Jump to content

Emilio Aguinaldo

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by Burgundavia (talk | contribs) at 22:44, 5 October 2011 (Reverted edits by 89.147.0.175 (talk) to last version by Crazycomputers). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

Emilio Aguinaldo
1st President of the Philippines
President of the First Republic
President of the Supreme Government
President of Republic of Biak-na-Bato
Dictator of Dictatorial government
President of the Revolutionary Government
In office
March 22, 1897 – April 1, 1901
Prime MinisterApolinario Mabini (Jan 21 – May 7, 1899)
Pedro Paterno (May 7 – Nov 13, 1899)
Vice PresidentMariano Trías (1897)
Succeeded byAbolished
(title next held by Manuel Quezon)
Personal details
Born(1869-03-23)March 23, 1869[n 1]
Cavite El Viejo, Philippines (now Kawit)
DiedFebruary 6, 1964(1964-02-06) (aged 94)
Plaridel, Bulacan, Philippines
Resting placeAguinaldo Shrine, Kawit, Cavite, Philippines
Political partyKatipunan
National Socialist Party
Spouse(s)Hilaria del Rosario
(1896–1921)
María Agoncillo
(1882–1963)
ProfessionSoldier, Manager, Teacher
Revolutionary
Signature

Emilio Aguinaldo y Famy[1][2] (March 22, 1869[n 1] – February 6, 1964) was a Filipino general, politician, and independence leader. He played an instrumental role during the Philippines' revolution against Spain, and the subsequent Philippine-American War or War of Philippine Independence[3] that resisted American occupation.

Aguinaldo became the Philippines' first President. He was also the youngest (at age 29) to have become the country's president, the longest-lived president (having survived to age 94) and the president to have outlived the most number of successors.

Early life

Emilio Aguinaldo y Famy (March 22, 1869 – February 6, 1964) was a Filipino general, politician, and independence leader. He played an instrumental role during the Philippines' victorious[4] revolution against Spain, and the subsequent Philippine-American War that resisted American occupation. Aguinaldo became the Philippines' first President. He was also the youngest (at age 29) to have become the country's president, and the longest-lived (having survived to age 94). His marriage was in 1896 with Hilaria Del Rosario (1877–1921). They had five children (Miguel, Carmen, Emilio Jr., María and Cristina) Hilaria Aguinaldo died because of leprosy. His second wife was María Agoncillo (1882–1963).

Family

The seventh of eight children of Carlos Aguinaldo y Jamir and Trinidad Famy y Valero (1820–1916), Emilio Aguinaldo was born on March 23, 1869 in Cavite El Viejo (now Kawit), Cavite province.[n 1] His father was gobernadorcillo (town head), and, as members of the Chinese-Tagalog mestizo minority, they enjoyed relative wealth and power.

As a young boy he received education from his great-aunt and later attended the town's elementary school. In 1880, he took up his secondary course education at the Colegio de San Juan de Letran, which he quit on his third year to return home instead to help his widowed mother manage their farm. At the age of 28, Miong, as he was popularly called, was elected cabeza de barangay of Binakayan, the most progressive barrio of Cavite El Viejo. He held this position serving for his town-mates for eight years. He also engaged in inter-island shipping, travelling as far south as the Sulu Archipelago. In 1893, the Maura Law was passed to reorganize town governments with the aim of making them more effective and autonomous, changing the designation of town head from gobernadorcillo to capitan municipal effective 1895. On January 1, 1895, Aguinaldo was elected town head, becoming the first person to hold the title of capitan municipal of Cavite El Viejo.

Personal life

His first marriage was in 1896 with Hilaria Del Rosario (1877–1921). They had five children: Miguel, Carmen, Emilio Jr., María, and Cristina. Hilaria Aguinaldo died of leprosy. His second wife was María Agoncillo (1882–1963).

Descendants

Several of Aguinaldo's descendants became prominent political figures in their own right:

His Great Grandchildren are elusive to the public eye and continue to support Aguinaldo's traditions.[10] Such as the awarding of the Philippine Military Academy Aguinaldo Saber Award. The youngest, Emiliana, currently continues to confer the award.

Philippine Revolution

Main article: Philippine Revolution
The flag of the K.K.K.

In 1894, Aguinaldo joined the Katipunan or the K.K.K., a secret organization led by Andrés Bonifacio, dedicated to the expulsion of the Spanish and independence of the Philippines through armed force.[11] Aguinaldo used the nom de guerre Magdalo, in honor of Mary Magdalene.[12] His local chapter of the Katipunan, headed by his cousin Baldomero Aguinaldo, was also called Magdalo.[13]

The Katipunan revolt against the Spanish began in the last week of August 1896, in San Juan del Monte (now part of Metro Manila).[14] However, Aguinaldo and other Cavite rebels initially refused to join in the offensive due to lack of arms. Their absence contributed to Bonifacio's defeat.[13] While Bonifacio and other rebels were forced to resort to guerrilla warfare, Aguinaldo and the Cavite rebels won major victories in set-piece battles, temporarily driving the Spanish out of their area.[13]

On February 17, 1897, Aguinaldo and group of katipuneros defeated Spanish forces led by General Camilo de Polavieja at the Battle of Zapote Bridge in Cavite. General Edilberto Evangelista, civil engineer, revolutionary and trench builder, was killed in the battle. The province of Cavite gradually emerged as the Revolution's hotbed and the Aguinaldo-led katipuneros had a string of victories there.

However, conflict between the Magdalo and another Cavite Katipunan faction, the Magdiwang, led to Bonifacio's intervention in the province.[15] The Cavite rebels then made overtures about establishing a revolutionary government in place of the Katipunan.[16] Though Bonifacio already considered the Katipunan to be a government, he acquiesced and presided over elections held during the Tejeros Convention in Tejeros, Cavite on March 22, 1897. Bonifacio lost the leadership to Aguinaldo, and was elected instead to the office of Secretary of the Interior.[17] Even this was questioned by Daniel Tirona, claiming Bonifacio had not the necessary schooling for the job. Insulted, Bonifacio (drew out his gun and would have killed Tirona on the spot had he not been stopped) declared the Convention null and void, and sought to return to his power base in Morong (present-day Rizal).[18]

Bonifacio refused to recognize the revolutionary government headed by Aguinaldo and attempted to reassert his authority, accusing the Aguinaldo faction of treason and by issuing orders contravening orders issued by the Aguinaldo faction.[19] At Aguinaldo's orders, Bonifacio and his brothers were arrested and, in a mock trial lasting one day, convicted of treason, and sentenced to death.[20] After some vacillation, Aguinaldo commuted the death sentence, but canceled his commutation order after being convinced by Generial Manuel Noriel, President of the Council of War the death sentence, and others prominent in his government that the sentence must stand. Andrés and Procopio were executed by firing squad on May 10, 1897 at Mount Hulog, about four kilometers west of Maragondon, Cavite.[21]

Biak-na-Bato

Main article: Pact of Biak-na-Bato

Spanish pressure intensified, eventually forcing Aguinaldo's forces to retreat to the mountains. Emilio Aguinaldo signed the Pact of Biak-na-Bato. Under the pact, Aguinaldo effectively agreed to end hostilities and dissolve his government in exchange for amnesty and "$800,000 (Mexican)" (Aguinaldo's description of the amount) as an indemnity.[22][23] The documents were signed on December 14 and 15, 1887. On December 23, Aguinaldo and other Katipunan officials departed for Hong Kong to enter voluntary exile. $400,000, representing the first installment of the indemnity, was deposited into Hong Kong banks. While in exile, Aguinaldo reorganized his revolutionary government into the "Supreme Council of the Nation".[24]

One revolutionary general who remained in the Philippines, Francisco Makabulos, established a Central Executive Committee to serve as a provisional revolutionary government "until a general government of the Republic in these islands shall again be established." Meanwhile, Spanish officials continued to arrest and imprison Filipinos suspected of having been involved in the rebellion. The consequence of this disregard of the pact by both sides was the resurgence of the revolution.[25]

In April 1898, war broke out between Spain and the United States. In the Battle of Manila Bay on May 1, 1898, the American Asiatic Squadron under Commodore George Dewey engaged and destroyed the Spanish Pacific Squadron, and blockaded Manila.[26] Dewey provided transport to return Aguinaldo to the Philippines. Aguinaldo promptly resumed command of revolutionary forces and besieged Manila.[27]

Independence Proclamation, Dictatorship and Revolutionary Government

After the outbreak of Spanish American War. Aguinaldo returned to the Philippines from Hong Kong, arriving on May 19, 1898.[28]

On 24 May, Aguinaldo issued a proclamation in which he assumed command of all Philippine forces and established a dictatorial government with himself as dictator.[29]

On 12 June, at Aguinaldo's ancestral home in Cavite, Philippine independence was proclaimed and The Act of Declaration of Philippine Independence was read. The act had been prepared and written in Spanish by Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista, who also read its proclamation.[30]

On 18 June, Aguinaldo issued a decree formally establishing his dictatorial government.[31] On June 23, another decree signed by Aguinaldo was issued, replacing the Dictatorial Government with a Revolutionary Government, with himself as President.[32][33]


Presidency

Main article: First Philippine Republic

The insurgent First Philippine Republic was formally established with the proclamation of the Malolos Constitution on January 21, 1899 in Malolos, Bulacan and endured until the capture of Emilio Aguinaldo by the American forces on March 23, 1901 in Palanan, Isabela, which effectively dissolved the First Republic.

Aguinaldo appointed two premiers in his tenure. These were Apolinario Mabini and Pedro Paterno.

Administration and Cabinet

President Aguinaldo had two cabinets in the year 1899. Thereafter, the war situation resulted in his ruling by decree.

Domestic Policies

Fiscal Reform

Opening of the Malolos Congress at the Barasoain Church, Malolos, Bulacan on September 15, 1898.

The Malolos Congress continued its sessions and accomplished certain positive tasks. The Spanish fiscal system was provisionally retained. The same was done with the existing taxes, save those upon cockfighting and other amusements. War taxes were levied and voluntary contributions were solicited. Customs duties were established. A national loan was launched.

Education Initiative

President Aguinaldo ordered schools open. Elementary education was made compulsory and free. The Filipino educator, Enrique Mendiola, founded the "Instituto de Burgos" and were appointed by the Director of Public Instruction. It offered courses in agriculture, surveying, and commerce, as well as a complete A.B course.

On October 1898, a government decree fixed the opening date of the "Universidad Literia".[34] Couses offered were Medicine, Surgery, Pharmacy, and Notary Public. The President of the Philippines appointed the professors thereof. They, in turn, chose the University rector. The first to occupy this position was Joaquín Gonzales. Later, he was succeeded by León María Guererro.[35]

Local government reorganization

Acceding to Apolinario Mabini's advice, President Aguinaldo first issued two decreed, dated 18th and 20th June, reorganizing the provincial and municipal governments. In these documents, Aguinaldo made it clear that although was circumstances had forced him to become a dictator[36], his constant desire was to surround himself with the most representative men of every province and who, by their conduct, should merit the confidence in their province-mates, in order that, knowing, through them, the needs of every one of these places, he might adopt the best measures to attend ti them.[36]

By virtue of these decrees, the municipal government was to established along these lines: all 21-year old residents were entitled to elect a Popular Council composed of a President, Vice-President, barrio chiefs, delegate of justice and civil registry, delegate of police and internal order, and delegate of taxes and properties. These offices were to be confirmed in their positions by the National Government. In regard to the provincial governments, the officers to be elected by the Presidents and confirmed in the same manner as the municipal counterparts, were: a Governor and three councilors, to compose, together with the municipal resident of the provincial capital, the Provincial Council. Also, provincial military commanders were provided for each to take charge of recruiting soldiers for the national army[36].

Constitutional Amendments

Realizing the unpopularity, as well as the inconvenience, occasioned by Article Five of the Malolos Constitution providing the separation of Church and State, Prime Minister Apolinario Mabini, statesmanlike, proposed an amendment, temporary in character, providing for the suspension of said article until a regular constitutional assembly shall have been convened. In the mean time the municipalities that might need the spiritual ministry of a Filipino priest, were to provide funds for his necessary support. The proposal was accented on 23rd December and became Transitory Article No. 100 of the national constitution[36].

Visayan Federation

Emphasizing the solid unity of the new Republic, Raymundo Melliza was appointed as President of the Visayan Federation for two years, after having sworn allegiance to the Philippine Republic and recognizing Aguinaldo as the nation's President[36].

Foreign Policies

Spanish Prisoners

Upon the inauguration of the First Philippine Republic, President Emilio Aguinaldo granted executive clemency to all Spanish civilians being held prisoners. He also granted permission for all foreigners, including Spaniards, to freely engage in business in the Philippines[36].

Philippine American War

Main article: Philippine-American War
Aguinaldo boarding USS Vicksburg following his capture in 1901.

On the night of February 4, 1899, a Filipino was shot by an American sentry. This incident is considered the beginning of the Philippine-American War, and open fighting soon broke out between American troops and pro-independence Filipinos. Superior American firepower drove Filipino troops away from the city, and the Malolos government had to move from one place to another.[37]

Aguinaldo led resistance to the Americans, then retreated to northern Luzon with the Americans on his trail. On June 2, 1899, a telegram from Aguinaldo was received by Gen. Antonio Luna, a disciplinarian and brilliant general and looming rival in the military hierarchy, asking him to proceed to Cabanatuan, Nueva Ecija for a meeting at the Cabanatuan Church Convent. However, treachery was afoot. Three days later (June 5), when Luna arrived, he learned Aguinaldo was not at the appointed place. As Luna was about to depart, he was shot, then stabbed to death by Aguinaldo's men. Luna was later buried in the churchyard; no investigation was made, and Luna's assassins were never punished.[38]

After Luna's assassination, Aguinaldo assumed command of the Filipino forces. Without Luna's military expertise, Filipino forces encountered disaster everywhere. In November 1899, Aguinaldo and his staff fled northwards from the advancing Americans, to Palanan, Isabela, where he established a new headquarters. A picked force of 60 men under General Gregorio del Pilar fought a heroic battle at Tirad Pass against a much larger American force to delay the American advance to ensure Emilio Aguinaldo's escape. Del Pilar was killed in the battle along with 52 others of the defending force.[39]

Less than two years later, on March 23, 1901, Aguinaldo was captured at his headquarters in Paanan by U.S. General Frederick Funston, with the help of Macabebe trackers. The American task force gained access to Aguinaldo's camp by pretending to be captured prisoners. Aguinaldo was confined at Malacanang Palace in what is today's State Dining Room. On April 19, 1901, Aguinaldo took an oath of allegiance to the United States, formally ending the First Republic and recognizing the sovereignty of the United States over the Philippines.[40] After Aguinaldo's surrender, some Filipino commanders continued the revolution. On July 30, 1901, General Miguel Malvar issued a manifesto saying, "Forward, without ever turning back. ... All wars of independence have been obliged to suffer terrible tests![41]" General Malvar surrendered to U.S forces in Lipa, Batangas on April 16, 1902. The war was formally ended by a unilateral proclamation of general amnesty by U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt.[42]

Post-Presidency

U.S. Territorial Period

Main article: History of the Philippines (1898-1946)
Aguinaldo and Quezon during Flag Day, 1935.

During the American occupation, Aguinaldo supported groups that advocated immediate independence, and helped veterans of the struggle. He organized the Asociación de los Veteranos de la Revolución (Association of Veterans of the Revolution), which worked to secure pensions for its members and made arrangements for them to buy land on installment from the government.

The display of the Philippine flag was declared illegal by the Sedition Act of 1907. This law was repealed on October 30, 1919.[43] Following this, Aguinaldo transformed his home in Kawit into a monument to the flag, the revolution and the declaration of Independence. As of 2010, his home still stands and is known as the Aguinaldo Shrine.

Aguinaldo retired from public life for many years. In 1935, when the Commonwealth of the Philippines was established in preparation for Philippine independence, he ran for president in the Philippine presidential election, 1935, but lost by a landslide to fiery Spanish mestizo Manuel L. Quezon. The two men formally reconciled in 1941, when President Quezon moved Flag Day to June 12, to commemorate the proclamation of Philippine independence.[43] During the Japanese occupation, he cooperated with the Japanese, making speeches, issuing articles and infamous radio addresses in support of the Japanese—including a radio appeal to Gen. Douglas MacArthur on Corregidor to surrender in order to "spare the innocence of the Filipino youth."[44][45]

After the Americans retook the Philippines, Aguinaldo was arrested along with several others accused of collaboration with the Japanese, and briefly jailed. He was released by presidential amnesty.[46]

Aguinaldo was 77 when the United States Government fully recognized Philippine independence in the Treaty of Manila, in accordance with the Tydings-McDuffie Act of 1934.[47]

Post-American era

See also: History of the Philippines (1946-1965), History of the Philippines (1965-1986), and History of the Philippines (1986-present)

In 1950, President Elpidio Quirino appointed Aguinaldo as a member of the Council of State, where he served a full term. He returned to retirement soon after, dedicating his time and attention to veteran soldiers' "interests and welfare."

He was made an honorary Doctor of Laws, Honoris Causa, by the University of the Philippines in 1953.

In 1962, President Diosdado Macapagal changed the celebration of Independence Day from July 4 to June 12.[n 2] Aguinaldo rose from his sickbed to attend the celebration of independence 64 years after he declared it.

Death

Philippine 5 peso bill

Aguinaldo died of coronary thrombosis at age 94 on February 6, 1964, at the Veterans Memorial Hospital in Quezon City. A year before his death, he had donated his lot and his mansion to the government. This property now serves as a shrine to "perpetuate the spirit of the Revolution of 1896."[5]

In 1985, Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas made a new 5-peso bill depicting a portrait of Aguinaldo on the front of the bill. The back of the bill features the declaration of the Philippine independence on June 12, 1898.

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Emilio Aguinaldo.
Wikisource has original works by or about:
Emilio Aguinaldo

Notes

  1. ^ a b c Most sources, including the National Historical Commission of the Philippines, support a 22 March birthdate.[5][6][7] Some sources give other dates.[8][9]
  2. ^ On May 12, 1962, President Macapagal signed "Presidential Proclamation No. 28, Declaring June 12 as Philippine Independence Day".[48] There is no doubt that President Macapagal intended the proclamation to have that effect[49] and sources commonly assert this as fact,[50] but the operative paragraph of the proclamation declares a single day, "Tuesday, June 12, 1962, as a special public holiday throughout the Philippines ...". On August 4, 1964, Republic Act No. 4166 proclaimed the twelfth day of June as the Philippine Independence Day and renamed the fourth of July holiday to "Philippine Republic Day".[51]

References

  1. ^ "Emilio Aguinaldo". The New Book of Knowledge, Grolier Incorporated. 1977.
  2. ^ Karnow, Stanley (1989). "Emilio Aguinaldo". In Our Image: America's Empire in the Philippines. Random House. ISBN 978-0394549750.
  3. ^ Weir, Frasier. "Spanish-American War / War of Philippine Independence 1898 - 1901". The hostilities in the Philippine War of Independence began on February 4, 1899 and continued for two years. The United States needed 126,000 soldiers to subdue the Philippines. The war took the lives of 4,234 Americans and 16,000 Filipinos. University of Alberta.
  4. ^ Mateo, Grace. "The Philippine Revolution Against Spain". The Philippine Revolution ended more than three centuries of Spanish colonial rule which began when Miguel Lopez de Legazpi founded the settlement of Cebu, the oldest Philippine city, in 1565. The Office of Multicultural Student Services University of Hawaii.
  5. ^ a b "EMILIO F. AGUINALDO (1869–1964)" (PDF). nhi.gov.ph. {{cite web}}: External link in |publisher= (help)
  6. ^ Donald H. Dyal; Brian B. Carpenter; Mark A. Thomas (1996), Historical dictionary of the Spanish American War, Greenwood Publishing Group, p. 6, ISBN 9780313288524
  7. ^ Keat Gin Ooi (2004), Southeast Asia: a historical encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor, ABC-CLIO, p. 129, ISBN 9781576077702
  8. ^ "Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo (1869–1964)". aboutph.com. {{cite web}}: External link in |publisher= (help)
  9. ^ Henri Turot (1981), Emilio Aguinaldo, first Filipino president, 1898–1901, Foreign Service Institute, p. 3
  10. ^ Ramos, Marlon (June 14, 2010). "Aguinaldo heirs creep into Cavite politics". Inquirer.net. Retrieved August 22, 2010.
  11. ^ Kalaw 1927, p. 77.
  12. ^ Agoncillo 1990, p. 179.
  13. ^ a b c Guererro, Milagros; Schumacher, S.J., John (1998), Reform and Revolution, Kasaysayan: The History of the Filipino People, vol. 5, Asia Publishing Company Limited, ISBN 962-258-228-1
  14. ^ Agoncillo 1990, p. 176.
  15. ^ Agoncillo 1990, pp. 178–182.
  16. ^ Agoncillo 1990, p. 182.
  17. ^ Agoncillo 1990, p. 184.
  18. ^ Agoncillo 1990, pp. 184–185.
  19. ^ Agoncillo 1990, p. 188.
  20. ^ Agoncillo 1990, pp. 189–190.
  21. ^ Zaide 1999, p. 249.
  22. ^ Don Emilio Aguinaldo y Famy, "True Version of the Philippine Revolution", Authorama Public Domain Books, retrieved 2007-11-16 {{citation}}: |chapter= ignored (help)
  23. ^ The Mexican dollar at the time was worth about 50 U.S. cents, according to Halstead, Murat (1898), "XII. The American Army in Manila. General Emilio Aguinaldo, a traitor of the Philippine Republic, during Spanish-American Regime.", The Story of the Philippines and Our New Possessions, Including the Ladrones, Hawaii, Cuba and Porto Rico, p. 126
  24. ^ Zaide 1999, p. 253.
  25. ^ Zaide 1999, pp. 185–186.
  26. ^ Zaide 1999, pp. 255–256.
  27. ^ Zaide 1999, pp. 256–257.
  28. ^ Kalaw 1927, p. 106.
  29. ^ Titherington 1900, pp. 357–358.
  30. ^ Kalaw 1927, pp. 413–417 Appendix A
  31. ^ Guevara 1972, p. 10.
  32. ^ Kalaw 1927, pp. 423–429 Appendix C.
  33. ^ Guevara 1972, p. 35.
  34. ^ Guevara 1972, p. 61.
  35. ^ Antonio Molino: The Philippines through the Centuries (Volume two), 1961
  36. ^ a b c d e f Molina, Antonio. The Philippines: Through the centuries. Manila: University of Sto. Tomas Cooperative, 1961. Print.
  37. ^ Zaide 1999, pp. 268, 269–270, 273–274.
  38. ^ Agoncillo 1990, pp. 221–222.
  39. ^ Zaide 1999, p. 274.
  40. ^ Zaide 1999, pp. 274–275.
  41. ^ Zaide 1999, p. 275.
  42. ^ "GENERAL AMNESTY FOR THE FILIPINOS; Proclamation Issued by the President" (PDF), The New York Times, July 4, 1902, retrieved 2008-02-05
  43. ^ a b Quezon, Manuel L. III (2002-04-02). "History of the Philippines Flag". Flags of the World. Retrieved 2007-06-06.
  44. ^ "Emilio Aguinaldo". philippine-revolution.110mb.com. {{cite web}}: External link in |publisher= (help)
  45. ^ Schroder 2004, p. 285.[unreliable source?]
  46. ^ Fredriksen 2001, p. 2.
  47. ^ TREATY OF GENERAL RELATIONS BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA AND THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES. SIGNED AT MANILA, ON 4 JULY 1946 (pdf), United Nations, retrieved 2007-12-10
  48. ^ Diosdado Macapagal, Proclamation No. 28 Declaring June 12 as Philippine Independence Day, Philippine History Group of Los Angeles, retrieved 2009-11-11.
  49. ^ Diosdado Macapagal (2002), "Chapter 4. June 12 as Independence Day", KALAYAAN (PDF), Philippine Information Agency, pp. 12–15 {{citation}}: External link in |publisher= (help).
  50. ^ Sharon Delmendo (2004), The star-entangled banner: one hundred years of America in the Philippines, University of the Philippines Press, p. 10, ISBN 9789715424844.
  51. ^ AN ACT CHANGING THE DATE OF PHILIPPINE INDEPENDENCE DAY FROM JULY FOUR TO JUNE TWELVE, AND DECLARING JULY FOUR AS PHILIPPINE REPUBLIC DAY, FURTHER AMENDING FOR THE PURPOSE SECTION TWENTY-NINE OF THE REVISED ADMINISTRATIVE CODE, Chanrobles Law Library, August 4, 1964, retrieved 2009-11-11

Further reading

  • Aguinaldo, Emilio (1964), Mga Gunita ng Himagsikan
  • Zaide, Gregorio F. (1984), Philippine History and Government, National Bookstore Printing Press
Political offices
New office President of the Philippines
March 22, 1897 – April 1, 1901 		Vacant
Office nullified; Philippines had been ceded to the United States by Spain
Title next held by
Manuel L. Quezon

Template:Persondata

Template:Link GA

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emilio_Aguinaldo&oldid=454146120"