Wei army. In the face of imminent danger, with his main force deployed elsewhere and only a small group of soldiers in the city, Zhuge came up with a ploy to hold off the approaching enemy.

Zhuge ordered all the city gates to be opened and the soldiers disguised as civilians sweeping the roads, while he sat on the viewing platform above the gates with two boys flanking him. He put on a calm and composed image by playing his guqin. When Sima Yi arrived with the Cao Wei army, he was surprised by the scene before him and ordered a retreat after suspecting that there was an ambush inside the city. Zhuge later explained that his strategy was a risky one. It worked because Zhuge had a reputation for being a careful military tactician who hardly took risks, so Sima Yi came to the conclusion that there was an ambush upon seeing Zhuge's relaxed composure.

Events before his death

When Zhuge fell critically ill during the Battle of Wuzhang Plains, he attempted to extend his lifespan by 12 years through a ritual. However, he failed when the ritual was disrupted by Wei Yan, who rushed in to warn him about the enemy's advance. Before his death, Zhuge also passed his 24 Volumes on Military Strategy (兵法二十四篇) to Jiang Wei, who would continue his legacy and lead another nine campaigns against the Cao Wei kingdom.

Modern references

Film and television

Zhuge was featured as a minor character in the 2008 film Three Kingdoms: Resurrection of the Dragon and was played by Pu Cunxin. Takeshi Kaneshiro played Zhuge in John Woo's Red Cliff.

Zhuge was played by veteran Chinese actor Tang Guoqiang in the 1994 CCTV drama Romance of the Three Kingdoms, based on the novel of the same title. Alan Ke played the role of Zhuge in the 2009 Taiwanese teen idol drama K.O.3an Guo, a parody of Romance of the Three Kingdoms in a modern-day setting.

File:DWZhugeLiang.jpg

Zhuge Liang as he appears in Koei's Dynasty Warriors 6.

Video games

Zhuge's reputation for being an unparalleled genius is also emphasised in his portrayal in video games. Reflecting his status as the most highly regarded strategist in Romance of the Three Kingdoms, games such as Destiny of an Emperor and Koei's Romance of the Three Kingdoms game series place Zhuge's intelligence statistic as the highest of all characters. He is also a playable character in Koei's Dynasty Warriors, Dynasty Tactics and Kessen II.

Zhuge is the protagonist in Koei's tactical role-playing game Sangokushi Koumeiden, where he can die at the Battle of Wuzhang Plains, as he did historically, or proceed to restore the Han Dynasty under Emperor Xian.

In Warriors Orochi, Zhuge pretends to be an ally of Orochi. While he was facing Zhao Yun and Sun Ce's forces, he betrayed Daji and made her show him where Liu Bei was being held. In Warriors Orochi 2, he discovers Daji's hideout in Shiting, and he and his wife, Huang Yueying, help to capture both Daji and Himiko. He later suspects Taigong Wang of purposefully letting Daji and Himiko go. In Dream Mode, he teams up with Zhou Yu, Takeda Shingen, Taishi Ci, and Gan Ning in holding off Shima Sakon's forces, Uesugi Kenshin, and Sima Yi.

Zhuge appears in the game Civilization V as a great general along with Cao Cao.

Zhuge is portrayed as a young girl in the Japanese eroge Koihime Musō.

Card games

In the collectible card game Magic: The Gathering, there is a card named "Kongming, Sleeping Dragon" in the Portal Three Kingdoms set.

Comics

The young Chu-Ko Liang is a member of the League of Infinity in the superhero pastiche Supreme by Alan Moore.

In the manhua Faeries' Landing, the protagonist of the story is a high-school student named Ryang Jegal, whose life is turned upside-down by a fairy and her heavenly (and not-so-heavenly) peers. Ryang Jegal, or Jegal Ryang in the proper Asian sequence, is the Korean translation of "Zhuge Liang".

See also

• List of people of the Three Kingdoms
• List of Dynasty Warriors characters

Notes

I.^{^} Some other historical sources contradict this story, claiming that it was Zhuge who visited Liu Bei first and offered his services.

References

Books

• Chen Shou (c. 280). Records of Three Kingdoms. Reprint, 1959. Beijing: Zhonghua shuju.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link).
• Guanzhong, Luo (1976) [c. 1330]. Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Trans. Moss Roberts. New York: Pantheon Books. ISBN 0394407229. OCLC 2331218.
• Off, Greg (2005). Dynasty Warriors 5: Prima Official Game Guide. Roseville: Prima Games. ISBN 0761551417. OCLC 62162042.
• Dawei, Zhu (2007). 诸葛亮大传 (Story of Zhuge Liang). Beijing Shi: Zhonghua shu ju. ISBN 9787101056389. OCLC 173263137. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

External links

• Biography of Zhuge Liang in Records of Three Kingdoms
• Biography of Zhuge Liang in Romance of the Three Kingdoms
• Chronology of events in Zhuge Liang's life
• The Art Of War Video Archives: Zhuge Liang