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Fobos-Grunt or Phobos-Grunt (Russian: Фобос-Грунт, literally Phobos-Ground) is an attempted Russian sample return mission to Phobos, one of the moons of Mars. It was launched on 9 November 2011 at 02:16 local time (8 November 2011, 20:16 UTC) from the Baikonur Cosmodrome, but subsequent rocket burns intended to set the craft on a course for Mars failed, leaving it stranded in low Earth orbit.[1][2] The Russian news agency RIA Novosti reported on 24 November 2011 that the mission had been pronounced a failure because the spacecraft could no longer be sent to Mars, the final opportunity to do so having passed on 21 November.[3] As of 2 December 2011, Russian scientists were still trying to recover the spacecraft.[4] If telemetry can be received from Phobos-Grunt before it falls back to Earth, this could help identify the cause of the failure and help avoid repetition.[3][5] It was reported on December 6 that pieces of the spacecraft had begun breaking off and re-entering the atmosphere with the rest of it expected to follow in early to mid January.[6] After consulting with Russian mission managers, the European Space Agency has stopped attempting to communicate with the vehicle, with one analyst noting that the mission "appears dead in the water".[7]

Funded by the Russian space agency Roscosmos and developed by NPO Lavochkin and the Russian Space Research Institute, Fobos-Grunt was the first Russian-led interplanetary mission since the failed Mars 96. (The last successful Russian interplanetary missions were Vega 2 in 1985–1986, and the partially successful Phobos 2 in 1988–1989.)[8] Fobos-Grunt was designed to become the first spacecraft to return a macroscopic sample from an extraterrestrial body since Luna 24 in 1976.[9] The return vehicle, carrying up to 200 g of soil from Phobos, was to have returned to Earth in August 2014.

Fobos-Grunt also carried the Chinese Mars orbiter Yinghuo-1 and the tiny Living Interplanetary Flight Experiment funded by the Planetary Society.[10] Chinese state media declared the Yinghuo-1 probe lost on 17 November 2011.[11]

Project history

Fobos-Grunt was a space probe designed primarily to return 200 g (7 ounces) of Phobos to Earth.[12] It launched successfully into Earth orbit in November 2011, but did not launch to Mars as it was supposed to.[12] Working in support of the Russian mission, an ESA tracking station in Perth, Australia managed to establish contact with the probe.[13] The spacecraft's transmitter was switched on and a signal was received by the station's 15 m dish antenna.[13]

Development

See also: Space industry of Russia
Image of Phobos. The Fobos-Grunt project began with the feasibility study of a Phobos sample-return mission in 1999.

The Fobos-Grunt project began in 1999, when the Russian Space Research Institute and NPO Lavochkin, the main developer of Soviet and Russian interplanetary probes, initiated a 9 million rouble feasibility study into a Phobos sample-return mission. The initial spacecraft design was to be similar to the probes of the Phobos program launched in the late 1980s.[14] Development of the spacecraft started in 2001 and the preliminary design was completed in 2004.[15] For years, the project stalled as a result of low levels of financing of the Russian space program. This changed in the summer of 2005, when the new government plan for space activities in 2006–2015 was published. Fobos-Grunt was now made one of the program's flagship missions. With substantially improved funding, the launch date was set for October 2009. The 2004 design was revised a couple of times and international partners were invited to join the project.[14] In June 2006, NPO Lavochkin announced that it had begun manufacturing and testing the development version of the spacecraft's onboard equipment.[16]

On 26 March 2007, Russia and China signed a cooperative agreement on the joint exploration of Mars, which included sending China's first interplanetary probe Yinghuo-1 to Mars together with the Fobos-Grunt spacecraft.[17] Compared to the main spacecraft, Yinghuo-1 weighed 115 kg (250 pounds) and was focused on Mars itself.[12] It would have been released by the main spacecraft into a Mars orbit.

Skipped 2009 launch

The October 2009 launch date could not be achieved due to delays in the spacecraft development. During 2009, officials admitted that the schedule was very tight, but still hoped until the last moment that a launch could be made.[18] On 21 September 2009 the mission was officially announced to be delayed until the next launch window in 2011.[19][20][21][22] A main reason for the delay was difficulties encountered during development of the spacecraft's onboard computers. While the Moscow-based company Tehkhom provided the computer hardware on time, the internal NPO Lavochkin team responsible for integration and software development fell behind schedule.[23] The retirement of NPO Lavochkin's head Valeriy N. Poletskiy in January 2010 was widely seen as linked to the delay of Fobos-Grunt. Viktor Khartov was appointed the new head of the company. During the extra development time resulting from the delay, a Polish-built drill was added to the Phobos lander as a back-up soil extraction device.[24]

2011 launch

The spacecraft arrived at Baikonur on 17 October 2011 and was transported to Site 31 for pre-launch processing.[25] The Zenit-2SB41 rocket carrying Fobos-Grunt successfully lifted off from Baikonur Cosmodrome at 20:16 UTC on 8 November 2011.[26] The Zenit booster inserted the spacecraft into an initial 207 km × 347 km (129 mi × 216 mi) elliptical based orbit with the inclination 51.4 degrees.[27]

Two firings of the main propulsion unit in Earth orbit are required to send the spacecraft onto the interplanetary trajectory. Since both engine ignitions would have taken place outside the range of Russian ground stations, the project participants asked volunteers around the world to take optical observations of the burns, e.g. with telescopes, and timely report the results to enable more accurate prediction of the mission flight path upon entry into the range of Russian ground stations.[28]

Post-launch

Overview of planned trajectories.
1. Baikonour launch
2. First Burn
3. Spent fuel tank ejected
4. Second Burn (Departure to Martian system)

It was expected that after 2.5 hours and 1.7 revolutions in the initial orbit, the autonomous main propulsion unit (MDU), derived from the Fregat upper stage, would conduct its firing to insert the spacecraft into the elliptical orbit (250 km x 4,150-4,170 km) with a period of about 2.2 hours. After the completion of the first burn, the external fuel tank of the propulsion unit was expected to be jettisoned, with ignition for a second burn to depart Earth orbit scheduled for one orbit, or 2.1 hours, after the end of the first burn.[27][29][30] The propulsion module constitutes the cruise-stage bus of Fobos-Grunt. According to original plans, Mars orbit arrival had been expected during September 2012 and the return vehicle was scheduled to reach Earth in August 2014.[31][32]

However, following what would have been the planned end of the first burn the spacecraft could not be located in the target orbit. The spacecraft was subsequently discovered to still be in its initial parking orbit,[1] and it was determined that the burn had not taken place.[33] One reason suggested for this behavior by Vladimir Popovkin, the head of the Russian Federal Space Agency (Roscosmos), as reported by the BBC, is that the spacecraft did not fire its engines because it could not find stars to orient itself correctly.[10] Initially, they had about three days from launch to rescue it until the batteries ran out.[12] It was then established that its solar panels had deployed, giving engineers more time to restore control of the spacecraft. It was soon discovered the spacecraft was adjusting its orbit, changing its expected re-entry from late November or December, to as late as early 2012.[34] Even though it had not been contacted, the spacecraft seemed to be actively adjusting its perigee (the point it is closest to Earth in its orbit).[34][35][36]

By 22 November 2011, attempts to establish connection with the probe were unsuccessful.[37]

Contact

On 22 November 2011, a signal from the probe was picked up by the European Space Agency's tracking station in Perth, Australia, after it had sent the probe the command to turn on one of its transmitters. The European Space Operations Centre (ESOC) in Darmstadt reported that the contact was made at 20:25 UTC on 22 November 2011 after some modifications had been made to the 15 m dish facility in Perth to improve its chances of getting a signal.[38] No telemetry was received in this communication.[39] It remains unclear whether the communications link will be sufficient to command the spacecraft to switch on its engines to take it on its intended trajectory toward Mars.[40] Roscosmos officials have said that a window of opportunity to salvage Phobos-Grunt would close in early December.[40]

The next day on 23 November, the Perth station again made contact with the spacecraft and during this contact about 400 telemetry "frames" and Doppler information were received.[41] This contact lasted six minutes.[42][43] The amount of information received during this communication was not sufficient, and therefore it was not possible to identify the problem with the probe.[43][44] Unfortunately since then all communication attempts made by ESA were unsuccessful and contact has not been reestablished.[45] Besides the lack of contact, the space vehicle did not respond to the commands sent by the European Space Agency to raise its orbit.[45] Roscosmos provided these commands to ESA.[41]

From Baikonour, Kazakhstan, Roscosmos was able to receive telemetry from Phobos-Grunt on 24 November[46] but attempts to contact it have failed.[45] This telemetry demonstrated that the probe's radio equipment is working and that it is communicating with the spacecraft's flight control systems.[46] Moreover, Roscosmos's top officials believe Fobos-Grunt to be functional, stably oriented and charging batteries through its solar panels.[39]

In a late November 2011 interview, the service manager of the European Space Agency for Phobos-Grunt, Wolfgang Hell, stated that Roscosmos had a better understanding of the problem with the spacecraft, he said: "They reached the conclusion that they have some kind of power problem onboard. So they have become more specific in terms of what we should be doing to help them."[47]

Wolfgang Hell also explained some of the difficulties in trying to contact the probe: "Because it's in such a low-Earth orbit … we have so little time, something like six to eight minutes, to get the command up." And added: "It takes a lot of luck to really hit the spacecraft with a main beam".[47] Other problems in trying to contact the spacecraft were the risk of it running out of electrical power and the fact that there was no information available indicating the space vehicle's exact position, meaning that ground antennas are pointed to it according to imprecise data gathered by radars.[47]

These difficulties meant that ESA failed to communicate with the space probe in all of the five opportunities the agency had between 18:21 GMT on 28 November and 03:47 GMT on 29 November. During those occasions the space craft didn't comply with orders to fire the engines and raise orbit. The Russian space agency then requested that ESA to repeat the orders. It's not known the reason why the commands went unanswered, it could be that the commands weren't received by the spacecraft or even that technical problems prevented the probe from conducting the maneuver.[48]

An eyewitness in San Francisco described the spacecraft emitting flashes with peaks every 20 seconds, an indication of tumbling.[49]

The European Space Agency decided to end efforts to contact the probe on 2 December 2011. However, they declared: "ESA teams remain available to assist the Phobos-Grunt mission if indicated by any change in situation".[50] In spite of that Roscosmos will continue to try to contact the space vehicle until it enters “the thicker layers of the atmosphere.”[51]

The US Strategic Command’s Joint Space Operations Center (JSpOC) has been tracking the probe[52] and identified at the start of December that Phobos-Grunt had an elliptical orbit, traveling between 130 miles (209 km) and 190 miles (305 km) from the ground but falling a few miles everyday.[53]

On 22 November 2011, during an interview, Roscosmos' deputy chief at that time, Vitaly Davydov predicted that if control over the spacecraft is not restored it could fall back to Earth sometime between late December 2011 and late February 2012.[43] Vitaly Davydov also said that the location of the crash site could only be established one day before the actual re-entry but added: "If you calculate the probability of it hitting somebody on the head, it is close to zero".[43] Meanwhile, three days later, Nicholas Johnson, NASA's chief orbital debris expert, predicted that the re-entry would occur between late January and February.[41]

Reentry

The probe is expected to reenter on January 13, 2012 +/- 5 days; the reentry zone is not yet predicted.[54] It is anticipated that the reentry capsule may survive, so as to give scientific return on the mission in the form of engineering assessment of the capsule design, and life sciences data with the LIFE module.[55]

Risk

Roughly 7.5 metric tonnes of highly toxic hydrazine and nitrogen tetroxide are on board, according to the head of Roscosmos.[2][12] It is mostly fuel for the spacecraft's upper stage. These compounds, with melting points of 2 °C and -11.2 °C, are normally kept in liquid form; if the probe is not rescued but they remain liquid they are expected to burn out during reentry.[12] NASA veteran James Oberg said the hydrazine and nitrogen tetroxide "could freeze before ultimately entering".[2] If Fobos-Grunt is not salvaged, it may be the most dangerous object to fall from orbit.[2] However, the head of Roscomos says the probability of parts reaching the Earth is "highly unlikely", and that the spacecraft would be destroyed during re-entry.[12]

Purpose

A model of Fobos-Grunt presented during Cebit 2011

Fobos-Grunt was an interplanetary probe that included a lander to study Phobos and a sample return vehicle to return a soil sample (about 200 g (7.1 oz))[56] to Earth. It was to also study Mars from orbit, including its atmosphere and dust storms, plasma and radiation.

Science goals

  • Delivery of samples of Phobos soil to Earth for scientific research of Phobos, Mars and Martian vicinity;
  • In situ and remote studies of Phobos (to include analysis of soil samples);
  • Monitoring the atmospheric behavior of Mars, including the dynamics of dust storms;
  • Studies of the vicinity of Mars, including its radiation environment, plasma and dust;[31]
  • Study of the origin of the Martian satellites and their relation to Mars;
  • Study of the role played by asteroid impacts in the formation of terrestrial planets;
  • Search for possible past or present life (biosignatures);[57]
  • Study the impact of a three year interplanetary round-trip journey to extremophile microorganisms in a small sealed capsule (LIFE experiment).[58]

Mission plan

This is a description of the original mission plan.

Journey

The spacecraft's journey to Mars would take about ten months. After arriving in Mars orbit, the main propulsion unit (MDU) and the transfer truss separate and the Chinese Mars orbiter would be released. Fobos-Grunt would then spend several months studying the planet and its moons from orbit, before landing on Phobos. The timeline with its 2011 launch, was for arrival in Mars orbit in October 2012 and landing on Phobos in February 2013.[32]

The planned landing site is a region from 5°S to 5°N, 230° to 235°E.[59]

On Phobos

Phobos

Soil sample collection would begin immediately after the lander has touched down on Phobos, with normal collection lasting 2–7 days. An emergency mode exists for the case of communications breakdown, which enables the lander to automatically launch the return rocket to deliver the samples to Earth.[60]

A robotic arm would collect samples, which can be up to 0.5 inches (1.3 cm) in diameter. At the end of the arm, there is a pipe-shaped tool which splits to form a claw. The tool contained a piston which would have pushed the sample into a cylindrical container. A light-sensitive photo-diode would have confirmed whether material collection was successful and will also allow visual inspection of the digging area. The sample extraction device would have performed 15 to 20 scoops yielding a total of 3 to 5.5 ounces (85 to 156 g) of soil.[60] The samples would be loaded into a capsule which would then be moved inside a special pipeline into the descent module by inflating an elastic bag within the pipe with gas.[15][61] Because the characteristics of Phobos soil are uncertain, the lander included another soil-extraction device, a Polish-built drill, which would have been used in case the soil turns out to be too rocky for the main scooping device.[9][24]

The return stage was mounted on top of the lander. It would have needed to accelerate to 35 km/h (22 mph) to escape Phobos' gravity. In order to avoid harming the experiments remaining at the lander, the return stage would have only ignited its engine once the vehicle had been vaulted to a safe height by springs. It would then have begun maneuvers for the eventual trip to Earth, where it would have arrived in August 2014.[60]

After the departure of the return stage, the lander's experiments would continue in situ on Phobos' surface for a year. To conserve power, mission control would have turned these on and off in a precise sequence. The robotic arm would have placed more samples in a chamber that would heat it and analyze its spectra. This analysis might have been able to determine the presence of volatile compounds, such as water.[60]

Sample return to Earth

The return stage with soil samples from Phobos was scheduled to be back near Earth in August 2014. An 11-kg[62] descent vehicle containing the capsule with soil samples (up to 0.2 kg (0.44 lb)) would have been released on direct approach to Earth at 12 km/s (7.5 mi/s). Following the aerodynamic braking to 30 m/s (98 ft/s) the conical-shaped descent vehicle would perform a hard landing without a parachute within the Sary Shagan test range in Kazakhstan.[61] The vehicle does not have any radio equipment.[9] Ground-based radar and optical observations would have been used to track the vehicle's return.[63]

Equipment

Spacecraft instruments

  • TV system for navigation and guidance[64]
  • Gas-Chromatograph package:[62]
    • Thermal Differential Analyzer
    • Gas-Chromatograph
    • Mass-Spectrometer
  • Gamma ray spectrometer[65]
  • Neutron spectrometer[65]
  • Alpha X spectrometer[65]
  • Seismometer[65]
  • Long-wave radar[65]
  • Visual and near-infrared spectrometer[65]
  • Dust counter[65]
  • Ion spectrometer[65]
  • Optical solar sensor[66]

Ground control

The mission control center was located at the Center for Deep Space Communications (Национальный центр управления и испытаний космических средств Template:Ref-ru, Євпаторійський центр дальнього космічного зв'язку Template:Ref-uk) equipped with RT-70 radio telescope near Yevpatoria in the Crimea, Ukraine.[67] Russia and Ukraine agreed in late October 2010 that the European Space Operations Centre in Darmstadt, Germany, would have controled the probe.[68]

Communications with the spacecraft on the initial parking orbit are described in a two-volume publication on «Fobos-Grunt» as follows (excerpt, as translated from Russian):[69]

2-7 Organization of the spacecraft (SC) control

Main tasks of providing the control of the SC


Trans Martian injection phase

Organization of interoperation with the SC is characterized by practical inability to provide two-way communications with the SC, mainly in the initial parking orbit. This means that the first maneuver along the powered flight path between the parking orbit and the transfer orbit is performed by the SC automatically. The correct execution of the first orbit correction maneuver requires that the following conditions are met:

  • launch to the initial orbit is performed correctly;
  • initiation of the burn is synchronized with a preset moment of Moscow Decree Time for a specific launch date.

To meet the second condition a non-volatile clock, counting the Moscow Decree Time and Date with adequate precision, is used with its dedicated power source on board the SC.


Monitoring of the SC flight starts after the flight computer is switched on by the contacts triggered by the SC separation followed by the flight computer initializing the onboard systems. The initialization takes 30 to 60 seconds. Then РПТ111 device is switched on, through which telemetry about the SC condition is transmitted to Earth. Starting with receiving this data the mission control center assumes «Fobos-Grunt» mission control.


While in parking orbit within the range of Russian ground stations, one-way monitoring of the SC flight is performed on the telemetry channel via РПТ111 transmitter, and the trajectory measurements are performed using 28Г6 device.


After reaching the transfer orbit the visibility areas are increased, angular velocity of the SC movement relative to the ground stations is decreased, an opportunity becomes available to establish two-way communications with the SC via onboard radiosystem of the cruise stage.

Development

Mockup of the spacecraft cruise-stage bus that will carry the lander to Phobos

Main participants

The main contractor of the project is NPO Lavochkin, which is responsible for the space mission component development. Chief Designer of Phobos Grunt at Lavochkin is Maksim Martynov.[70] Phobos soil sampling and downloading were developed by the GEOHI RAN Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Vernadski Institute of Geochemistry and Analytical chemistry) and the integrated scientific studies of Phobos and Mars by remote and contact methods are responsibility of the Russian Space Research Institute,[31] where the lead scientist of the mission is Alexander Zakharov.[71] Phobos Grunt's contractor, along with its engineering and science teams would face criminal prosecution which, according to Russian president Dmitry Medvedev, would not involve placing the team against the wall like under Joseph Stalin's rule, but through financial or disciplinary or criminal punishment means[72][73].

Budget

The cost of the spacecraft was 1.5 billion rubles ($64.4 million).[15] Project funding for the timeframe 2009–2012, including post-launch operations is about 2.4 billion rubles.[21] Total cost of the mission is 5 billion rubles ($163 million). In comparison, the more ambitious NASA/ESA joint Mars sample return mission is expected to cost around $8.5 billion.[74]

Revival of interplanetary missions

Fobos-Grunt was the first Russian interplanetary mission since Mars 96, which suffered a launch failure. The last Russian or Soviet interplanetary mission that was successfully launched was the second probe of the Phobos program in 1988.[71] Fobos-Grunt would have been the first sample return mission to the natural satellite of another planet conducted by mankind.[75] If successful, Fobos-Grunt would have paved the way to a number of Russian interplanetary missions, including missions to the moons of Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus, and asteroid and comet sample return missions.[76]

The Russian Federal Space Agency has said 90% of Phobos Grunt was made of new and untested elements. According to lead scientist Alexander Zakharov, the entire spacecraft and most of the instruments are new, although they do draw on the heritance of the three successful Luna sample-return missions of the 1970s.[74] Zakharov had described the Phobos sample return project as "very difficult", possibly "the most difficult interplanetary one to date."[71]

Partners

The Chinese Mars probe Yinghuo-1 was sent together with Fobos-Grunt.[77] In late 2012, after a 10-11.5 month cruise, Yinghuo-1 would have separated and entered a 800×80,000 km equatorial orbit (5° inclination) with a period of three days. The spacecraft was expected to remain on Martian orbit for one year. Yinghuo-1 would have focused mainly on the study of the external environment of Mars. Space center researchers expected to use photographs and data to study the magnetic field of Mars and the interaction between ionospheres, escape particles and solar wind.[78]

A second Chinese payload, the Soil Offloading and Preparation System (SOPSYS), was integrated into the instruments of the lander. SOPSYS is a microgravity grinding tool developed by the Hong Kong Polytechnic University.[79][80]

Another payload on Fobos-Grunt was an experiment from the Planetary Society called Living Interplanetary Flight Experiment, or LIFE, which was to send 10 types of microorganisms and a natural soil colony of microbes on the three-year round trip. The results might have fueled the debate about whether meteorite-riding organisms can spread life throughout the solar system.[18][81]

Two MetNet Mars landers, developed by the Finnish Meteorological Institute, were planned to be included as a payload to the Fobos-Grunt mission.[82][83] Due to delays in MetNet development, the landers were not ready for the previous launch date of Fobos-Grunt, 2009. For the 2011 launch window, which is not as suitable as the 2009 one, weight constraints on the Fobos-Grunt spacecraft required dropping the MetNet landers from the mission.[21]

The Bulgarian Academy of Sciences also installed its own radiation measurement experiment on Fobos-Grunt.[84]

Critiques

Barry E. DiGregorio, the director of the International Committee Against Mars Sample Return, criticised the LIFE experiment carried by Fobos-Grunt as a violation of the Outer Space Treaty due to the possibility of contamination of Phobos or Mars with the microbial spores and live bacteria it contains should it have lost control and crash-landed on either body.[85] It is speculated that the heat-resistant extremophile bacteria could survive such a crash, on the basis that Microbispora bacteria survived the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster.[86]

However, according to Fobos-Grunt Chief Designer Maksim Martynov, the probability of the probe accidentally reaching the surface of Mars is much lower than the maximum specified for Category III missions, the type assigned to Fobos-Grunt and defined in COSPAR's planetary protection policy (in accordance with Article IX of the Outer Space Treaty).[61][87]

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Further reading

  • M. Ya. Marov, V. S. Avduevsky, E. L. Akim, T. M. Eneev, R. S. Kremnevich, S. D. Kulikovich, K. M. Pichkhadzec, G. A. Popov, G. N. Rogovshyc (2004). "Phobos-Grunt: Russian sample return mission". Advances in Space Research. 33 (12): 2276–2280. Bibcode:2004AdSpR..33.2276M. doi:10.1016/S0273-1177(03)00515-5.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  • Galimov, E. M. (2010). "Phobos sample return mission: Scientific substantiation". Solar System Research. 44: 5. doi:10.1134/S0038094610010028.
  • Zelenyi, L. M.; Zakharov, A. V. (2010). "Phobos-Grunt project: Devices for scientific studies". Solar System Research. 44 (5): 359. doi:10.1134/S0038094610050011.
  • Rodionov, D. S.; Klingelhoefer, G.; Evlanov, E. N.; Blumers, M.; Bernhardt, B.; Gironés, J.; Maul, J.; Fleischer, I.; Prilutskii, O. F. (2010). "The miniaturized Möessbauer spectrometer MIMOS II for the Phobos-Grunt mission". Solar System Research. 44 (5): 362. doi:10.1134/S0038094610050023.

Collaborators

 Russia Template:·w  China Template:·w  Hong Kong Template:·w  Bulgaria Template:·w  Poland Template:·w  United States Template:·w  Germany Template:·w  France Template:·w  Switzerland Template:·w  Japan Template:·w  Sweden Template:·w  Ukraine Template:·w ESA (multinational)

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