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South Asian Canadians in Greater Vancouver

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Ethnicity in Vancouver

As of 2014, there are 250,000 ethnic Indo-Canadians in Greater Vancouver.[1] As of 1991 Vancouver had the largest Sikh population outside of India and the largest overseas South Asian population in the world that is not in London.[2] The Newton area of Surrey, a community within Greater Vancouver, as of 2012, is, after London, the world's second largest South Asian overseas community.[3] Most Indo-Canadians in Metro Vancouver are Punjabi Sikhs; Sikhism is the majority religion and Punjabis are the majority ethnic group.

68% percent of Indo-Canadians in Canada live in the Toronto and Vancouver areas as of 2001, together making up 7% of the combined populations of the cities.[4]

History

Margaret Walton-Roberts and Daniel Hiebert, the authors of Immigration, Entrepreneurship, and the Family, wrote that "The history of Indo-Canadian settlement in Vancouver began in the late 19th century".[5]

The Empress of India arrived in Vancouver in 1904. On board were the first members of Vancouver's South Asian community.[6]

In 1908 the Canadian Dominion government had a plan to obtain labour for sugar plantations in British Honduras, now Belize, by recruiting Punjabis in Vancouver. The plan did not work because the Punjabis had already obtained employment.[7]

In 1914 Sikhs in Vancouver protested after authorities turned away the Komagata Maru and most of its passengers; this vessel carried Sikhs from Punjab.[8]

The system of sponsoring Vancouver-based South Asians sponsoring relatives in India to immigrate to Vancouver began in 1919, when the Canadian government began permitting children and women based in India entry into Canada.[9]

Walton-Roberts and Hiebert stated that until the 1960s the Indo-Canadian community in Vancouver "was relatively small".[5]

In 1961 the immigration patterns of Sikhs arriving to Canada changed, with Ontario becoming a major centre of immigration. Prior to 1961 Vancouver was the sole major point of Sikh immigration to Canada.[10] The first significant non-Sikh immigration occurred post-1947 occurred.[11]Additional immigration of those of Indian background residing in India, Fiji, and England occurred in the late 1960s.[6] Immigration from Fiji continued to occur in the 1969-1979 period. Other groups immigrating from 1969 through 1979 included Pakistanis, Sri Lankans, and Ismaili Muslims and Gujarati Hindus from East Africa.[11] In the period 1971 through 1981 East Indians from South Asia, Fiji, England, East Africa, East Asia, the Caribbean, and Southeast Asia arrived in Vancouver. These immigrants included Sikhs and non-Sikhs.[12]

Punjabi Canadians began occupying all areas of Vancouver in the 1960s. In the 1970s Punjabi populations began appearing in Delta, Richmond, and Surrey. Vandalism against houses owned by Indo-Canadians and a Sikh gurdwara occurred in the 1970s, especially in 1974-1975 in Surrey.[13]

71,801 South Asian immigrants moved to Vancouver during the period 1980 to 2001.[14]

Air India Flight 182 memorial at Stanley Park

Some passengers on board Air India Flight 182, which crashed in 1985, were from Metro Vancouver.[15] Since then, there have been memorial services held at Stanley Park. The Ceperley Playground at Stanley Park has a memorial listing the names of the passengers.[16]

By the mid-1980s wealthier Indo-Canadians were moving to Surrey from South Vancouver because land in Surrey was more inexpensive.[17]

In 1996 a controversy occurred when Dr. Stephens, a doctor in San Jose, California, put advertisements for sex-selection services which would allow parents to reject female children. The Coalition of Women's Organizations Against Sex Selection, organized by Mahila, a women's group headquartered in Vancouver, criticized Stephens.[18]

In 2006 the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) stated that there had been attempts to extort and kidnap people in Surrey; the RCMP did not disclose when the attempts occurred and who the targets were. The RCMP stated that businesspersons of Indo-Canadian origins in Surrey need to take precautions. In response, the president of Sikh Alliance Against Violence, Kandola, stated that the warning was too vague and could cause unnecessary panic and confusion.[19]

In August 2008, during a community meeting,[20] the Prime Minister of Canada gave an apology for the Komagata Maru incident in a park,[21] in Surrey.[20] Some members of Canada's Indo-Canadian community argued that he should have apologized in Parliament.[21]

In 2010 Charlie Smith, the editor of The Georgia Straight, criticized area news reports which stated that Indo-Canadians were disproportionately connected to gay bashings; Smith argued that it is not fair to lump all Indo-Canadians together and label them with the same description, citing the ethnic diversity within the community.[22] He also cited the fact that no Indo-Canadian professionals were charged with any such crimes. He added "I doubt there is a single university graduate among the lot."[22]

Demographics

In 2001, according to a Statistics Canada survey of Vancouverites in which 546,070 persons responded, there were 26,420 responses claiming East Indian ancestry, out of a total of 806,805 responses; due to persons giving multiple responses, the total responses is a larger number than the number of people who took the survey.[23]

In 2006, according to Statistics Canada data, the numbers of visible minority South Asians in Greater Vancouver included 32,515 in Vancouver city,[24] 107,810 in Surrey,[25] 16,840 in Burnaby,[26] 14,215 in Delta,[27] 13,865 in Richmond,[28] 4,660 in New Westminster,[29] 4,180 in Coquitlam,[30] and 950 in West Vancouver.[31] According to the same data, the numbers of people claiming South Asian ancestry were 33,415 in Vancouver City,[24] 107,435 in Surrey,[25] 16,755 in Burnaby,[26] 14,210 in Delta,[27] 13,950 in Richmond,[28] 4,725 in New Westminster,[29] 4,305 in Coquitlam,[30] and 1,040 in West Vancouver.[31]

In 2011 there were 250,820 Indo canadians which contributed 10.1% of the Greater Vancouver Area.[citation needed]

The 1992 Census stated that in the Vancouver Census Metropolitan Area (CMA) there were about 75,000 persons of South Asian origin.[32]

Ethnic and national origins

The majority of the Metro Vancouver Indo-Canadian and East Indian-origin populations is of Sikh Punjabi heritage.[33][34] As of 1988 the heavy concentration of Punjabis in Vancouver differs from the South Asian populations in Toronto and other central and eastern Canadian cities, as those groups have more balance and diversity in their South Asian linguistic groups.[9] As of 1988, in addition to Punjabis, there are also Gujaratis, Bengalis, and individuals from South India as well as East African Ismailis.[35]

As of the Statistics Canada 2001 Census there were 163,340 South Asians in the Vancouver region. Of them, 142,060 were classified as East Indian, 11,965 were Punjabi, 5,680 were Pakistani, 4,810 were South Asian, n.i.e., 2,025 were Sri Lankan, 975 were Tamil, 345 were Sinhalese, 290 were Bengali, 265 were Nepali, 225 were Goan, 205 were Gujarati, 60 were Kashmiri, 20 were Bangladeshi.[36]

As of 1981 there were about 25,000 ethnic Punjabis in Vancouver, including about 2,288 Hindus with the remainder being Sikhs.[9] In the period 1980 to 2001, India supplied 75% of the Indo-Canadians who moved to Vancouver. 14% originated from Fiji. Others originated from Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.[14] In 2001, according to Statistics Canada data on 250,095 immigrants into Vancouver, 12,385 were born in India.[20]

Commerce

Many Indo-Canadians work as taxi drivers in Vancouver.[37]

James G. Chadney, the author of the 1984 book The Sikhs of Vancouver, stated that "one knowledgeable informant" told him that due to "business purposes" many wealthy Vancouver Sikhs use their company or the name of their spouses to legally list their residences.[38]

During the Indo-Canadian community's early history, many members worked in sawmills within the Vancouver city limits and in areas which would become suburban areas in Greater Vancouver. They also opened firewood businesses. Indo-Canadians entered this sector because members of the Indo-Canadian community were not permitted to enter several other occupations. By 1991 Indo-Canadians continued to be active in the wood business, and Indo-Canadian construction, wood processing, and distribution businesses opened by the 1980s.[5] As of 1998 most of the businesses were located in Vancouver, North Delta, and Surrey.[39] Within Greater Vancouver, about 2,300 men of South Asian heritage each worked in the construction and wood processing areas in 1991, and during the same year there were about 2,000 men of South Asian heritage working in the Greater Vancouver transportation sector.[5]

According to Michael M. Ames and Joy Inglis, authors of "Conflict and Change in British Columbia Sikh Family Life," as of circa 1973-1974, within the Vancouver Lower Mainland area, about 20% of Sikhs are managers and foremen and about 80% work in semi-skilled or unskilled jobs; most of the latter are in the lumber sector. Others were accountants, importers, salespeople, shopkeepers, and truckers.[40] Ames and Inglis stated that they got the supporting data from August 1951-December 1966 marriage records,[41] as well as donor lists,[42] at the Vancouver Khalsa Diwan Society temple.[41]

Geography

As of circa 2009 Southeast Vancouver has the primary concentration of Vancouver's Indo-Canadians.[43] The Sunset community in Vancouver includes an Indo-Canadian population.[44] The Punjabi Market, an Indo-Canadian business district, is focussed on the intersection of 49th Avenue and Main Street.[45] By 2013 the numbers of businesses in the Punjabi Market had declined as Indo-Canadians moved to suburban areas.[46] Punjabi language street signs are visible in neighborhoods that have large numbers of Indo-Canadians.[47] In 1980 southern Vancouver had the primary concentration of the city Indo-Canadians due to the proximity of the gurdwara and the lumber mills.[48]

As of 2013, Indo-Canadians make up about 30% of the population of Surrey,[46] and they are the largest visible minority group in the city.[49] This was an increase from about 25% circa 2010.[37] Surrey includes a shopping center catering to Indo-Canadians and two Sikh temples. Pang Guek-Cheng, the author of Culture Shock! Vancouver, wrote that "Surrey[...]is to [Indo-Canadians] what Richmond is to the Chinese."[37] Most persons of South Asian origins in Surrey are Indo-Canadians, or have Canadian citizenship.[49] By 2009 Judy Villeneuve, a member of the Surrey City Council, stated that the main developers of Surrey were the Indo-Canadians. By 2009 the City of Surrey had posted job advertisements in the Indo-Canadian Times.[50]

Newton, an area in Surrey, has a concentration of Indo-Canadians.[51] A City of Surrey fact sheet stated that those of South Asian origin made up 62.1% of the immigrants in Newton; the total number of immigrants made up over 40% of Newton's population. By 2013 the city government was planning to establish a new "Little India" in Newton.[52] In addition to Newton, Indo-Canadians also live in Cloverdale, South Surrey, and other areas of Surrey.[53]

As of 2013, many younger Indo-Canadians are moving to areas in Vancouver and Burnaby close to their places of work instead of areas with concentrated Indo-Canadian populations.[53]

In the 1970s there was no particular residential concentration of Sikhs in the Vancouver Lower Mainland.[42] In the 1980s Indo-Canadians were located throughout Greater Vancouver and not only in Southern Vancouver.[48]

Institutions

In 1947 the East Indian Canadian Citizens' Welfare Association (EICCWA) or the Canadian East Indian Welfare Association opened.[54] It was officially not a part of any gurdwara.[55] Members originated from both the Khalsa Diwan Society (KDS), a Sikh society which historically had de facto. dominance in the welfare association organization; affiliates of the KDS; and the Akali Singh Society.[54] The organization began taking political functions from the KDS.[55] By 1961 it was the primary Vancouver-area organization representing Indo-Canadian interests. The organization avoided publicity to reduce chances of negative public attention while it promoted quotas for Indo-Canadian politicians. Hugh Johnson wrote that "resentment" sometimes resulted from the KDS's dominance.[54] Dusenbery wrote that the organization, by taking the entire East Indian community into its scope, promoted the idea that "there exists a distinct "East Indian" ethno-cultural group sharing unique interests and activities" and therefore "implicitly accepted the Canadian view of social reality".[55]

As of 1988 there is no specific Punjabi ethnic organization in Metro Vancouver while there are dedicated ethnic organizations for the Bengalis, East Africans, Gujaratis, and South Indians. The Gujarati association became a Gujarati Hindu organization exclusively even though Hindus, Ismailis, and Parsis had worked to establish the organization; the post-1974 growth of Ismailis caused the focus of the organization to change.[35]

Language

In 1991, 38,225 people in the Vancouver area had Punjabi as their mother language, making it the region's third most common mother language, after English and Chinese.[56] As of 2005 it was approximately the third to fourth most common mother language.[57] As of 1991 fewer than 50% of those who natively spoke Punjabi in the Vancouver area lived in Surrey.[56] Of the Punjabi speakers in Canada, most are located in the Vancouver and Toronto areas (predominantly Surrey and Brampton).[57]

Due to the use of Punjabi by the Indo-Canadian community, City of Vancouver, British Columbia, and Canadian federal institutions in Vancouver have literature and office signage using the Gurmukhi script.[57]

Politics

Politics in Vancouver

Until the 1960s Sikh religious organizations were the primary political interest groups of the Indo-Canadian community in the Vancouver region.[58]

In 1973 Dr. Venkatachala Setty Pendakur, an Indo-Canadian, was the first visible minority elected to the Vancouver City Council. He served one term, which ended in 1974.[59] He was defeated in his re-election campaign that year, and in 1985 there were no Indo-Canadians who had any elected positions in area municipal governments.[60]

Charlie Smith of The Georgia Straight wrote in 2004 that from 1990 to 2004 there had been difficulty in having Indo-Canadians elected to City of Vancouver municipal positions.[61] That year, the President of the Ross Street Sikh Temple, Jarnail Singh Bhandal, advocated for a ward voting system in the City of Vancouver so that Indo-Canadians and other ethnic minorities have more of a chance to be elected.[61] The City of Vancouver instead uses at-large voting. In 2008 Kashmir Dhaliwal, a candidate for the Vision Vancouver council, stated that he had plans to legally challenge the at-will voting system. Dr. Lakhbir Singh, a candidate for the Vancouver School Board, criticized the at-large voting system, saying that it discriminates against Indo-Canadians and that he would join the legal challenge.[62] Smith accused the voting community of Vancouver city of racism, saying that racism results in a lack of votes for South Asian candidates.[63]

Politics in Surrey

The first Indo-Canadian elected to Surrey's city council was Tom Gill, who was elected in 2005.[64]

In 2014 Barinder Rasode campaigned to be the Mayor of Surrey.[65]

Kristin R. Good, the author of Municipalities and Multiculturalism: The Politics of Immigration in Toronto and Vancouver, stated in 2009 that Surrey's Indo-Canadian community was politically fragmented, including along religious lines.[66]

In October 2014 a series of political campaign signs in Surrey showing South Asian candidates were vandalized.[67] Signs belonging to Surrey First and SafeSurrey Coalition, two political parties, were defaced, with only names of Indo-Canadian candidates crossed out.[68] Tom Gill accused racists of defacing the signs.[69]

Politics in other cities

In 2005 Bobby Singh won a position in the Richmond School Board.[64]

Kamala Elizabeth Nayar, the author of The Punjabis in British Columbia: Location, Labour, First Nations, and Multiculturalism, wrote that compared to Indo-Canadian people who were born and raised in the Lower Mainland, Indo-Canadians born in Canada whose ancestors settled in rural areas of British Columbia and who themselves live in Vancouver "tended to assess Canada's policy of multiculturalism more critically".[70]

Culture

Nayar stated that third generation Punjabis who have lived in Vancouver their whole lives have a positive reception to multiculturalism while those who live in Vancouver but have lived outside of Vancouver before have ambivalence about it: they argue that multiculturalism can divide people while it can also protect culture.[71]

Nayar uses the term "Punjabi Bubble" to refer to a common effect of Punjabis only associating with other Punjabis. This occurs in Greater Vancouver.[72] Nayar stated that "The Vancouver Sikh community is more insulated from the mainstream" compared to small town British Columbia Sikhs.[73]

An anonymous interviewee of Nayar, a woman in the third generation,[74] stated "In Vancouver, there is pressure to live strictly according to the precepts in comparison to other places like in California."[72] She referred to the practice of Sikhism.[72]

As of 1988 many residents of rural Punjab, including children, women, and dependent older persons, arrive in Vancouver due to the sponsorship of relatives.[9] Relations among clans and the home village ancestry are major factors within the Vancouver Sikh community.[73]

Sher Vancouver, an Indo-Canadian LGBT support group, was founded in April 2008 by Amar Sangha, a resident of North Delta and a former resident of Surrey.[75] Sher Vancouver has opposed antigay laws in India. The organization showcases South Asian LGBT culture in its Out and Proud Project.[76]

Media

There is a variety of Indo-Canadian newspapers and magazines serving Greater Vancouver and the Lower Mainland. As of 1985 most of these publications were in Punjabi, while some were printed in English and Hindi.[77]

The Indo-Canadian Times is a Punjabi-language weekly and is one of the country's largest.[78] The Indo-Canadian Voice is an online English-language newspaper published by Rattan Mall, serving the Indo-Canadian community but also covering a wide range of British Columbia and other news.[79] Mall had been a reporter for the Times of India from 1979 to 1990, for the Vancouver Sun in 1994, and The Province in 1996, and was an associate producer what CFMT-TV (now Omni) in Toronto in 1999 and 2000.[80] Also of note are Apna Roots: South Asian Connection,[81] which publishes in English, and Punjab di Awaaz/Voice of Punjab, which publishes in Punjabi.[82] In 1985 other publications included Canadian Darpan, Link, Overseas Times, Ranjeet, and Sikh Samajar.[77]

In 1985 there was a Vancouver area cable television station that screened movies from India.[77]

As of 2014 several "pirate radio" stations in northern Washington state in the United States serve the Indo-Canadian community in Greater Vancouver and the Lower Mainland. They are Radio India, Radio Punjab, and Sher-E-Punjab. Radio stations on the Canadian side had complained about the US-based pirates.[1]

As of 1996 gurdwaras and establishments in the Punjabi Market distribute Punjabi newspapers.[83]

The Circular-i-Azadi began publication in 1906-1907. This made it the city's first Punjabi newspaper.[84]

As of 1985 CFRO and one other area radio station broadcast programs in Punjabi and Hindi.[77]

Education

Circa 1989 a research team took a sample of opinions of 135 Indo-Canadian parents at the Vancouver School Board. The team determined that over 85% of the sample size expressed a belief that the school system respected the identity of their children. The remainder believed that the system did not respect the identity of their children or were not sure about the question. The study was done in regards to the VSB's race relations policies.[85]

As of 1985 several area institutions offer education in the Indian languages to area children; as of the same year none of the school districts in Greater Vancouver offered any classes in Indian languages as part of their standard curricula.[60] The Vancouver Khalsa School, which opened in 1986, offers Punjabi language classes and Sikh religious instruction. The school began leasing from the VSB after a 2009 fire destroyed the school's original site. In 2012 the VSB stated that it was not going to renew the school's lease.[86] As of 1985 other institutions that offered language instruction included the Heritage Language School, which was held on Saturdays within the campus of a Vancouver high school, and several Sikh temples in Vancouver, Surrey, and New Westminster.[60]

A survey conducted in 1980 selected random households from a Vancouver Sikh gurdwara; 602 households were documented. According to the survey, there was no spoken English fluency in 37% of people who arrived between 1961 and 1974 and 42% of people who arrived between 1975 and 1980. The same survey concluded that 65% of the male household heads and almost 80% of the wives of these household heads, while in India, had no education after ages 16 or 17. In other words they never had tertiary education.[9]

Religion

The 1992 Census stated that about 65% of the persons of South Asian origin in the Vancouver Census Metropolitan Area were Sikh. In addition, 20% were Hindu, and 15% belonged to other religions. The other religious groups included Buddhists, Christians, Jains, Muslims, and Zoroastrian Parsis. Ismailis were among the Muslims.[87]

Sikhism

Khalsa Diwan Society Vancouver

Verne A. Dusenbery, author of "Canadian Ideology and Public Policy: The Impact on Vancouver Sikh Ethnic and Religious Adaptation," wrote in 1981 that the Sikh community in Vancouver was Canada's "most influential", oldest, and largest Sikh community.[12] As of the 2001 Statistics Canada there were 99,005 Sikhs in Greater Vancouver.[36] By 2003 the Sikhs became the largest group in the metropolitan area that does not practice Christianity.[88]

Beginning in the 1930s, within the Vancouver area, many clean-shaven or sahajdhari Sikhs began hanging up their hats and entering the gurdwaras with uncovered heads; this practice was like men removing hats before attending Christian churches. Turbanned or kesdhari Sikhs objected to this practice.[13]

Until the 1960s Sikh religious organizations were the primary political interest groups of the Indo-Canadian community in the Vancouver region.[58] At that time there were three gurdwaras in Metro Vancouver: the two Khalsa Diwan Society (KDS) gurdwaras in Vancouver and New Westminster and the Akali Singh gurdwara in Vancouver.[89] The political structure of the Sikh community began to shift in the early 1970s since newcomers to politics began vying for influence against established political leaders as immigration increased the size of the community.[58] In 1981 there were 22,392 Sikhs in Vancouver, virtually all of them being ethnic Punjabi.[9] That year, Dusenbery wrote that the maturation of Punjabi Sikhs who were children of immigrants, the increase in immigration, and the rise of gora (White) Sikh converts from Canada and the United States changed the character of the Vancouver Sikh community in the period 1971-1981.[12] Several turbanned Sikhs began criticizing the practice of entering gurdwaras with uncovered heads in the 1970s.[90]

Organizations that favored the establishment of Khalistan began assuming control of Greater Vancouver gurdwaras after Operation Bluestar occurred in 1984.[91] In 1988 Hugh Johnston, author of "The Development of the Punjabi Community in Vancouver since 1961," wrote that in regards to the city's Punjabi community, "being Punjabi is coming to mean, exclusively, being Sikh",[58] and that "it seems likely that Punjabi culture" in Vancouver would be exclusively "an aspect of Sikh identity" and exclude Hindus, who disagreed on the Khalistan issue.[92]

In 1988 Hugh Johnston wrote that there are political divisions and religious divisions within the Sikh community of Vancouver.[58] In 2008 Nayar stated that Vancouver media reporting on orthodox Sikhs is often negative and that orthodox Sikhs "are portrayed negatively as ‘backward’ and ‘violent’".[93] She also stated that journalists of mainstream publications in Canada often conflate "fundamentalist" Sikhism with the pro-Khalistan movement and "moderate" Sikhism with those opposed to the Khalistan movement; she explained that this occurred when the publications discussed religious conflicts in the Sikh community Vancouver as well as conflicts involving Sikhs throughout Canada.[94] Nayar added that in Vancouver the wearing of turbans often is associated with Sikh fundamentalism.[93]

Gurdwaras

Sikh gurdwaras (Sikh temples) in Vancouver were the city's only community centres for the Indo-Canadians until the 1960s.[58] This meant that the gurdwaras at the time also gave social outlets to Punjabi Hindus and other South Asians.[89] By 1981, gurdwaras mainly filled religious purposes.[95] Many major gurdwaras in Greater Vancouver were initially established in isolated areas, but these areas over time became urbanized.[96]

Sikhs often selected gurdwaras due to religious beliefs, family ties, political beliefs, and/or social reasons, and these were not necessarily gurdwaras that were the closest to them.[17]

By 1988 there were six gurdwaras within a ten mile radius in one area in Vancouver. Four new gurdwaras opened in Metro Vancouver in the 1980s.[17]

Gurdwaras in Vancouver

The first gurdwara in Vancouver opened in 1908. It was founded by the Khalsa Diwan Society (KDS), which was established in 1906,[97] This gurdwara was originally on West 2nd Avenue.[98] making it Vancouver's oldest Sikh Society.[99] In 1969 it moved to the intersection of Southwest Marine Drive and Ross Street,[98] in South Vancouver.[96]

The Akali Singh Gurdwara is in East Vancouver, along Skeena Street.[96] It opened in 1952 in response to a religious dispute. Around the time it opened, the Akali Singh Gurdwara did not permit people who had no facial hair from being a part of its management committee, but it allowed them to be a part of the auditing committee and some of the individuals who gave significant amounts of money to the gurdwara were clean-shaven.[54] The construction of the current gurdwara, valued at 1.5-2 million dollars, began construction in 1981.[100] Previously the revenue of the Akali Singh gurdwara was equal to that of the KDS,[101] but around the time of the new gurdwara construction, a takeover of the gurdwara was attempted. The gurdwara prevented an internal takeover by restricting election participation to persons who were not members of other Sikh societies. As a result, a severe membership split occurred and the size was reduced. The Akali Singh was opposed to the KDS, which had a more militant attitude towards the Khalistan question.[17]

Around 1975 a Marxist-Leninist Sikh group purchased the Desh Baghat Mandir centre on Main Street after a failed attempt to seize control of other gurdwaras.[102]

Gurdwaras in suburbs

Most South Asians in Surrey, as of 2001, are Sikhs.[66] The Guru Nanak Sikh Gurdwara is on Scott Road in this city.[96] As of 2011 in regards to its orthodoxy it is a "moderate" gurdwara.[103] As of 2004 it had 37,000 members, making it one of North America's largest Sikh temples.[104]

The Guru Nanak Gurdwara was established in North Delta in 1973 by the Guru Nanakh Sikh Society in order to serve the around 200 Sikh families living in the Surrey-Delta area. The current facility opened in 1981 along Scott Road in Surrey. Due to opposition to the gurdwara from non-Sikhs in Delta, the Delta city government asked the Guru Nanakh Sikh Society to build the new gurdwara in the Surrey side of a property that had been purchased by the society in 1973. In exchange the Delta city government gave access to the Delta sewage system.[103] As of 1988 it was largest Greater Vancouver gurdwara building. The gurdwara was receiving a level income slightly below those of the two largest Vancouver-area gurdwaras by 1979.[17] Around 1984 the International Sikh Youth Federation (ISYF) took control of the Guru Nanakh Gurdwara. The ISYF was a daughter organization of the World Sikh Organization (WSO), which controlled the KDS.[94] According to Hugh Johnston, the gurdwara "probably" had the second largest membership in Greater Vancouver, after the KDS.[17] In January 1998 a coalition of anti-ISYF Sikhs and Sikhs who favored the Indian Congress wrested power away from the ISYF.[94]

The KDS has its own branch gurdwara in New Westinster. Another gurdwara had opened 5 miles (8.0 km) west of the KDS New Westminster and as a result the gurdwara lost membership, but it continued to operate. Hugh Johnston stated that in the 1970s the KDS New Westminster had a "sizeable income".[17]

Dasmesh Darbar Gurdwara is an orthodox gurdwara in Surrey.[105]

The gurdwara of the New Westminster Society is in Richmond. The previous membership followed Baba Mihan Singh, an individual from Doaba who had been invited to attend the New Westminster Society after he arrived in Vancouver; the New Westminster Society had employed one of his relatives as a priest. In 1979 the Nananksar Gurdwara, established by followers of Baba Mihan Singh, was being established, sapping membership from the New Westminster Society.[17] As of 1989, the group controlling the KDS also controlled the New Westminster Society.[101] Since 1984 the Nananksar Gurdwara attracted Sikhs who were uninterested in politics.[35]

There is a dalit gurdwara in Burnaby, the Shri Guru Ravidass Sabha Temple.[106] It opened in 1982.[107] As of 2008 there were 900 members. Two Jats filed a complaint with the British Columbia Human Rights Tribunal after they were denied membership, but the tribunal ruled that the gurdwara was minority-serving and had the right to reject the Jats.[106]

Hinduism

As of the 2001 Statistics Canada there were 27,405 Hindus in Greater Vancouver.[36]

Hindus historically went to Sikh gurdwaras because they lacked their own Hindu temples. Historically there were ten times the number of Punjabi Sikhs compared to Punjabi Hindus.[35] Around the 1970s Punjabi Hindus began having fewer interactions with Sikhs,[58] and in general became more distant from Punjabi Sikhs,[92] as they established their own Hindu religious organizations.[58] This occurred as the Indo-Canadian community increased with more and more immigration.[92] As of 1981 Vancouver had 6,865 Hindus, with about one third of them being ethnic Punjabis.[9] As of 1988 there was no specific Punjabi Hindu organization in Greater Vancouver. Because the Gujarati society morphed into a Gujarati Hindu society, Gujarati Hindus had religious and social functions from both the Vishva Hindu Prasad, the primary Hindu temple in Vancouver, and from their ethnic society.[35]

As of 1988 the primary Hindu temple in the area was the Vishva Hindu Prasad, which in 1982 had about 500 members who paid dues. In 1974 Vishva Hindu Prasad received its own building, a former community centre for an adjacent church. The temple building has a kitchen in the basement and the temple on the primary floor. Its worshipers include South Indians, Bengalis, Gujaratis, and Punjabis. Its primary language is Hindi; Hugh Johnston stated that this "has been an obstacle for the South Indians".[35] The first head priest was an East African Punjabi who was of the Brahman caste and a part of Arya Samaj.[108]

Other temples included a Hare Krishna temple and the Shiv Mandir. Westerners supported the former and Fijians supported the latter.[35]

Other religions

Around the 1970s Punjabi Muslims began having fewer interactions with Sikhs,[58] and in general became more distant from Punjabi Sikhs,[92] as they established their own Muslim religious organizations.[58]

As of 1997 there are eight Punjabi Christian churches in Metro Vancouver.[109]

Recreation

The Indian Summer Festival is held every year. Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) Vancouver sponsors the festival.[110]

As of 1988 Bengali Hindus in the Vancouver area celebrate Durga Puja.[35]

Crime

See also: Indo-Canadian organized crime

By 2009, the Indo-Canadian communities of Greater Vancouver had encountered gang violence among their young males.[111] Bindy Johal was a prominent figure in the organized crime world.[112] As a result of the gang wars, over 100 men of South Asian origins have been murdered in a period from the mid-1990s until 2012.[113] Between 1992 and 2002 at least 50 people died.[114] Gurinder Gill of the Hindustan Times stated that Metro Vancouver had a peak in gang violence in the mid-2000s.[112] The Indo-Canadian males involved in the gangs often originated from affluent families.[115] In 2002 Scott Driemel of the Vancouver Police Department had requested cooperation from the Indo-Canadian community; Terry O'Neill of the Report Newsmagazine stated that at that point there had been little cooperation between the Indo-Canadians and the police.[114]

Baljit Sangra directed the 2008 film Warrior Boyz which documents Indo-Canadian gangs in Metro Vancouver.[116] This film had its premiere at the DOXA Documentary Film Festival in Vancouver.[117] This documentary is a production of the National Film Board of Canada. The documentary A Warrior's Religion, directed by Mani Amar, is also about Indo-Canadian gangs in Vancouver. It was screened in Surrey.[111]

Surrey author Ranj Dhaliwal wrote the Daaku series of novels about crime within the Indo-Canadian community.[118]

R. K. Pruthi, author of Sikhism And Indian Civilization, wrote that Vancouver was the centre of the Khalistan movement's militant activities in Canada but that the movement did not only conduct militant activities in Vancouver.[119]

Relations with mainstream society

In the period 1905 to 1914,[120] the Vancouver Daily World and Vancouver Province both negatively portrayed the South Asian immigrants. Doreen M. Indra, author of "South Asian Stereotypes in the Vancouver Press," wrote that the newspapers' view was that South Asians were "intrinsically dirty and unsanitary" people who were "both physically and morally polluting."[121]

By the 1920s and 1930s, the newspapers still maintained a belief that, as stated by Indra, the South Asians had "negative cultural practices" and "deviant behavior",[122] but the papers did not have a large amount of focus and did not put importance on the idea of South Asians being a social issue, partly because South Asians, who had received the right to have family members come to Canada, did not start outright activism during that period. In addition, there were only a small number of South Asians, and the media perceived India as being distant from Canada.[123]

In 1979 Indra wrote that despite the increase in political influence and immigration of South Asians,[11] and despite an increase in "normal" news coverage of South Asian celebrities,[124] the mainstream newspapers continued to characterize South Asians as being outside of mainstream Canadian society and that the papers continued to associate South Asians with deviancy.[11] Indra added that the Vancouver Sun had more positive news coverage of other ethnic groups.[124]

Research

James Gaylord Chadney wrote the 1984 book The Sikhs of Vancouver, which is based off of a late 1970s study of how the Sikh community of Vancouver retained its familial and social aspects and changed its economic character as it became a part of the wider Canadian community. Kamala Elizabeth Nayar wrote The Sikh Diaspora in Vancouver, which studied the development of the Sikh community in Vancouver. Nayar also wrote the The Punjabis in British Columbia: Location, Labour, First Nations, and Multiculturalism.[125]

Notable residents

See also

References

Notes

  1. ^ a b Hopper, Tristin. "Pirate Radio: Why do three of the biggest Indian language stations in Vancouver broadcast out of the U.S.?" (Archive). National Post. October 3, 2014. Retrieved on October 15, 2014.
  2. ^ Tucker, Alan. The Penguin Guide to Canada. Penguin Books, 1991. p. 539. "Vancouver has the largest overseas community of South Asians (from India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka — many by way of Uganda or Fiji) outside of London, and the largest Sikh community outside of India." - See search page.
  3. ^ Todd, Douglas. "Mapping our ethnicity Part 1: South Asia in Surrey" (Archive). Vancouver Sun. May 2, 2012. Retrieved on October 23, 2014. "West Newton is where Metro Vancouver’s main annual Vaisakhi parade draws hundreds of thousands of Sikh and Hindu celebrants. It’s among the largest South Asian diaspora communities on the planet — second only to enclaves in London."
  4. ^ "The East Indian community in Canada" (Archive). Statistics Canada. Retrieved on October 15, 2014. "The large majority of Canadians of East Indian origin also live in either Toronto or Vancouver. In 2001, 68% of the overall East Indian community lived in one of these two cities. That year close to 350,000 Canadians of East Indian origin lived in Toronto, while almost 150,000 lived in Vancouver. Canadians of East Indian origin made up 7% of the residents of both Toronto and [Greater] Vancouver that year."
  5. ^ a b c d Walton-Roberts and Hiebert, Immigration, Entrepreneurship, and the Family, p. 124.
  6. ^ a b Pang, Guek-cheng. Culture Shock! Vancouver. Marshall Cavendish International Asia Pte Ltd, August 15, 2010. ISBN 9814484806, 9789814484800. p. 30.
  7. ^ Henderson, Martha L. Geographical Identities of Ethnic America: Race, Space, and Place. University of Nevada Press, 2002. ISBN 0874174872, 9780874174878. p. 71.
  8. ^ Lee, Shelley Sang-Hee. A New History of Asian America. Routledge, October 1, 2013. ISBN 1135071063, 9781135071066. p. 156.
  9. ^ a b c d e f g Johnston, Hugh, p. 3. "The 1981 census showed a Canadian population of 67,710 Sikhs and 69,500 Hindus, with 22,392 Sikhs and only 6,865 Hindus in Vancouver. Approximately one-third of Vancouver's Hindus are Punjabis, making Vancouver's total Punjabi population in 1981 about 25,000." - NOTE: Based on the figures: one third of the Vancouver Hindu population would be about 2288.33, which means there would be 22,712 Sikhs. Since the number of Sikhs was actually 22,392, this means virtually all Sikhs are Punjabi. Also: "In Toronto and other major centres in central and eastern Canada, other linguistic groups are more numerous, and Punjabis are part of a more balanced South Asian population."
  10. ^ Campbell, The Sikhs of Vancouver: A Case Study in Minority-Host Relations, p. 3-4.
  11. ^ a b c d Indra, p. 177.
  12. ^ a b c Dusenbery, p. 101.
  13. ^ a b Johnston, Hugh, p. 7.
  14. ^ a b Bauder, Harald. Labor Movement: How Migration Regulates Labor Markets. Oxford University Press, January 28, 2006. ISBN 019534622X, 9780195346220. p. 56.
  15. ^ Kelleher, Olivia. "Special tributes to remember tragic victims of rail and air disasters." Irish Independent. 6 July 2005. Retrieved on October 22, 2014. "On June 23, 1985, Air India Flight 182 from Montreal to London, carrying passengers from Vancouver, exploded and crashed off the Cork coast."
  16. ^ Bolan, Kim. "Air India anniversary memorial service planned for Stanley Park tonight" (Archive). Vancouver Sun. June 23, 2014. Retrieved on October 22, 2014.
  17. ^ a b c d e f g h Johnston, Hugh, p. 10.
  18. ^ Fair, p. 1.
  19. ^ "RCMP warning to Indo-Canadian community draws fire" (Archive). CBC News. August 23, 2006. Retrieved on October 22, 2014.
  20. ^ a b c Bloemraad, p. 48. Cite error: The named reference "Bloemraadp48" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  21. ^ a b Lundy, Kathleen Gould. Teaching Fairly in an Unfair World. Pembroke Publishers Limited. ISBN 1551388073, 9781551388076. p. 93.
  22. ^ a b Smith, Charlie (editor). "Gay bashings and "South Asians"" (Archive). The Georgia Straight. July 18, 2010. Retrieved on October 19, 2014.
  23. ^ Bloemraad, p. 51.
  24. ^ a b "Profile of Diversity in BC Communities 2006 Vancouver" (Archive). Government of British Columbia. Retrieved on October 24, 2014.
  25. ^ a b "Profile of Diversity in BC Communities 2006 Surrey" (Archive). Government of British Columbia. Retrieved on October 24, 2014.
  26. ^ a b "Profile of Diversity in BC Communities 2006 Burnaby" (Archive). Government of British Columbia. Retrieved on October 24, 2014.
  27. ^ a b "Profile of Diversity in BC Communities 2006 Delta" (Archive). Government of British Columbia. Retrieved on October 24, 2014.
  28. ^ a b "Profile of Diversity in BC Communities 2006 Richmond" (Archive). Government of British Columbia. Retrieved on October 24, 2014.
  29. ^ a b "Profile of Diversity in BC Communities 2006 New Westminster" (Archive). Government of British Columbia. Retrieved on October 24, 2014.
  30. ^ a b "Profile of Diversity in BC Communities 2006 Coquitlam" (Archive). Government of British Columbia. Retrieved on October 24, 2014.
  31. ^ a b "Profile of Diversity in BC Communities 2006 West Vancouver" (Archive). Government of British Columbia. Retrieved on October 28, 2014.
  32. ^ Nodwell, ""Integrating Indian Culture into our Life"," p. 1.
  33. ^ "Country Brief – Canada" (Archive). Ministry of Overseas Indian Affairs. p. 3/7. Retrieved on October 21, 2014. "The vast majority of Vancouver Indians are of Sikh Punjabi origin."
  34. ^ Walton, p. 61 (PDF 70/209). "Indo-Canadian refers to those of South Asian ethnicity. In Vancouver the majority are Sikhs from the Punjab, and this group is composed of first and second generation as well as more recent immigrants. My focus on Indo-Canadians, more specifically Sikhs,[...]"
  35. ^ a b c d e f g h Johnston, Hugh, p. 11.
  36. ^ a b c "Annexes" (Archive). Report of Meetings with Representatives of the Indo‑Canadian Community. Government of Canada. Retrieved on October 21, 2014.
  37. ^ a b c Pang, Guek-Cheng. Culture Shock! Vancouver. Marshall Cavendish International Asia Pte Ltd, August 15, 2010. ISBN 9814484806, 9789814484800. p. 31.
  38. ^ Chadney, The Sikhs of Vancouver (1984), p. 53. "In the same vein, many prosperous Vancouver Sikhs have their residence legally listed in the name of their spouse or company they own. One knowledgeable informant indicated that this was rather common practice "for business purposes". It cannot be stated with certainty that these[....]"
  39. ^ Walton-Roberts and Hiebert, Immigration, Entrepreneurship, and the Family, p. 125.
  40. ^ Ames, Michael M. & Joy Inglis. 1974. “Conflict and Change in British Columbia Sikh Family Life” (Archive). In British Columbia Studies, Vol. 20. Winter 1973-1974. - CITED: p. 22-23.
  41. ^ a b Ames, Michael M. & Joy Inglis. 1974. “Conflict and Change in British Columbia Sikh Family Life” (Archive). In British Columbia Studies, Vol. 20. Winter 1973-1974. - CITED: p. 23.
  42. ^ a b Ames, Michael M. & Joy Inglis. 1974. “Conflict and Change in British Columbia Sikh Family Life” (Archive). In British Columbia Studies, Vol. 20. Winter 1973-1974. - CITED: p. 22. "The Sikh "community" of Vancouver lower mainland, where most B.C. Sikhs live, is not a residential entity; it operates more as a collection of reference groups of relatives, friends, and acquaintances who recognize a common ethnic membership, a proudly shared religion, mutual interests, and several temples."
  43. ^ Bloemraad, p. 62.
  44. ^ "Sunset" (Archive). City of Vancouver. Retrieved on October 19, 2014.
  45. ^ Lynch, Dana. "Vancouver Punjabi Market Shopping & Walking Tour" (Archive). About.com. Retrieved on October 15, 2014.
  46. ^ a b Johnston, Jesse. "Can Vancouver’s Little India district survive?" (Archive). CKWX (News 1130). February 4, 2013. Retrieved on October 19, 2014.
  47. ^ Hickman, Pamela. Righting Canada's Wrongs: The Komagata Maru: and Canada's Anti-Indian Immigration Policies in the Twentieth Century. James Lorimer & Company, April 30, 2014. ISBN 1459404378, 9781459404373. p. 84.
  48. ^ a b Chadney, "Sikh Family Patterns," p. 33. "Although the Sikhs are residentially dispersed throughout Greater Vancouver, members of the effective ethnic community are concentrated in a section of Southern Vancouver. This concentration is growing and is reinforced by the proximity of the lumber mills (most important economically) and the Gurdwara (most important religiously and sociopolitically)."
  49. ^ a b Good, Kristin R. Municipalities and Multiculturalism: The Politics of Immigration in Toronto and Vancouver (Volume 34 of Studies in comparative political economy and public policy). University of Toronto Press, 2009. ISBN 1442609931, 9781442609938. p. 169.
  50. ^ Good, Kristin R. Municipalities and Multiculturalism: The Politics of Immigration in Toronto and Vancouver (Volume 34 of Studies in comparative political economy and public policy). University of Toronto Press, 2009. ISBN 1442609931, 9781442609938. p. 75.
  51. ^ Sinoski, Kelly. "The New Surrey: Developing six cities at once" (Archive). Vancouver Sun. January 26, 2013. Retrieved on October 20, 2014.
  52. ^ Sinoski, Kelly. "Newton business district poised to become ‘Little India’" (Archive). Vancouver Sun. December 10, 2013. Retrieved on October 22, 104.
  53. ^ a b Sinoski, Kelly and Brian Morton. "Immigrants choose Metro Vancouver’s ethnic enclaves for support network" (Archive). Vancouver Sun. April 1, 2013. Retrieved on October 22, 2014.
  54. ^ a b c d Johnston, Hugh, p. 6.
  55. ^ a b c Dusenbery, p. 106.
  56. ^ a b Walton-Roberts, Margaret. "Three Readings of the Turban," p. 314.
  57. ^ a b c Sutherland, Anne. "Sikhs in Canada." In: Ember, Carol R., Melvin Ember, and Ian A. Skoggard. Encyclopedia of Diasporas: Immigrant and Refugee Cultures Around the World. Volume I: Overviews and Topics; Volume II: Diaspora Communities. Springer Science & Business Media, 2005. ISBN 0306483211, 9780306483219. CITED: p. 1077.
  58. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Johnston, Hugh, p. 1.
  59. ^ Bloemraad, p. 61.
  60. ^ a b c Ironside, p. 8.
  61. ^ a b Smith, Charlie. "Shred the System" (Archive). The Georgia Straight. September 30, 2004. Retrieved on October 24, 2014.
  62. ^ "Indo-Canadian NPA candidate says he'll join challenge against at-large system" (Archive). The Georgia Straight. November 21, 2008. Retrieved on November 4, 2014.
  63. ^ Smith, Charlie. "Racism is alive and well in Vancouver municipal politics" (Archive). The Georgia Straight. November 16, 2008. Retrieved on October 24, 2014.
  64. ^ a b "Indo-Canadian elected to Canadian city council" (Archive). Indo-Asian News Service at the Hindustan Times. November 25, 2005. Retrieved on October 23, 2014.
  65. ^ "Surrey mayoral candidate surrounds herself with experience in bid for North American first" (Archive). The Globe and Mail. Tuesday June 17, 2014. Retrieved on October 23, 2014.
  66. ^ a b Good, Kristin R. Municipalities and Multiculturalism: The Politics of Immigration in Toronto and Vancouver (Volume 34 of Studies in comparative political economy and public policy). University of Toronto Press, 2009. ISBN 1442609931, 9781442609938. p. 170.
  67. ^ Poon, Christopher. "South Asian candidates’ signs target of racially-motivated vandalism in Surrey" (Archive). Vancouver Desi. October 15, 2014. Retrieved on November 12, 2014.
  68. ^ Lawrence, Jeff. "Signs featuring politicians of South Asian descent vandalized in Surrey" (Archive). CTV News. Wednesday October 15, 2014. Retrieved on November 12, 2014.
  69. ^ "Racists vandalizing Surrey election signs, says Counc. Tom Gill" (Archive). CBC. October 15, 2014. Retrieved on November 12, 2014.
  70. ^ Nayar, The Punjabis in British Columbia, p. 286-287.
  71. ^ Nayar, The Sikh Diaspora in Vancouver, p. 211.
  72. ^ a b c Nayar, The Sikh Diaspora in Vancouver, p. 210.
  73. ^ a b Nayar, The Sikh Diaspora in Vancouver, p. 201: "In contrast to Sikhs in Vancouver, which has a large Sikh community, [sic] Sikhs in small towns throughout British Columbia interact far more with other communities." and "The Vancouver Sikh community is more insulated from the mainstream and is networked according to village and clan ties (partic-[...]"
  74. ^ Nayar, The Sikh Diaspora in Vancouver, p. 22. "When cited in this study, the interviewees are identified by a code for the sake confidentiality. The codes reflect both gender and generation: male interviewees are referred to as Singh, whereas female interviewees are labelled as Kaur; the three generations are marked by the number of the generation (i.e., 1, 2, or 3),"
  75. ^ "South Asian gays silent no longer" (Archive). The Vancouver Province. July 13, 2008. Retrieved on October 24, 2014.
  76. ^ Takeuchi, Craig. "Sher Vancouver's Out and Proud Project to counteract India's antigay legislation" (Archive). The Georgia Straight. December 23, 2013. Retrieved on October 24, 2014.
  77. ^ a b c d Ironside, p. 7.
  78. ^ Indo-Canadian Times website
  79. ^ Indo-Canadian Voice Online
  80. ^ About Our Editor, Indo-Canadian Voice
  81. ^ Apna Roots website
  82. ^ Punjabi di Awaaz website
  83. ^ Fair, p. 5.
  84. ^ Kaur, Mandeep. "THE MAKING OF CANADIAN PUNJABI DIASPORA" (Archive) (Chapter 3). In: Kaur, Mandeep. Canadian-Punjabi Philanthropy and its Impact on Punjab: A Sociological Study (PhD thesis). Punjabi University. Award date: 22 August 2012. p. 85 (PDF 25/32).
  85. ^ Ghuman, Paul Avtar Singh. Coping with Two Cultures: British Asian and Indo-Canadian Adolescents (Issue 99 of Multilingual matters). Multilingual Matters, 1993. ISBN 1853592021, 9781853592027. p. 121.
  86. ^ "Vancouver Khalsa School faces closure" (Archive). Indo-Canadian Voice. Friday November 30, 2012. Retrieved on October 24, 2014.
  87. ^ Nodwell, ""Integrating Indian Culture into our Life"," p. 1-2.
  88. ^ Nayar, The Sikh Diaspora in Vancouver, p. 3.
  89. ^ a b Johnston, Hugh, p. 5.
  90. ^ Johnston, Hugh, p. 8.
  91. ^ Nayar, "Misunderstood in the Diaspora," p. 22.
  92. ^ a b c d Johnston, Hugh, p. 2.
  93. ^ a b Nayar, "Misunderstood in the Diaspora," p. 26-27. "[...]while in Vancouver Sikh fundamentalists are portrayed negatively as ‘backward’ and ‘violent’,[...]In fact, in Vancouver, there is not only the link made between fundamentalism and turban-wearers, but the reportage on orthodox Sikhs is generally made in a bad light."
  94. ^ a b c Nayar, "Misunderstood in the Diaspora," p. 23.
  95. ^ Dusenbery, p. 102.
  96. ^ a b c d Nayar, "The Making of Sikh Space," p. 48.
  97. ^ Nayar, The Sikh Diaspora in Vancouver, p. 16.
  98. ^ a b Nayar, "The Making of Sikh Space," p. 46.
  99. ^ Pang, Guek-cheng. Culture Shock! Vancouver. Marshall Cavendish International Asia Pte Ltd, August 15, 2010. ISBN 9814484806, 9789814484800. p. 31.
  100. ^ Johnston, Hugh, p. 9-10.
  101. ^ a b Johnston, Hugh, p. 9.
  102. ^ Johnston, Hugh, p. 8.
  103. ^ a b Nayar, "The Making of Sikh Space," p. 49.
  104. ^ Brown, DeNeen L. "Vancouver Struggles With Gang Violence]." Washington Post. Thursday July 22, 2004. p. A12. Online p. 1 (Archive). Retrieved on November 3, 2014.
  105. ^ Nayar, "The Making of Sikh Space," p. 49-50.
  106. ^ a b "Temple allowed to restrict members because of class" (Archive). Vancouver Sun/CanWest News Service at canada.com. July 12, 2008. Retrieved on October 22, 2014.
  107. ^ Chan, Cheryl. "‘We are zero’: Immigrant says she can’t escape sting of India’s caste system, even in Canada" (Archive). National Post. October 10, 2013. Retrieved on October 22, 2014.
  108. ^ Johnston, Hugh, p. 12.
  109. ^ "Ethnic churches flourishing" (Archive). The Vancouver Sun. Saturday November 1, 1997. p. B1 / FRONT. Re-posted online February 5, 2011. Retrieved on October 22, 2014.
  110. ^ "CBC Vancouver is proud to sponsor Indian Summer Festival." Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved on October 15, 2014.
  111. ^ a b Takeuchi, Craig. "Documentaries on gangs offer insight to Metro Vancouver's problem" (Archive). The Georgia Straight. March 5, 2009. Retrieved on October 20, 2014.
  112. ^ a b "Police: Recent gang violence in Vancouver may be tip of the iceberg" (Archive). Hindustan Times. June 7, 2012. Retrieved on October 20, 2014. "It is feared that the recent shooting in Vancouver of an Indo-Canadian gangster linked to Dhak and Dhuhre gangs may just be the beginning of the return of gang violence in the region which was at its peak in the mid 2000s."
  113. ^ Sumartojo, p. iii. "Since the mid-1990s, more than 100 Indo-Canadian - or South Asian - men under the age of 30 have been murdered in Greater Vancouver."
  114. ^ a b O'Neill, Terry. "Fifty bodies equals a war; Vancouver police try to end Indo-Canadian drug mayhem" (Archive). Alberta Report, May 13, 2002. Vol.29(10), p.22-3. Available at EBSCOHost, Available at HighBeam Research.
  115. ^ Brown, DeNeen L. "Vancouver Struggles With Gang Violence." Washington Post. Thursday July 22, 2004. p. A12. Online p. 2 (Archive). Retrieved on November 3, 2014.
  116. ^ "Warrior Boyz" (Archive). National Film Board of Canada. Retrieved on October 20, 2014.
  117. ^ "Teens face violence and death as they look to gangs for acceptance: filmmaker" (Archive). The Canadian Press. May 31, 2008. Retrieved on October 20, 2014.
  118. ^ a b Gauthier, Jennifer. "B.C. author probes Indo-Canadian gang culture" (Archive). Metro News. October 17, 2006. Retrieved on October 21, 2014.
  119. ^ Pruthi, R.K. Discovery Publishing House, January 1, 2004. ISBN 8171418791, 9788171418794. p. 159.
  120. ^ Indra, p. 167.
  121. ^ Indra, p. 168.
  122. ^ Indra, p. 174.
  123. ^ Indra, p. 173-174.
  124. ^ a b Indra, p. 180.
  125. ^ Nayar, The Punjabis in British Columbia, p. 286.
  126. ^ a b Hickman, Pamela. Righting Canada's Wrongs: The Komagata Maru: and Canada's Anti-Indian Immigration Policies in the Twentieth Century. James Lorimer & Company, April 30, 2014. ISBN 1459404378, 9781459404373. p. 46.
  127. ^ "Renee Sarojini Saklikar draws large crowd to SFU Woodward's for launch of new book of poems" (Archive). The Georgia Straight. November 14, 2013. Retrieved on October 30, 2014.
  128. ^ Lederman, Marsha. "Poet’s new book communes with the ghosts of the Air India bombing." The Globe and Mail. Sunday November 10, 2013. Retrieved on October 30, 2014.

Further reading

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