Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire (Ottoman Turkish: دولتِ عَليه عُثمانيه, Devlet-i Âliye-i Osmaniye, literally "Ottoman Sublime State"), commonly known in its days as the Turkish Empire, was an imperial power, bordering the Mediterranean Sea, that existed from 1299 to 1922. At the height of its power in the 16th century, it included Anatolia, the Middle East, parts of North Africa, and much of south-eastern Europe to the Caucasus. It comprised an area of about 5.6 million km² [1], though it controlled a much larger area through indirect rule in adjoining areas dominated mainly by nomadic tribes. The empire interacted with both the East and the West throughout its six-century history.

The Ottoman Empire was established by the tribe of Kinsik Oghuz Turks in western Anatolia and was ruled by the Osmanlı dynasty, the descendants of those Turks. It was founded by Osman I (in Arabic ʿUthmān, عُثمَان, hence the name Ottoman Empire). In 1453, following its capture from the Byzantine Empire, Constantinople (modern İstanbul) became the new capital of the Ottoman Empire, under the name 'Kostantiniye'. In the 16th and 17th centuries, the Ottoman Empire was among the world's most powerful political entities, with the powers of eastern Europe constantly threatened by its steady advance through the Balkans and the southern part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Its navy was a powerful force in the Mediterranean. On several occasions it even invaded central Europe, laying siege to Vienna in its attempts to conquer the Habsburg domain, and was only repulsed by coalitions of European powers.

At its highest point, the Ottoman Empire contained many important places of classical antiquity, including Homer's Troy and Achaea, Zeus' Europa, Io's Bosphorus, the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus together with all the Seven Wonders of the World, the sarcophagus of Alexander the Great, Abraham's oasis and wells, the Nile River, the Mount of the Sermon, and the Hill of Golgotha.

The dissolution of the empire was a consequence of World War I, when Allied forces, together with the Arabs, eventually defeated Ottoman forces in the Middle East. At the end of the war, the Ottoman government collapsed and the empire was divided among the victorious powers. Subsequent years saw the declaration of new states from the remnants of the Ottoman Empire, and its centre became the Republic of Turkey. The members of the Osmanlı family were banned from Turkey for political reasons. In 1999, after 76 years, Turkey's parliament granted Turkish citizenship to the descendants of the Osmanlı family.

History

The history of Ottoman Empire spans more than seven centuries. Older classifications of this history were based on military gains and losses. Current approaches use wider perspectives, such as periods of growth or dissolution, or use economic perspectives to delineate periods of stagnation and decline. The timeline given below shows the periods, significant events and the padisah of the Ottoman dynasty. A more detailed timeline of the Ottoman Empire exists.

Early stage (origins)

The history of the House of Osman is traced back to Turkic migration from Asia, which began during 10th century. The Kinsik was one of the main tribes "tr:beylik" taking part in this migration. When they settled in Anatolia during 12th century, they accepted the ruling of the Seljukid State of Anatolia^[2]. This gave them the ability of being protected from outsiders, a chance to develop their own internal structure and a military power through cooperation with the non-turkic elements of the eastern Anatolian residents. Beginning with the dissolution of the Seljukid State of Anatolia, the Ottomans found themselves mainly in conflicts with other beyliks. The results of these conflicts ended with the establishment of the Ottoman Empire.

The Ottoman Empire, as a state, originated in the late 13th century as a beylik, or Turkic emirate, within the Seljukid State of Anatolia, which was itself a puppet and vassal of the Il Khanate of the Mongol Empire. According to tradition, it was in 1299 that Osman I declared independence for the beylik.

Rise (1299–1453)

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With the rise of the empire, the characteristics and nature of the state were defined. The Ottomans definitively carved out their own preserve in history under the rule of Mehmed II.

In this period, discussions among the Ottoman élite on how to organize a new state constitute the most important detail. The location of this movement gave it access to many different cultures and experiences. Given the historical facts of other great empires, the Ottoman élite believed that the power of the sword was not enough to build and maintain a powerful state^[3]. It was important to find strong and capable men and bind them together in willing cooperation to conquer large sections of Europe, Asia, and Africa. It was also important to organize and govern their conquests in a fairly satisfactory fashion, and to establish a structure which would take great effort to dismantle. The Ottoman élite gave precedence to the political ideas that constituted the life of the empire, which became their ruling institution^[4]. Only with these ideas was it possible to attract a great body of men from many directions and races and unite them in a common effort.

Though the Ottoman state existed before Osman I, he is regarded as the founder of the empire, as he named it and was the first bey to declare his independence. He extended the frontiers of the empire towards the Byzantine Empire, while other Turkish beyliks suffered from infighting. Under Osman I, the Ottoman capital moved to Bursa. He published the first coin under his name, demonstrating the trust he built^[5]. In centuries to come, his age would be recalled with the phrase, "May he be as good as Osman".

Mehmed II was only 12 years old when he became sultan, and he was reputed to have been an erudite warrior. His military prowess was demonstrated with his conquest of Constantinople. Mehmed II also enjoyed the full support of the empire. He used this to reorganize the state structure and military.

Growth (1453–1683)

The growth of Ottoman power can be grouped into two main characteristic periods. The first period is that of conquest and growth, from the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 to the death of Suleiman the Magnificent in 1566. This was a period of great achievement for the Ottoman Empire. The second period, extending from 1566 to 1683, is that of the consolidation of a now large and stable state, during which time many changes were occurring in the empire's social structures.

In 1389, the Ottomans ended Serbian power at the Battle of Kosovo, which paved the way for expansion into Europe. Sultan Selim I (1512–1520) expanded the empire's eastern frontiers, defeating Safavid Persia in the Battle of Chaldiran and establishing a naval presence in the Red Sea. Selim's successor, Suleiman the Magnificent, increased the empire's size and power even further. After capturing Belgrade, Suleiman struck a major blow against Hungary at the 1526 Battle of Mohacs, causing that kingdom to fall into anarchy. He then attacked Vienna, but failed to take the city when he was forced to retreat before the onset of winter. Soon, Transylvania, Walachia, Moldavia, and Vienna became tributary principalities of the Ottoman Empire.

In the east, Suleiman the Magnificent took Baghdad from the Persians in 1535, giving the Ottomans control of the Middle East. The Ottomans reached their "Golden Age" during Suleiman the Magnificent's reign.

The Siege of Vienna was not intended to begin an Ottoman expansion into Germany. The Turks were reacting to Austrian Habsburg interference with Hungary. But the siege turned some of the Ottoman allies against it. The Pope abandoned his secular interests to agitate for a general crusade against the Ottoman Empire. In the following decades, the Ottoman Empire was not just an occupying force; it was an instrument in European politics. The Battle of Vienna was a turning point in the 300-year struggle between the forces of Central European kingdoms and the Ottoman Empire. It brought about a long period of stagnation, ending 230 years of growth and the empire's expansion into Europe.

Stagnation (1683–1827)

What followed was a long succession of sultans who were capable but not comparable to Mehmed II, Selim I or Suleiman I. The empire was also weakened by many wars, particularly against Persia, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Russia, and Austria.

By this period, despite a notable resilience, the Ottoman Empire had ceased to be Europe's foremost power. After the defeat of Kara Mustafa by an combined army of Poland and the Holy Roman Empire at the Battle of Vienna in 1683 the empire lost some of its standing in Europe. In the Treaty of Karlowitz, that ended the Great Turkish War in 1699, the Ottomans ceded large territories which had been in their possession for two centuries. They also acknowledged, for the first time in their history, that the Austrian Empire could sign a treaty with them on equal terms.

Further wars and territories were lost to Austria in the Balkans. Certain areas of the empire, such as Egypt and Algeria, became independent from the Ottoman Empire in all but name, and subsequently came under the influence of France and Britain. A series of ten wars was fought between the Russian and Ottoman empires from the 17th to the 19th centuries.

The Ottoman defeat of the Russians in the Pruth Campaign in 1712 and the Treaty of Passarowitz led to a short, peaceful era between 1718–1730. During this period—called the "Tulip Era" due to extensive use of the tulip motif in the period's art—Ottoman policies towards Europe began to change. The empire began to improve the cities bordering the Balkans to act as a defense against the expansionist movements of the different European States. Other tentative reforms were also enacted: taxes were lowered; there were attempts to improve the image of the Ottoman state; and the first civilian industrial investments began. These measures, however, failed to put an end to the empire's decline. The technological and scientific advantages the Ottomans had once enjoyed over the European countries were vanishing^{[citation needed]}.

Sultan Selim III initiated several efforts to modernize the system and revitalize the empire. These efforts, however, were hampered by reactionary forces within the empire, primarily religious groups and the Janissary military units.

Decline (1828–1910)

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Consultative Menagerie, January 1885

The decline period of the Ottoman Empire was characterized by the reorganization and transformation of most of the empire's structures. The caricature on the right shows the sentiments of the Ottomans during this time. It was a parody of clerks in the legal bureau of the Ottoman foreign office. Yussuf Bey (the duck) was the employee, the parrot, monkey, and pig (British, Italians, Germans) that nag him were the chief custodians and interpreters (European powers). The Russians were in the background as bears.

The Tanzimat was a period of reform that lasted from 1839 to 1876. During this time a fairly modern conscripted army was formed. The banking system was reformed. The guilds were replaced with modern factories. Economically, the empire had trouble repaying the loans to European banks. Militarily, it had trouble defending itself from foreign occupation: Egypt, for instance, was occupied by the French in 1798, while Cyprus was occupied by the British in 1876. In a significant change from the past, the empire stopped entering conflicts alone and began to enter into alliances with European countries. There were a series of alliances with countries such as France, Holland, Britain, and Russia. A prime example of this change was the Crimean War, in which the British, French, Ottoman Turks, and others united against Tsarist Russia.

Of the many ideas that the Ottoman Turks acquired from West at this time, a national consciousness and even a kind of ethnic nationalism became the most influential. The empire was forced to deal with such nationalism both within and beyond its borders. Uprisings in Ottoman territory had many effects on other groups during the 19th century and determined many of the choices the Ottomans had to make during the 20th century.

While this period had many achievements, the ability of the Ottoman state to strongly influence the ethnic uprisings was questionable. Many Ottoman Turks questioned whether the policies of the state were the issue. Some felt that the sources of the inter-ethnic conflicts were external forces, supporting the conflicts for hidden goals.

The Young Turks were a group of Ottoman Turks, educated in western universities, who believed that a constitutional monarchy could ease the social unrest in the Empire. Mesrutiyet Era explains the political and social dynamics of the first constitution written by İttihat ve Terakki Cemiyeti and its social and economic consequences. Through a military coup, İttihat ve Terakki Cemiyeti forced Sultan Abdülaziz to leave his position to Murad V. However, Murad V turned out to be mentally ill and was deposed within a few months. Heir apparent Prince Abdülhamid was invited to assume power with the promise that he would declare a constitutional monarchy, which he did at 23 November 1876. The constitution was called Kanun-i Esasi (Basic Law in Turkish).

Dissolution (1908–1922)

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The Ottoman Empire joins the Central Powers in WWI

The dissolution period begins with the onset of the second Constitutional government.

Three new Balkan states formed at the end of the 19th century. All three, as well as Montenegro, sought additional territories from the large, Turkish-ruled regions known as Albania, Macedonia, and Thrace. The incomplete emergence of these nation-states on the fringes of the Ottoman Empire during the nineteenth century set the stage for war. Initially under the encouragement of Russia, a series of agreements were concluded: between Serbia and Bulgaria in March 1912 and between Greece and Bulgaria in May 1912. Montenegro subsequently concluded agreements between Serbia and Bulgaria respectively in October 1912. The Serbian-Bulgarian agreement specifically called for the partition of Macedonia which resulted in the First Balkan War. The second Balkan War soon followed.

In a final effort to regain some of these lost territories and to challenge British authority over the Suez canal, a triumvirate led by Turkish Minister of War Enver Pasha joined the Central Powers in World War I.

File:Mudros to Lausanne britains frontier in west -1976- Last map of Ottomans.jpg

Secret partition

The Ottoman Empire had some successes in the beginning years of the war. The Allies, including the newly formed ANZACs,were defeated in the Battle of Gallipoli, Iraq and the Balkans, British naval landing attempts were repulsed and some territories regained. In the Caucasus the Ottomans lost ground and over 100,000 soldiers in a series of battles. The Russians moved to a line from Trabzon, Erzurum, to Van. The Russian revolution gave the Ottomans a chance to regain these areas. However, continued British offensives proved to be too much. The Ottomans were eventually defeated by the Allies due to key attacks by British General Edmund Allenby, assistance from the Arab Revolt, and assistance from Republic of Armenia. The Armenian Republic was declared during the war and Ottoman territories were annexed.

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Map of Sèvres

The initial agreement was the Armistice of Mudros, followed by the Treaty of Sèvres. Great Britain obtained virtually everything it sought from the partition of the Ottoman Empire. The other powers of the Triple Entente were entangled in the Turkish War of Independence. The Turks rose up against the Serves, then expelled the Greeks, then confronted the Republic of Armenia. They expelled the Italians and the French. Eventually they threaten the British in the region of Straits. Finally, Anatolian Turks asserted their right to an independent national existence, with the leadership of Turkish revolutionaries.

Republic of Turkey was founded on October 29, 1923 from the remnants of the empire. Turkish independence was the 'coup de grâce' to the Ottoman state in 1922, with the overthrow of Sultan Mehmet VI Vahdettin by the new republican assembly of Republic of Turkey.

State

There are some Ottoman state characters which did not change throughout the centuries.

The Ottoman state revolutionized its administrative system with the aid and experience of Christians, Muslims and Jews while other states held on to their religion and national identity. The rapidly expanding state needed skilled local people to manage the empire, like the advisors (vizier) to the sultans, who were sometimes selected from loyal Christians, Greeks, Italians, and others. From the western perspective, this eclectic administration was apparent even in the diplomatic correspondence of the rising state, which was performed in Greek language.

In diplomatic circles, the empire was often referred to as the بابِ علی Bâb-i-âlî, or the Sublime Porte ("great gate") - an allusion to the grand palace gate of the Imperial Topkapı Palace, where the sultan greeted foreign ambassadors. Some have interpreted the title as a reference to the geographic location of the Empire, which effectively gave it and its capital Istanbul the distinction of being the "gateway" between Europe and Asia.

The Ottoman Turks were administrators, not producers, except for the Turkish peasants producing foodstuff. The Ottoman Empire did not utilize a program of economic exploitation, like the colonial empires of the modern Europe states. The government, according to Ottoman understanding, was about defending the land, and building the security and harmony within the land. Contrary to common belief among the Christians, the source of violence during the last years of Ottoman Empire was the nation building process, not the Ottoman way of administration.

Sultans

See also Ottoman dynasty.

The sultan, was the sole regent and government of the empire, at least officially.

The dynasty is most often called the Osmanlı or the House of Osman. The first rulers called themselves bey thereby acknowledging the sovereignty of the Seljuk sultanate and its successor the Ilkhanate sultanate. Murad I was the first Ottoman to claim the title of "sultan" (king). With the capture of Constantinople in 1453, the state was on its way to becoming a mighty empire, with Mehmed II as its emperor, or padishah, sometimes referred to in Europe as the Grand Turk. From 1517 onwards, the Ottoman sultan was also the Caliph of Islam, and the Ottoman Empire was, from 1517 until 1922 (or 1924), synonymous with the Caliphate or the Islamic State. The sultan enjoyed many titles, such as Sovereign of the House of Osman, Sultan of Sultans, and Khan of Khans. From 1517 onwards, the sultan was also Commander of the Faithful and Successor of the Prophet of the Lord of the Universe, i.e. Caliph, which theoretically also gave him overlordship over other Muslim rulers around the world. For example, among the Mughal Emperors of India, only Aurangzeb had the Khutba read in his own name.

Organization

Although the Ottoman state had many reorganizations, several main structures remained the same.

There was one person who was totally responsible for, and always in command of, the state: the sultan of the empire. Decisions were always taken to a court of people at the Divan, but the final decision belonged to the sultan. In the initial stages of the empire, the court was composed of elders of the tribe. It was modified to include professionals from the military and local elites, such as high-ranking religious and political advisors. They were named as the viziers. This structure was later modified to include the grand vizier, who assumed some of the responsibilities from the sultan. The Sublime Porte was the open court of the sultan, named after the gate to the headquarters to the grand vizier, where the sultan held the greeting ceremony for foreign ambassadors. At times, the grand vizier became as important as, or more than, the sultan. After 1908, the state was a constitutional monarchy without executive powers and a parliament with representatives chosen from the provinces.

Even though there were no elections, there was a very interesting democratic structure within the Ottoman state. From outside the Ottoman state organization appeared to be hierarchy with the sultan its supreme leader. However there were many historical incidences where local governors acted on their own, sometimes in opposition to the sultan. There are eleven incidences where sultans were dethroned because they were perceived as threats to the state. Sultans were chosen from the sons of the previous sultan, but there was a strong educational system that eliminated the unfit and built a common trust among the ruling elite for the son before they were crowned. There were only two failed attempts to overthrow the ruling family, which suggests extreme political stability.

At the height of its power, the Ottoman Empire had 29 provinces plus the tributary principalities of Moldavia, Transylvania, and Wallachia.

Failures of the state

The fall of the Ottoman state is often attributed to the failure of its economic structure. The Ottoman state organization was planned when the economics of the period was agricultural. Its public functions were depended on public investments through an institution called vakifs. As the economy of the times changed, the Ottoman state was isolated from the public as its economic participation in development of the inns, hospitals, libraries, or indeed as explained before every function was dependent on public cooperation. As the west moved to industrialization, Ottomans failed to adapt their system to the changes. Turn of the 19th century modern taxation was not used and utility investments were not adapted to modern needs. Also with the change of trade roads, the Ottoman Empire lost its main income source. Inability to industrialize the state and too great a dependence on farmers as a source of revenue through taxation was counted among the main factors. Its inability to establish economic and political hegemony over other nations, despite the fact that it was an empire, earned it the name "Sick man of Europe". The economy of the Ottoman state was no match to its counterparts which signalled the end of the empire.

Size of the empire brought its problems. Inefficiencies originating from the size of the empire were also significant. Trying to keep the empire intact through internal and external wars was a costly process which compromised the Ottoman Empire's capacity to introduce reform.

Communication technology, of its time, did not migrate into state structure. With improvements in communication the population that was distributed along the trade routes became concentrated on the centers. This population was highly affected by the economic competition of that time. The populations that moved into cities were faced with hardships which tested their patience, persistence, and adaptability. The Ottomans had to keep the system running under these social pressures.

The trade dynamics was based on non-state elements. As early as the 1470s Greeks and Jews were the premier traders, not the Ottomans. Ottoman state concept was based on establishing the public order. Consequently, the Ottomans were forced to protect the Greek elite in order to maintain a functioning economy. They were, moreover, constantly obliged to deal with social unrest among the empire's Greek community. When the Greek elite turned against the Ottomans, the empire lost control. The Greek elite blamed the economic problems on the Ottomans and offered an escape route to Greeks by pursuing a nation of their own. In reality, even after the Greek revolution, the same elite was controlling the economy with the trade routes having already been altered.

By many accounts, the circumstances surrounding the fall of the Ottoman Empire closely paralleled the fall of Byzantium, particularly in terms of the ongoing tensions among the empires' populations and its inability to relate with them. In the case of the Ottomans, the introduction of a parliamentary system during the Tanzimat was too late to reverse the damage.

Economy

The economic structure of the Empire was defined by the geopolitical structure. The Ottoman Empire stood in between West and East, thus blocking the route eastward and forcing Spanish and Portuguese navigators to set out in search of a new route to the Orient. The empire was controlling the route that Marco Polo once used. When Christopher Columbus discovered America, the Ottoman Empire was at its highest position - an economical power which extended over three continents. Current Ottoman studies imply that the change in politics between Ottomans and central Europe did depend on the opening of the new sea routes. It is also possible to see the decay of the Ottoman Empire by measuring the diminishing significance of the land routes. While central Europe was moving forward, Ottoman were holding on to their traditions. The pragmatic thinking of Ottomans that once helped to reform the systems left behind by Roman Empire was once again giving out the same signs which Ottomans found centuries ago.

Law

The Ottoman empire was legally based around the philosophy of local jurisprudence. Local legal systems which did not conflict with the state as a whole were largely left alone. The Ottoman system had three court systems, one for the Muslims, run by kadi (judges), one for non-Muslims (appointed Jews and Christians ruled over their religious areas), and another for trade (originated after the capitulations). On top of everything was the Kanun Law (administrative in nature).

These court categories were not exclusive; Islamic courts, which were the primary courts, could be used for a trade conflict or inter-religious cases, and often Jews and Christians went to Islamic courts to get a more forceful ruling on an issue. Women almost always went to Islamic courts, as they tended to side more often with and gave fairer payments to women.

As for systems of law, there were the Sharia Law and the Kanun (Turkish for set of rules and regulations) Law. The Ottoman state did not interfere with religious law systems for other recognized faiths, even if it had a voice through local governors. Sharia Law developed from the Qur'an, the Hadith, from Ijma (concensus), from qiyas (analogy), and from local customs. Kanun Law was the secular law of the sultan, handling issues not clearly shown in the Qur'an. Both were taught at law schools, which existed in Bursa and Istanbul. The court was run by sultan-appointed kadi.

“The beginnings of legal reform were initiated in the Ottoman Empire in the middle of the nineteenth century through the promulgation of commercial and penal codes such as the Ottoman Commercial code (1850) and the Ottoman Penal code (1858).” (Haddad, Y.Y., Byron H. and Ellison F., Eds.)

Military

The Ottoman military was a complex system of recruiting and fief-holding. In the Ottoman army, light cavalry long formed the core and they were given fiefs called timars. Cavalry used bows and short swords and made use of nomad tactics similar to those of the Mongol Empire. The Ottoman army was once among the most advanced fighting forces in the world, being one of the first to employ muskets. The famous Janissary corps provided élite troops and bodyguards for the sultan. After the 17th century, however, the Ottomans could no longer produce a modern fighting force because of a lack of reforms, mainly because of the corrupted Janissaries. The abolition of the Janissary corps in 1826 was not enough, and in the war against Russia, the Ottoman Empire severely lacked modern weapons and technologies.

The modernisation of the Ottoman empire in the 19th century started with the military. This was the first institution to hire foreign experts and which sent their officer corps for training in western European countries. Technology and new weapons were transferred to the empire, such as German and British guns, air force and a modern navy. The empire was successful in modernising its army. However, it was still no match against the major western powers.

Culture

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Istanbul Park

Ottoman culture covers expressive activities and the symbolic structures that happened under the umbrella of the Ottoman Empire. That is an inclusive statement for all the religious and ethnic cultures of the state. Also, there is a specific intersecting culture that originated from living multi-culturally that reached its highest levels among the Ottoman elites. Ottoman elites were not monolithic, but composed of many different ethnic and religious people.

With the turn of the 19th century, nationalistic states including Turkey began to write their own history. Most of the references to Ottoman culture were buried either in the archives or destroyed. What we know about that period mainly originates from opposing state archives and their official view points. These references cannot be claimed fair or inclusive. It is also hard to reach defending views given the fact that the empire ceased to exist. Current studies show that empire culture was very rich and colorful.

Contrary to wide spread beliefs, coming from a nomadic culture, Ottoman Turks were in peace with different cultures that they came in contact with. Originally, Ottomans belonged to central-Asian culture. Ottomans later integrated Persian and Byzantine cultures into their way of life, instead of being assimilated into these cultures. When considering the Turkish folkloric or Ottoman elite art, we can see that they have conserved the colors and symbols that were inherited from their origins. Ottoman elites used Persian in their art to express their own inner world. The Ottoman court life was a harmony of Turkish and the Persian Shahs, but had many Byzantine and European influences.

This Ottoman multicultural perspective reflects on their policies. One of the reasons that the Ottoman Empire lasted this long was the high tolerance policies pursued originating from their nomadic inheritance. This statement should be taken as a comparison to assimilative medieval times (east and west). The Ottoman State pursued multi-cultural and multi-religious politics. When we talk about Ottoman tolerance, we talk about the structures that accommodate different perspectives. A good example was the Ottoman justice system. Another can be cited with the local governors to the regions. As the Ottomans moved further west, the Ottoman leaders themselves absorbed some of the culture of the conquered regions. With the intercultural marriages, the new cultural structures were gradually added to the Ottomans, creating the characteristic Ottoman elite culture. When compared to common Turkish arts (folkloric), the assimilation of the Ottoman elites to these new cultures is apparent.

Religion

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Istanbul 1908 - Greeks during Epiphany

Before the Turks adopted Islam, they practiced a polytheistic religion. After their first contact with Arabs and the battle of Talas, a number of Turkic tribes accepted Islam and propagated their new faith further into Turkistan. The process of conversion was over long before the birth of the Ottoman empire.

As early as 1453, after having conquered Constantinople, they granted special privileges to the Christian people who had belonged to the old Byzantine Empire. Christians became subjects of the Ottoman Empire but not subject to Muslim faith or law.

The Ottoman state never officially enforced religious conformity, nor did it harshly pursue a policy of individual conversion. The fact that opposition to the Ottoman state had always been on a national scale supports this idea. Going back to 1391, Bayezid I with Thessalonica(Selanik) actively adopted policies of lenient behaviors towards those with different faiths. Sultans took their primary concern to be service of the interests of the state, as the Ottoman Empire could not survive without toil, cooperation and taxes. For centuries, the Ottoman Empire was often as a refuge for the Jews of Europe, who were often persecuted or expelled from the countries of Christian Europe (see History of the Jews in Turkey). The Ottoman state's relation with the Orthodox Church was very peaceful. The Ottoman state kept the orthodox structure intact until the national uprisings. Currently under Patriarch Bartholomew of Constantinople we can see encompassing national Orthodox jurisdictions such as Bulgarian Orthodox, Greek Orthodox, and Russian Orthodox. Some of these policies were slowly changed with the adoption of parliamentary monarchy.

Constantinople was "Turkified" externally, changing its name to Istanbul. Some churches, including the Hagia Sophia, were converted to mosques. The sultans were careful not to destroy the Christian mosaics but covered them with plaster. In 1935, after five centuries, the complete removal of the plaster was carried out after the new Republic of Turkey, "in the interest of art", converted the Hagia Sophia into a museum. This very treatment of those old Christian mosaics — a treatment not of destruction but of conscious preservation — illustrates the similar fate of the Christian people of the Balkans who likewise had a cultural revivification as nations and states.

References

^ Albert Howe Lybye, "The Government of the Ottoman Empire in the Time of Suleiman the Magnificent"
^ Sir Edward Shepherd, "History of the Ottoman Turks; from the beginning of their empire to the present time"
^ "The Ottoman and Safavid Empires: A New Imperial Synthesis" in History of the Modern Middle East.
Finkel, Caroline. Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1923. ISBN 0719555132.
Imber, Colin. The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power. ISBN 0333613864.
Jelavich, Barbara. History of the Balkans: Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. ISBN 0521252490.
Necipoğlu, Gülru. Architecture, Ceremonial, and Power: The Topkapi Palace in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries. ISBN 0262140500.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)

External links

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