Pillarisation

Template:Life in the Netherlands Pillarisation (verzuiling in Dutch) is a term used to describe the politico-denominational segregation of Dutch and Belgian society. These societies were (and in some areas, still are) "vertically" divided into several segments or "pillars" (zuilen, singular: zuil) according to different religions or ideologies.

These pillars all had their own social institutions: their own newspapers, broadcasting organisations, political parties, trade unions, banks, schools, hospitals, universities, scouting organisations and sports clubs. Some companies even hired only personnel of a specific religion or ideology. This led to a situation where many people had no personal contact with people from another pillar. Such semi-insular stratification of societies has been common among humans over the centuries; other places where the theme has been instantiated include Austria, Arab Iraq, Colombia, India, Israel, Italy, Lebanon, Malta, Nigeria, Northern Ireland, Scotland, Spain, and the areas formerly comprised by Yugoslavia.

Situation in the Netherlands

In the Netherlands there were (at least) three pillars: Protestant, Catholic and Social-democratic. Almost all Catholics were part of the Catholic pillar. Orthodox and conservative Protestants joined the Protestant pillar, Industrial Workers and Jews were part of the Socialist pillar, while more latitudinarian Protestants, atheists and Orangists were pillarless. The Protestant party Christian Historical Union did not organise a pillar of its own but linked itself to the Protestant pillar shaped by the Anti Revolutionary Party. Pillarisation was originally initiated by the Anti Revolutionary Party, who based it on their philosophy of sphere sovereignty. People in the Socialist pillar were mainly working class. People who were not associated with one of these pillars, mainly middle and upper class latitudinarian Protestants and atheists set up their own pillar: the general pillar. Ties between general organisations were a lot weaker. The political parties usually associated with this pillar were the liberal Free-minded Democratic League (VDB) and Liberal State Party (LSP), although these parties opposed pillarisation. Communists, Humanist and ultra-orthodox Protestants also set up similar organisations; however, such groups were a lot smaller.

Institutions by pillar

The following table shows the most important institutions by pillar:

	Protestant	Catholic	Socialist	General
Political Party before 1945	ARP (from 1879; gereformeerd); CHU (from 1908; hervormd); SGP (from 1918; bevindelijk gereformeerd)	AB (1904–1926); RKSP (from 1926)	SDB (1881–1900; Socialist); SDAP (from 1894); CPN (from 1909; Comunist)	LU (1885–1921); BVL (1906–1921); VDB (from 1901)
Political Parties after 1945	ARP (until 1977); CHU (until 1977); CDA (from 1977; non-denominational); SGP GPV (1948–2000; gereformeerd vrijgemaakt); RPF (1977–2000; protestant); CU (from 2000; protestant); SGP	KVP (until 1977); CDA (from 1977 non-denominational)	PvdA (from 1945; Social-democratic); CPN (until 1989); PSP (1957–1989)	PvdV (1946–1948); VVD (from 1948)
broadcasting organisation	NCRV (Dutch Christian Radio Association); VPRO (Free Protestant Radio Broadcasting Organisation); EO (Evangelic Broadcasting); IKON (Interdenominational Broadcasting Netherland)	KRO (Catholic Radio Broadcasting Organisation); RKK Omroep (Roman Catholic Communion Broadcasting)	VARA (Association of Workers' Radio Amateurs)	AVRO (General United Radio Broadcasting Organisation)
Youth Movements	ARJOS (gereformeerd); CHJO (hervormd); CDJA (non-denominational); GPJC (gereformeerd vrijgemaakt); RPFj (protestant); PerspectieF (protestant); SGPJ	KVPJO; CDJA (non-denominational)	JS (Social-democratic); ANJV (Comunist)	JOVD
Unions	CNV (Christian National Union); NWV Patrimonium (gereformeerd)	NKV (Dutch Catholic Union) (until 1976; FNV)	NVV (Dutch Alliance of Unions) (until 1976; FNV)	ANWV (General Dutch Workers' Unions)
Employers	PCW	NKW	none	VNO
Newspapers	De Standaard (gereformeerd); Friesch Dagblad (Fryslân gereformeerd); Trouw (gereformeerd); Nederlands Dagblad (vrijgemaakt); Reformatorisch Dagblad (gereformeerd)	Volkskrant	Het Vrije Volk	Algemeen Handelsblad (until 1970); Nieuwe Rotterdamsche Courant (until 1970); NRC Handelsblad (from 1970); De Telegraaf
Schools	"School with bible"	Roman Catholic School	Free Schools, Public Schools	Public Schools
Universities	Protestantse Theologische Universiteit (hervormd); Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam (gereformeerd); Theological University of the Christian Reformed Churches (bevindelijk gereformeerd); Theologische Universiteit (vrijgemaakt)	Radboud Universiteit; Katholieke Universiteit Brabant	State-sponsored universities
Hospitals	Green/Orange Cross	White/Yellow Cross	Green Cross
Sport clubs	NCSU; NSA; TvA	NKS; NSA	NASB; NRS; NCS; NSA	NSF
Recreation (examples)	Saturday football, Weekend rugby	Sunday football	Folk dancing, Sunday football, Korfball	Dancing Schools, Saturday football, Sunday football, Hockey

Depillarisation

After World War II liberals and socialists, but also Protestants and Catholics, began to doubt the pillarised system. They founded a unity movement, the People's Movement Nederlandse Volksbeweging. Progressives of all pillars (including the Catholic resistance movement Christofoor) were united in this. They wanted a breakthrough (doorbraak) of the political system. But pillarisation was ingrained in Dutch society, and could not be defeated that easily. Even the People's Movement suffered from this, it was associated with the socialist party, SDAP, and its ideology was socialism combined with democratic principles. Only the left liberal VDB and the minor Protestant CDU joined the SDAP to form a new political party: the Labour Party, Partij van de Arbeid in 1946.

During the 1960s these pillars, particularly under political criticism from D66 and the group Nieuw Links (New Left) in PvdA, largely broke down. For example, over time VPRO moved towards the general pillar. Television was also pillarised, but in its early years (the 1950s) it had only one station, which meant that everyone watched the same broadcasts. Young people did not want to be associated with these organisations. Because of this and of increased mobility, many people saw that people from the other pillar were not that different from themselves. Increased wealth and education made people independent of many of these institutions. From 1973, ARP and CHU of the Protestant pillar united with Catholic KVP in CDA, they first entered in elections in 1977. From 1976, the Catholic trade union NKV cooperated with NVV of the Socialist pillar to merge into the FNV in 1982.

By the 21st century, the "total" pillarisation of society has disappeared but many remnants can be seen: public television for instance is divided over several pillarised organisations, instead of being one organisation, as is the education system, split between public and religious schools. Moreover, there are small pillars that still exist today. Members of the Reformed Churches (liberated) have their own (primary and secondary) schools, their own national newspaper, and some other organizations, such as a labor union. Members of several pietist Reformed Churches have also founded their own schools, newspaper and political party. Increasingly, Muslim immigrants in the Netherlands are also using the possibilities of the pillarized structure of society, by setting up their own schools.

Situation in Belgium

Pillarisation in Belgium was very similar, although there was no Protestant pillar. Also there was no "general" pillar, but a politically well-organised liberal pillar. In both Flanders and Wallonia, societies are pillarised. In Flanders, Catholics were the dominant pillar, in Wallonia the Socialists were. Even though the liberals are stronger in Belgium (particularly in Brussels) than in the Netherlands, they are still relatively weak, due to their rather small, bourgeois support: liberal trade unions are very small. De Tijd, a financial daily, is the newspaper aligned with the liberals. This is due to its readers only, not to editorial policies. However, a Flemish newspaper with historical liberal roots, Het Laatste Nieuws, also exists.

Denominational (many Catholic and a few Jewish) schools receive some public money, although not parity of funding as in the Netherlands, so that tuition is almost completely free. Belgian universities charge more or less the same, relatively low, tuition fees.

As a consequence of the language struggle in the latter half of the twentieth century, the pillars split over the language issue that became the most significant divisive factor in the nation. Now every language group has three pillars of its own. The pillar system was the primordial societal divide much longer in Belgium than it was in the Netherlands. Only near the end of the Cold War did it begin to lose importance, at least at the individual level, and to this day it continues to influence Belgian society. For example, even the 1999–2003 "Rainbow Coalition" of Guy Verhofstadt was often rendered with the terms of pillarisation. Political currents which rose in late 20th century (AGaLev, the Arab European League (AEL) and the Vlaams Blok), did not attempt to build pillars.

Pillarisation was visible even in everyday social organisations such as musical ensembles, sport clubs, recreational facilities, etc. Although weakened in the contemporary situation, many major social organisations (trade unions, cooperatives, etc.) still strictly follow the lines of pillars.

Institutions by pillar with their ethnic divisions

The following table is limited to the most important institutions and it shows the current division of everyone by the three ethnic groups.

	Flemish Catholic	Walloon Catholic	German Catholic	Flemish Socialist	Walloon Socialist	German Socialist	Flemish Liberal	Walloon Liberal	German Liberal
Political Parties before 1945	Catholic Party	Catholic Party]	Catholic Party	Belgian Labour Party	Belgian Labour Party	Belgian Labour Party	PVV/PRL	PVV/PRL	PVV/PRL
Political Parties between 1945 and 1970	CVP/PSC	CVP/PSC	CVP/PSC	BSP/PSB	BSP/PSB	BSP/PSB	PVV/PRL	PVV/PRL	PVV/PRL
Political Parties between 1970 and 1995	CVP	PSC	CSP	SP	PS	SP	PVV	PRL	PFF
Political Parties after 1995	CD&V	CDh	CSP	SP.a	PS	SP	VLD	MR	PFF
Trade Unions	ACV; Boerenbond	CSC	Boerenbond	ABVV	FGTB	none	ACLVB	CGSLB	none
Health Insurance	Christelijke Mutualiteit	Mutualité chrétienne	Christlichen Krankenkasse	Socialistische Mutualiteit	Mutualité socialiste	Sozialistische Krankenkasse	Liberale Mutualiteit	Mutualité Libérale	Freie Krankenkasse
Hospitals	White/Yellow Cross	Christian Fund	Christian Fund	(Center for) Homecare	Socialist Fund	Socialist Fund	Solidarity for the Family	Liberal Fund	Liberal Fund
Aid agencies	Caritas Vlaanderen	Caritas en Belgique Francophone-Deutschsprachiges Belgien	Caritas en Belgique Francophone-Deutschsprachiges Belgien	FOS-Socialistische Solidariteit	Solidarité Socialiste-FCD	FCD	none	none	none
Newspapers	De Standaard; Gazet van Antwerpen; Het Volk; Het Belang van Limburg; Het Nieuwsblad	La Libre Belgique	Grenz-Echo	Vooruit (until 1978); Volksgazet (until 1978); De Morgen (since 1978)	none	none	Het Laatste Nieuws; De Tijd	Le Soir	none
Cultural Associations	Davidsfonds	none	none	Vermeylenfonds	none	none	Willemsfonds	none	none
Schools	Flemish Secretariat for Catholic Education (Catholic Schools), Flemish Association of Catholic Colleges	Catholic Schools	Catholic Schools	Public Schools	Public Schools	Public Schools	Public Schools, Non-denominational private schools	Public Schools, Non-denominational private schools	Public Schools, Non-denominational private schools
Youth organizations	KVHV; SGV; JONGCD&V; Katholische Academische Verbindung Leuven; Chiro	FSC; GCB; Jeunes cdH	Die Junge Mitte; FSC; GCB	Rode Valken; Animo Jong Links	MJS	MJS	FOS; VLDJONG	SGP; Les Jeunes Réformateurs	JFF; SGP; MJS
Major Universities	Katholieke Universiteit Leuven	Université catholique de Louvain	none	Rijksuniversiteit Gent	University of Liège	none	Vrije Universiteit Brussel	Université Libre de Bruxelles	none
Other Universities	Universiteit Antwerpen; Industriële Hogeschool Brabant; Hogeschool-Universiteit; Vlaams Verbond van Katholieke Hogescholen	Université de Namur; Facultés Universitaires Catholiques de Mons; Facultés universitaires Saint-Louis	none	Trans-Universiteit Limburg	Faculté Universitaire des Sciences Agronomiques de Gembloux	none	Erasmus Hogeschool	Université de Mons	none
Institutes of Higher Education	Flanders Business School; Antwerp Management School; Instituut voor Ontwikkelingsbeleid en beheer; Institute of Transport and Maritime Management Antwerp	Institut Catholique des Hautes Etudes Commerciales	none	Vlaams Instituut voor de Logistiek	none	none	Vesalius College; Instituut voor Tropische Geneeskunde; Europacollege	Ecole Supérieure des Arts du Cirque	none
Banks	Volksdepositokas Spaarbank	Dexia	Dexia	Bank van De Post	Banque de La Poste	Bank von der Post	Generale Bankmaatschappij	Générale de Banque	Generale Bank
Sport clubs	Sporta; Gym & Dans Vlaanderen	none	none	AVB (1919–2000); FROS (1976–2000); VASCO (1993–2000); FROS Amateursportconfederatie vzw (since 2000)	none	none	none	none	none

Situation in Austria

See more about Austrian Verzuilling in the Proporz article The Austrian version of Verzuilling is the doctrine Proporz (diminutive of Proportionalität, German Proportionality) long standing doctrine, first, only within the politics second Austrian republic but later, degenerated into a neo-corporavist system of patronage and nepotism pervading too many aspects of Austrian life. The Proporz was created, developed and promoted by the two mainstream parties, the catholic Austrian People's Party (ÖVP) and the social-democratic Socialist Party of Austria, since 1991 Social Democratic Party of Austria (both names as SPÖ). This de facto two-parties system collapsed by the elections of 1999, which resulted in the joining of the national-conservative Freedom Party of Austria (FPÖ), whose political margination and that of its predecessor, the Federation of Independents (VdU), was the main reason for the establishment of the Proporz policy, because of their pro-German and individualist views.

The Proporz system arose out of the need for balanced, consensual governance in the early years of Austria's second republic. At that time, the country was consumed in an effort to rebuild the country after the devastation of World War II. Thus, the doctrine of Proporz is intimately linked to the idea of the grand coalition, in which the major political parties, in the case of post-war Austria the SPÖ and the ÖVP, share in the government.

At first it was decided that the occupation of federal political positions by either members of the two big parties be according to the proportionally of the number of seats of each party in the Nationalrat, but soon this policy was repeated at a Länder policy; then it was decided that civil service, military, trade unions and even economy and state businesses positions had to be occupied by members of the two big parties, proportionally of the results of their in the Nationalrat (if it was a Federal position) or in the Ladtag (if it was a Land one). Afterward, this policy reach the policy of membership in every type of association: sport clubs, culture groups, motoring organizations, folk music brotherhoods... converting them in bichephal ones, divided in two parts (a Catholic and a Social-democratic), if not two ones. Even the public broadcasting ORF was divided between ideological fences (radio station Ö2 and TV channel FS1 were Catholic-oriented, whereas Ö1 and FS2 were the Social-democratic ones). This system was popular in the post-war period, however from the 1980s, people’s perceptions and opinions changed strongly. The old Proporz system, where basically the SPÖ and the ÖVP would divide everything up between them, was increasingly seen as outdated and even undemocratic. Because both parties always had an absolute majority in parliament, no effective opposition could ever exist. Almost second Austrian republic governments have been ÖVP-SPÖ Coalition, which resulted in a situation that some political position were almost property of each party and occupied by a member of this one, according on the basis of its constituency or any perceived ideological mandate to them. For example, Minister for Labour and Social Relations was nearly always held by a member of the (SPÖ), while the ÖVP, with traditionally strong support from farmers, took the Ministry which controlled agriculture and forestry.

As voters’ frustration with the old system grew, the FPÖ under the young and dynamic party chairman Jörg Haider (who as Governor of Carinthia, revoke Proporz policies in the Land) was able to ride the wave of discontent and win votes in every parliamentary election. The FPÖ had its core support with the right wing, but was increasingly able to attract voters from the conservative ÖVP and even made inroads with traditional SPÖ voters who grew fed up with the grand coalitions and the old Proporz system.

A diversified media and the possibilities of modern information technology also hold the government to higher standards of transparency and accountability. Above all, there has been a sea change in the public's attitude to the practice and its willingness to confront it, getting the opportunity to cancel. Today, there is almost no trace of Proporz in Austria.

Institutions by pillar

	Social-democratic	Catholic
Political Party before 1945	SDAPÖ (1888–1945)	CS (1893–1945)
Political Parties after 1945	SPÖ (from 1945)	ÖVP (from 1945)
Wireless Station	Ö1	Ö2
TV Channel	FS2 (since 1991: ORF2; since 2011: ORF zwei)	FS1 (since 1991: ORF1; since 2011: ORF einz)
Alpine Clubs	Friends of Nature	Austrian Alpine Club
Automobil Clubs	ARBÖ	ÖAMTC
Unions	FSG	FCG
Student society	AKS	Schülerunion
University unions	VSStÖ	AG
Verbindung	VSM	MKV
Cultural associations	Bund Sozialdemokratischer Akademikerinnen und Akademiker,Intellektueller, Künstlerinnen und Künstler	Österreichischer Cartellverband
Employers	SWV	ÖWB
Tennants associations	MVÖ	MB
Newspapers	Arbeiter-Zeitung; Salzburger Tagblatt; Neue Kärntner Tageszeitung; Die Zukunft; Der Standard	Die Furche; Kleine Zeitung; Die Presse; Oberösterreichische Rundschau
Private University	SFU	KTU
EMS	ASBÖ	MHDA
Children aid agencies	Kinderfreunde Österreich, Rote Falken Österreich	Dreikönigsaktion, Kolpingwerk Österreich
Sport associations	ASKÖ	SPORTUNION
Youth associations	SJÖ	JVP
Pensioner associations	PVÖ	ÖSB
Recreation (examples)	Soccer Football	Skiing

Situation in Italy

Institutions by pillar

	Catholic	Socialist	Communist
Political Parties before Tangentopoli	PPI (1919–1926); DC (1949–1994)	PSI (1892–1994)	PCI (1921–1991)
Political Party after Tangentopoli
Trade Unions
Holdings
Wireless Station
TV Channel	Rete 1 (since 1982: Rai Uno; since 2011: Rai 1)	Rete 2 (since 1982: Rai Due; since 2011: Rai 2)	Rete 3 (since 1982: Rai Tre; since 2011: Rai 3)
Daily Newspapers	Il Popolo	Avanti!	L'Unità
Travel agencies
Mobile phone companies	Maltacom p.l.c. (since 2007 GO Mobile)	Mobisle Communications Ltd (since 2007 Redtouch Fone)	Mobisle Communications Ltd (since 2007 Redtouch Fone)
Hospitals	Government Healthcare Service	Government Healthcare Service	Government Healthcare Service
Cultural Associations
Schools	Catholic Schools	Public Schools	Catholic Schools
Youth organizations
University unions

Situation in Malta

Institutions by pillar

	Pro-Italian	Self-determinationist
Political Parties before Independence	Anti-Reform Party (1880–1885); Partito Nazionale (1885); Partito Nazionalista (1885–1921, 1926–1927); Unione Politica Maltese (1921–1926); Partito Democratico Nazionalista (1921–1926); Partit Nazzjonalista (from 1927)	Partit Kostituzzjonali (1921–1953); Camera del Lavoro (1921–1949); Partit Laburista Malti (from 1949)
Political Party after Independence	Partit Nazzjonalista	Partit Laburista Malti (from 2008: Partit Laburista)
Trade Unions	MGCU (from 1978: UHM)	GWU
Holdings	Media.Link Communications	Rainbow Productions Limited (from 1990: ONE Productions Ltd)
Wireless Station	Radio 101	Super One Radio (from 1997: One Radio)
TV Channel	NET Television (Malta)	Super One TV (from 1997: One TV)
Daily Newspapers	In-Nazzjon	L-Orizzont
Sunday Newspapers	Il-Mument; Lehen is Sewwa	It-Torca; KullHadd
Friday Newspapers	Il-Mument	Il-Helsien (from 1992: Kullħadd)
Tabloids	Il-Gens	L-Alternativa
Web Newspapers	maltarightnow.com	Maltastar.com (from 2007: One Media)
Travel agencies	Associations of Returned Migrants	One Travel
Mobile phone companies	Maltacom p.l.c. (since 2007 GO Mobile)	Mobisle Communications Ltd (since 2007 Redtouch Fone)
Hospitals	Saint James Hospital Group	Government Healthcare Service
Cultural Associations	Maltese Heritage Foundation	Strickland Foundation
Schools	Catholic Schools	Public Schools
Youth organizations	MZPN	FZL
University unions	SDM	GM

Sources

• Christophe de Voogd: "Histoire des Pays-Bas des origines à nos jours", Fayard, Paris, 2004

See also

• Sui iuris
• Identity politics
• Test Act