Government-in-exile
This article needs additional citations for verification. (January 2011) |
A government in exile is a political group which claims to be a country's legitimate government, but is unable to exercise legal power and instead resides in a foreign country.[1] Governments in exile usually plan to one day return to their native country and regain formal power. A government in exile differs from a rump state in the sense that a rump state controls at least part of its former territory.[2] For example, during World War I, nearly all of Belgium was occupied by Germany, but Belgium and its allies held on to a small slice in the country's west. A government in exile, conversely, has lost all its territory.
Governments in exile frequently occur during wartime occupation, or in the aftermath of a civil war, revolution, or military coup. For example, during German expansion in World War II, some European governments sought refuge in the United Kingdom, rather than face destruction at the hands of Nazi Germany. A government in exile may also form from widespread belief in the illegitimacy of a ruling government. For instance, the Syrian National Council was formed as a result of the Syrian Civil War, which sought to end the rule of the ruling Ba'ath Party.
The effectiveness of a government in exile depends primarily on the amount of external support it can receive, either from foreign governments or from the population of its own country. Some governments in exile develop into a formidable force, posing a serious challenge to the incumbent regime of the country, while others are maintained chiefly as a symbolic gesture.
The phenomenon of a government in exile predates formal use of the term. In periods of monarchical government, exiled monarchs or dynasties sometimes set up exile courts—as the House of Stuart did when driven from their throne by Oliver Cromwell and at the Glorious Revolution, or the House of Bourbon did during the French Revolution and the rule of Napoleon. With the spread of constitutional monarchy, monarchical governments in exile started to include a prime minister.[example needed]
Activities
International law recognizes that governments in exile may undertake many types of actions in the conduct of their daily affairs. These actions include:
- becoming a party to a bilateral or international treaty
- amending or revising its own constitution
- maintaining military forces
- retaining, or newly obtaining, diplomatic recognition from other states
- issuing identity cards
- allowing the formation of new political parties
- holding elections
In cases where a host country holds a large expatriate population from a government in exile's home country, or an ethnic population from that country, the government in exile might come to exercise some administrative functions within such a population. For example, the WWII Provisional Government of Free India had such authority among the ethnically Indian population of British Malaya, with the consent of the then Japanese military authorities.
Current governments in exile
Governments in exile may have little or no recognition from other states. Some exiled governments have some characteristics in common with rump states. Such disputed or partially in exile cases are noted in the tables below.
Deposed governments of current states
These governments in exile were created by deposed governments or rulers who continue to claim legitimate authority of the state they once controlled.
Name | Exile since | State controlling its claimed territory (entirely or partially) | Notes | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
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1920 | ![]() |
The oldest current government (formally, a provisional parliament) in exile, currently led by Ivonka Survilla in Toronto, in a council of 14 called the Rada; see also History of Belarus | [3] |
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1925 | ![]() |
The Qajar dynasty went into exile in 1923 and continue to claim the Iranian throne, which is currently claimed by Mohammad Hassan Mirza II who is based in Dallas, Texas | |
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1990 | ![]() |
Currently led by Sein Win and composed of members of parliament elected in 1990 but not allowed by the military to take office; based in Rockville, Maryland, United States | |
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1979 | ![]() |
The Pahlavi dynasty, led by Reza Pahlavi and living in Potomac, Maryland; see also Iranian Revolution | |
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1975 | ![]() |
The former government of the Kingdom of Laos; based in Paris | |
![]() (disputed due mainly to the controversial political status of Taiwan [4][5][6][7][8]) |
1949 |
|
The Republic of China (ROC) is the state which governs Taiwan and some of its surrounding islands.[9] Its status as a government in exile is disputed.
[4][5][6][7][8][10][11] Proponents of this view argue that because Taiwan is not a part of the Republic of China, the ROC is located in foreign territory, therefore effectively making it a government in exile.[12] Opponents claim that Taiwan is part the ROC, and the government is still located in its own territory, qualifying it not as a government in exile but as a rump state. For further information, see Political status of Taiwan, Legal status of Taiwan, and Chinese Civil War. |
Exiled governments of non-self-governing or occupied territories
These governments in exile are governments of non-self-governing or occupied territories. They claim legitimate authority over a territory they once controlled, or claim legitimacy of a post-decolonization authority. The claim may stem from an exiled group's election as a legitimate government.
The United Nations recognizes the right of self-determination for the population of these territories, including the possibility of establishing independent sovereign states.
Name | Exile since | State controlling its claimed territory (entirely or partially) | Notes | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
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1976 | ![]() ![]() |
Headquartered in the Tindouf region of Algeria, controlling what it calls the Free Zone in the eastern part of Western Sahara; claims de jure sovereignty over the entire territory | |
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1988 | ![]() |
Unilaterally declared in exile in Algiers by the Palestine Liberation Organization that later established the Palestinian National Authority interim territorial administration as result of the Oslo Accords signed by the PLO, Israel, the United States, and Russia. Currently, ultimate control[15] over all of the territories is exercised by Israel,[16][17][18][19][20] but it allows the PNA to execute some functions there, depending on special area classification. The members of the institutions of the State of Palestine meet inside its claimed territory[21][22][23][24] without having sovereignty over any part of it.[25][26][27] |
Deposed governments of subnational territories
These governments in exile claim legitimacy of autonomous territories of another state and have been created by deposed governments or rulers, who and do not claim independence as a separate state.
Name | Exile | Current control of claimed territory | Notes | References | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
since | as | by | as | |||
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1993 | autonomous republic | ![]() |
independent state | Georgian provincial government, led by Giorgi Baramia, whose territory is under the control of Abkhaz separatists | |
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2008 | provisional administrative entity | ![]() |
independent state | Georgian provincial administration, led by Dmitry Sanakoyev, whose territory is under the control of South Ossetian separatists |
Alternative governments of current states
These governments have been created in exile by political organisations and opposition parties, aspire to become actual governing authorities or claim to be legal successors to previously deposed governments, and have been created as alternatives to incumbent governments.
Alternative separatist governments of current subnational territories
These governments have been created in exile by political organisations, opposition parties, and separatist movements, and desire to become the governing authorities of their territories as independent states, or claim to be the successor to previously deposed governments, and have been created as alternatives to incumbent governments.
Name | Claimed exile | Exile proclamation | Government presently controlling claimed territory | Notes | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
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1950 | 1950 | ![]() |
Exiled in the Netherlands | |
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1963 | 1969 | ![]() |
Campaigns for an independent West Papua; based in the Netherlands | [32][33] |
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1970 | 2007 | ![]() |
An arm of the Movement for the Actualization of the Sovereign State of Biafra, seeking to reestablish the Republic of Biafra; based in Washington, DC | [34] |
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1975 | 1975 | ![]() |
Based in Pointe-Noire, Republic of Congo | |
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2000 | 2000 | ![]() |
Some members are fighting as rebels against the Russian Army; based in Western Europe and the United States, with its leaders in London. There is a contested claim that it has been succeeded by the Caucasus Emirate. |
[35] |
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1996 | 2005 | ![]() |
Reconstituted in 2005 in Belgrade, by the remains of the government of the Republic of Serbian Krajina, after Croatian forces pushed out the internationally unrecognized entity in 1995 during Operation Storm at the end of the Croatian War of Independence | |
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— | 1998 | ![]() |
Aims to create a Kurdish state in Turkey; successor organization of Kurdish parliament in exile | [36] |
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— | 1999 | ![]() |
Former British territory of Southern Cameroons; declared independence on December 31, 1999 | [37] |
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— | 2004 | ![]() |
Aims to create a Kurdish state in Syria; based in London | [38] |
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1949 | 2004 | ![]() |
Seeking independence for Xinjiang as "East Turkestan"; based in Washington, DC | [39] |
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- | 2005 | ![]() |
Aims to establish an independent state for the Shan ethnic group | [40] |
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2009 | 2010 | ![]() |
Aims to establish an independent state of Tamil Eelam | [41] |
Exiled Governments with ambiguous status
These governments have ties to the area(s) they represent, but their claimed status and/or stated aims are sufficiently ambiguous that they could fit into other categories.
Name | Exile | Current control of claimed territory | Notes | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
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1959 | ![]() |
Founded by the Dalai Lama in Dharamsala, India with cooperation of Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru; see also Tibetan sovereignty debate and Tibetan independence movement | Tibet.net,[42] |
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2001 | ![]() |
The Taliban gained control over most of Afghanistan in the Afghan civil war, but were removed from power in the current Afghan war. | ,[43][44][45] |
Past governments in exile
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Name | Exiled or created(*) since | Defunct, reestablished,(*) or integrated(°) since | State controlling its claimed territory | Notes | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
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1649 | 1660* | ![]() ![]() ![]() |
Based for most of the Interregnum in the Spanish Netherlands and headed by Charles II; actively supported Charles' claim to the thrones of England, Scotland and Ireland | |
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1971* | 1972° | ![]() |
Based in Kolkata, India; led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, who later became President of Bangladesh | [46] |
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1795 | 1814° | ![]() |
Based in London, and led by William V, Prince of Orange; ultimately they returned to create the Kingdom of the Netherlands | |
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1897 | 1898* | ![]() |
Based in Hong Kong, Emilio Aguinaldo set up a government in exile in the former British colony. A result of the Pact of Biak-na-Bato | [47] |
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1919* | 1948° | ![]() |
Based in Shanghai, and later in Chongqing; after Japan’s defeat in World War II, President Syngman Rhee became the first president of the First Republic of South Korea | |
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1939 | 1945° | ![]() |
Based in Paris and later in London, during German occupation of Czechoslovakia. After defeat of Germany, it took control of Czechoslovakia. | |
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1943 | 1943° | ![]() |
Based in Rangoon and later in Port Blair. Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose was the leader of the government and the Head of State of this Provisional Indian Government in Exile. This government was disestablished in 1945 following the lost of axis powers in World War II | |
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1958* | 1962* | ![]() |
Established during the latter part of the Algerian War of Independence; after the war, a compromise agreement with the Armée de Libération Nationale dissolved it but allowed most of its members to enter the post-independence government | |
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1962* | 1992° | ![]() |
Based in Kinshasa; its military branch, the National Liberation Front of Angola, was recognized as a political party in 1992 and holds three seats in Angola’s parliament | |
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1966* | 1989° | ![]() |
Formed after opposition to the apartheid South African administration over South-West Africa, which had been ruled as illegal by the United Nations; in 1990, Namibia achieved independence. | [48] |
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1982* | 1993° | ![]() |
Established with UN recognition in opposition to the Vietnamese-backed government. Elections in 1993 brought the reintegration of the exiled government into the newly reconstituted Kingdom of Cambodia. | |
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1939* | 1990° | Occupied Poland | Based in Paris, Angers, and London, it opposed German occupied Poland and the Soviet satellite state, the People's Republic of Poland; disbanded following the fall of communism in Poland | |
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1953* | 1992 | ![]() |
Established in Sweden by several members of Otto Tief's government; did not achieve any international recognizion. In fact, it was not recognized even by Estonian diplomatic legations that were seen by western countries as legal representatives of the annexed state.
A rival government was created by another group of Estonian exiles in the same year in Munich but it was short lived. |
[49] |
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1939 | 1977 | ![]() |
Created after Francisco Franco's coup d'état; based in Mexico City from 1939 to 1946, when it was moved to Paris, where it lasted until Franco's death | |
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1921 | 1954 | ![]() |
Formed after the Soviet invasion of Georgia of 1921; based in Leuville-sur-Orge, France | |
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1920 | 1992 | ![]()
|
Organized after the Soviet occupation of Ukraine | |
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1976* | 2005 | ![]() |
Headquartered in Sweden; surrendered its separatist intentions and dissolved its armed wing following the 2005 peace agreement with the Indonesian government | |
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1998 | 2009 | ![]() |
Founded by Daniel Mengara in opposition to president Omar Bongo; after Bongo's death in June 2009, Mengara returned to Gabon in order to participate in the country's elections | [50][51] |
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1861 | 1865 | ![]() |
Missouri had both Union and Confederate governments, but the Confederate government was exiled, eventually governing out of Marshall, Texas. | [52] |
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1861 | 1865 | ![]() |
Kentucky had both Union and Confederate governments. The Confederate government was soon forced out of the state, and was an exiled government traveling with the Confederate Army of Tennessee, except for during a short return when the Confederate army briefly occupied Frankfort. | |
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1893 | 1895 | ![]() |
Formed by members of the deposed government of Queen Liliuokalani of Hawaii; a failed insurgency in 1895 forced the queen to formally disband the kingdom | |
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1914 | 1918 | ![]() |
Formed in 1915 by the Government of Belgium following the German invasion during World War I. It was disbanded following the restoration of Belgian sovereignty with the Armistice with Germany. |
Sovereign Military Order of Malta
The Sovereign Military Order of Malta may be considered a case of a government in exile, since it is without territory but recognised as a sovereign government by numerous sovereign countries. However, it does not claim to be a sovereign state, rather a "sovereign subject" of international law. In addition, it no longer claims jurisdiction over Malta, and recognises and maintains diplomatic relations with the Republic of Malta.
World War II
Many countries established a government in exile after loss of sovereignty in connection with World War II:
- Belgium (invaded 10 May 1940; see Pierlot IV Government)
- Czechoslovak government-in-exile (established in 1940 by Beneš and recognised by the British and other United Nations governments)
- Free France, based in London (from June 1940 to 1944)
- Greece (invaded 28 October 1940; see Greek government in exile)
- Luxembourg (invaded 10 May 1940)
- Netherlands (invaded 10 May 1940; see Dutch government in exile)
- Norway (invaded 9 April 1940)
- Philippine Commonwealth (invaded 9 December 1941)
- Kingdom of Yugoslavia (invaded 6 April 1941)
Other exiled leaders in Britain in this time included King Zog of Albania and Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia.
The Provisional Government of Free India (1943–45) was established by Indian nationalists in exile during the war; unlike most other governments in exile in this war, it was affiliated to the Axis and claimed power over an Allied (specifically, British) territory. A Bulgarian government in exile and Vichy France were also allied with the Axis.
The Danish exception
The Occupation of Denmark (9 April 1940) was administered mainly by the German Foreign Office, contrary to other occupied lands that were under military or civilian administration. Denmark did not establish a government in exile, although there was an Association of Free Danes established in London. King Christian X and his government remained in Denmark, and functioned comparatively independently for the first three years of German occupation. Meanwhile, Iceland, Greenland and the Faroe Islands were occupied by the Allies, and effectively separated from the Danish crown. (See British occupation of the Faroe Islands, Iceland during World War II, and History of Greenland during World War II.)
Persian Gulf War
Following the Iraqi invasion and occupation of Kuwait on August 2, 1990, Sheikh Jaber Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah and senior members of his government fled to Saudi Arabia, where they set up a government-in-exile operating out of a luxury hotel in Dhahran. The Kuwaiti government in exile was far more affluent than most other such governments, having full disposal of the very considerable Kuwaiti assets in western banks—of which it made use to conduct a massive propaganda campaign denouncing the Iraqi occupation and mobilising public opinion in the West in favor of war with Iraq. In March 1991, following the American victory in the Persian Gulf War, the Sheikh and his government were able to return to Kuwait.
See also
- Exclusive mandate
- Exilarchy
- Provisional government
- Shadow government (disambiguation)
- Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization
Lists
- List of active autonomist and secessionist movements
- List of historical autonomist and secessionist movements
- List of historical unrecognized countries
- List of territorial disputes
- List of unrecognized countries
- United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories
References
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While on October 1, 1949, in Beijing a victorious Mao proclaimed the creation of the People's Republic of China (PRC), Chiang Kai-shek re-established a temporary capital for his government in Taipei, Taiwan, declaring the ROC still to be the legitimate Chinese government-in-exile and vowing that he would "retake the mainland" and drive out communist forces.
{{cite web}}
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Chiang Kai-shek wanted to fight it out on an all-or-nothing basis. There are also reports that Chiang's advisors convinced him that if the ROC mission stayed to represent Taiwan, Chiang would be under pressure to demonstrate in some constitutional way that his Chinese government-in-exile represented the people of Taiwan rather than the vast population of China. Doing so would require Chiang to dismantle his existing regime (which was elected in 1947 on the Chinese mainland and continued to rule in Taiwan under emergency martial law provisions without benefit of elections), adopt an entirely new constitution, and install an entirely new government.
{{cite web}}
: External link in
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at position 611 (help) - ^ a b "ROC Government in Exile Is Illogical (English transl.)". (original source: "「流亡政府」邏輯不通" by NOWnews Network). June 1, 2010. Retrieved 7 October 2010.
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- ^ Henckaerts, Jean-Marie (1996). The international status of Taiwan in the new world order: legal and political considerations. Kluwer Law International. p. 337. ISBN 90-411-0929-3.
p117. "The ROC joined the United Nations in 1945 as a Charter member and was until 1971 one of the five permanent members of the Security Council. The ROC membership in the United Nations continued to exist through 1971 despite the fact that the ROC government lost the Chinese mainland and moved to Taiwan in 1949. The reduction of a huge area under its effective control in 1949 did not eliminate the very existence of the ROC as a sovereign state as defined by international law. In short, the ROC government has continued to exercise its sovereignty over territories under its effective control since 1912. It has never disappeared from the world as a sovereign state."
p118. "President Harry S. Truman of the United States stated on January 5, 1950 that 'Taiwan was surrendered to ... Chiang Kai-Shek, and for the past four years, the United States and the other Allied Powers have accepted the exercise of the Chinese authority over the island.'"
p118.-119. "The Republic of China is, by any standard, a political entity, recognized by 29 countries as of today. It has a defined territory, with Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu together with its population of 21 million, under its effective control ever since 1945 or earlier. ...
The Republic of China indeed is a sovereign state as defined by the Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States of 1933. It also complies with the definition as 'state' defined by current theory of international law, as discussed in the Restatement (Third) of the Foreign Relations Law of the United States of 1987." - ^ TIME magazine, Far Eastern Economic Review, Stanford University, US State Dept., Public Broadcasting Service, BBC, US Congressional Research Service, UK Parliament, UK Foreign Office, Los Angeles Times, New York Times, and numerous law journals have all referred to the Republic of China on Taiwan as a government in exile. However, the ROC is recognised as the legitimate government of China by 11 UN member states and the Holy See. The PRC claims that the ROC government no longer exists. Republic of China government in exile, retrieved 2010-02-27
- ^ Resolving Cross-Strait Relations Between China and Taiwan, American Journal of International Law, July 2000, archived from the original on 2004-06-22, retrieved 2011-02-28
{{citation}}
: Unknown parameter|authors=
ignored (help) - ^ Robert I. Starr (July 13, 1971), Starr Memorandum of the Dept. of State, retrieved 2012-05-18,
Following World War II, the Republic of China, under the Kuomintang (KMT) became the governing polity on Taiwan. In 1949, after losing control of mainland China following the Chinese civil war, the ROC government under the KMT withdrew to occupied Taiwan and Chiang Kai-shek declared martial law. Japan formally renounced all territorial rights to Taiwan in 1952 in the San Francisco Peace Treaty, but neither in that treaty nor in the peace treaty signed between Japan and China was the territorial sovereignty of Taiwan awarded to the Republic of China.
- ^ Application for the admission of Palestine as a Member of State of UNESCO: "A government-in-exile, having no effective control in the territory and not having had previous control, ..."
- ^ PLO Executive Committee: "The Executive Committee of the PLO, in practice the "government in exile" of the State of Palestine"
- ^ Israel allows the PNA to execute some functions in the Palestinian territories, depending on special area classification with minimal interference (retaining control of borders: air, sea beyond internal waters, land) in the Gaza strip and maximum in "Area C".
- ^ Gold, Dore (26 August 2005). "Legal Acrobatics: The Palestinian Claim that Gaza is Still "Occupied" Even After Israel Withdraws". Jerusalem Issue Brief, Vol. 5, No. 3. Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs. Retrieved 2010-07-16.
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suggested) (help) - ^ Bell, Abraham (28 January 2008). "International Law and Gaza: The Assault on Israel's Right to Self-Defense". Jerusalem Issue Brief, Vol. 7, No. 29. Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs. Retrieved 2010-07-16.
- ^ "Address by Foreign Minister Livni to the 8th Herzliya Conference" (Press release). Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Israel. 22 January 2008. Archived from the original on 2009-06-24. Retrieved 2010-07-16.
- ^ Salih, Zak M. (17 November 2005). "Panelists Disagree Over Gaza's Occupation Status". University of Virginia School of Law. Retrieved 2010-07-16.
- ^ "Israel: 'Disengagement' Will Not End Gaza Occupation". Human Rights Watch. 29 October 2004. Retrieved 2010-07-16.
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- ^ Image Source: www.reuters.com. "Palestinian President Abbas attends a PLO executive committee meeting in Ramallah". Allvoices.com. Retrieved 2012-09-20.
{{cite web}}
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has generic name (help) - ^ Palestinian PM: Declaration of statehood just a formality: "The Palestinians already declared independence unilaterally on Nov. 15, 1988. The declaration was recognized by dozens of countries, but never implemented on the ground."
- ^ Top Ten Governments Currently In Exile[dead link]:"The state of Palestine was proclaimed in 1988, but in exile. A declaration of a "State of Palestine" was approved on November 15, 1988, by the Palestinian National Council, the legislative body of the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO). The declaration was ignored, and eventually rejected, by the State of Israel. Israel controls the territories since 1967 Six-Day War when it captured them from Egypt and Jordan. Currently, the Palestinian National Authority (PNA) envision the establishment of a State of Palestine to include all the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, and East Jerusalem, living in peace with Israel under a democratically elected and transparent government. The PNA, however, does not claim sovereignty over any territory and therefore is not the government of the "State of Palestine" proclaimed in 1988. Enough said."
- ^ Palestinians 'may declare state':"Saeb Erekat, disagreed arguing that the Palestine Liberation Organisation had already declared independence in 1988. "Now we need real independence, not a declaration. We need real independence by ending the occupation. We are not Kosovo. We are under Israeli occupation and for independence we need to acquire independence,"
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