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Kamma (caste)

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This is an old revision of this page, as edited by Callofduty259 (talk | contribs) at 18:56, 16 June 2019 (Added more details and a new subsection with many international scholars sourced. Made sure to mention new subsection most Kammas were agriculturalists to avoid glorification or to make it appear everyone was involved in military or government.). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

This article is about the caste. For the ballet score Khamma by Claude Debussy, see Khamma (ballet).

Kamma
ReligionsHinduism
Languages
Country
Region
StatusForward caste

Kamma is a caste in India that is concentrated in the states of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. The Kammas are regarded as a forward caste, and form one of the most prosperous communities in these states.[1] They sometimes use the last names Chowdary, Rao, and Naidu.[2]

The community of Kammas is that of agricultural families originating from the Kammanadu region of the Guntur and Prakasam districts in Andhra Pradesh.[3][4] Kammas are believed to have spread out from the region during the Vijayanagara period propelled by their military role, followed by some in-migration during the British period, and out-migration again during the twentieth century.[5] Today, they constitute a dominant agrarian and business caste from coastal Andhra with socio-economic and political prominence throughout the Telugu-speaking regions of India (the states of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana).[6][7]

They also have a notable presence in the neighbouring states in India such as Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.[8] In recent times, a sizeable number of Kammas have migrated to the United States.[9]

Origins

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Gundlakamma River
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Gundlakamma River
Konidena
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Ongole
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Kammanadu region
Main article: Kammanadu

The modern community of Kammas, along with Velamas and Reddys, are believed to have originated with the Kapus (agriculturists). The term "Kamma" alludes to their origins in the Kammanadu region of coastal Andhra Pradesh.[4][10] The region, lying between the Gundlakamma river and the Krishna river in the erstwhile Guntur district (which included the three subdistricts later transferred to the Ongole district in 1970), had an identity dating back to ancient times. The term "kamma" either referred to the two rivers that formed the boundaries of the region,[11] or to the Buddhist monastic institutions called sanghakammas believed to have been once prevalent in the region.[12]

As the people of the region migrated to other parts, they were often referred to as the Kamma community (kamma-kula).[13] Terms such as kamma-brahmana, kamma-komati, kamma-sreshti and kamma-kapu are attested in inscriptions as descriptions of people.[14][15][16] The migration was aparently quite extensive, and was made by possible by the Kammanadu's strategic location with access to the Deccan plateau as well as to the regions in the south and southwest.[17] By 1872, only one-fourth of their total population was living in the original region. But the migrants retained links to the homeland and returned to it whenever the situation was favourable.[18]

Medieval history

Kakatiya Period

Kammas were soldiers for the Kakatiya Empire.[19] While during times of peace, Kammas engaged in agriculture, which was their traditional occupation, they also served in the military of the Kakatiya Empire during times of conflict.[19] Commander Jayapa Senani, who is said to be a Kamma[20], was the Commander-in-Chief of the Elephant Forces of the Kakatiya Army and a minister during the reign of Ganapatideva.[21][22] Ganapatideva married the two sisters of Jayapa.[23]

During the reign of Prataparudra II, the last emperor of the Kakatiya Empire, the Ravella Nayaks appear to have distinguished themselves in the military campaigns against the Delhi Sultanate. [24][25]

Post-Kakatiya period

The demise of the Kakatiya Empire resulted in confusion and anarchy for sometime, before the Musunuri Nayaks brought stability to the region.[26] The Musunuri Nayaks, who Telugu historians have stated are Kammas, led a confederacy of Telugu nobles to liberate the Telugu regions from the rule of the Tughlaqs.[27][28][29][30][31][32]. The Musunuri Nayaks, namely Prolaya Nayaka and Kapaya Nayaka, established an independent kingdom that was initially based out of Rekapalle. The Vilasa Grant of Prolaya Nayaka, where he bemoaned the devastation of Telugu regions under the Turks, sought to legitimize himself as the rightful restorer of order following the Kakatiyas.[33] Kapaya Nayaka, who was the cousin of Prolaya, later succeeded him, and the capital was shifted to Warangal following Kapaya Nayaka's ousting of Malik Maqbul, who was the governor of that area for the Delhi Sultanate.[34] The Musunuri Nayaks were succeeded by the Recherla Nayakas.

Cynthia Talbot states that the modern-castes of the Telugu states did not originate until the late stages of the Vijayanagara Empire.[35] Telugu historians disagree with that statement. For instance, B.S.L Hanumantha Rao states that the post-Kakatiya Andhradesa (Telugu regions) experienced a triangular-conflict between the Velamas, Kammas, and Reddys, and K.Satyamurthy noted that the post-Kakatiya period saw the Kammas, Reddys, and Velamas, among others, leading Telugu society.[36][37]

Vijayanagara period

During the reign of Krishnadevaraya, Kammas are said to have formed the bulwark of the Vijayanagara army. Kamma Nayaks (commanders) were appointed as governors in many areas of Tamil Nadu.[38] During the Vijayanagara Empire and the Nayak viceroys, Kammas governed villages and supplied military officers.[39] They also served as ministers, governors, and generals; for instance, Bukka Raya II appointed a Ravella chief as the Governor of Srisailam[40] The Ravellas, Suryadevaras, Gobburis, Sayapanenis, and Pemmasanis are some prominent Kamma Nayak clans that served Vijayanagara.[41]

One of the notable Kammas during the Vijayanagara period was Pemmasani Ramalinga Nayudu, who was a leading military commander under Krishnadevaraya. Vithalappa Nayaka was another prominent Kamma military commander during the reign of Krishadevaraya and Achyuta Deva Raya.[42][43] Kamma Nayaks' role in protecting the last great Hindu kingdom of India was significant.[44][non-primary source needed]

The Vijayanagara Empire was troubled after the Battle of Tallikota in 1565. Pemmasani Nayaks, Ravella Nayaks and Sayapaneni Nayaks helped the Aravidu Dynasty keep the Muslims at bay. The army commanded by the Pemmasanis, who became feudatory rulers of Gandikota, was the vanguard of the Vijayanagara Empire during the Aravidu Dynasty.[45] It took another 90 years to consolidate the Muslim power in Andhra country with the capture of Gandikota in 1652.

Post-Vijayanagara Period

Following the collapse of the Vijayanagara Empire, the chief-Kamma Nayaks obtained favours from the Qutb Shahis and Mughal rulers, and they settled as local military chiefs.[46] For instance, the Sayapaneni Nayaks (1626–1802) ruled a swath of territory between the Krishna River and the Penna River as vassals of both the Qutb Shahis and the Mughals.[47][48] During the Qutb-Shahi reign, most of the Deshmukhs came from the Kamma, Velama, Reddy, and Raju castes.[49] Muslim princes thus played a role in reinforcing caste hierarchy as they saw it as a guarantee of order among their Hindu Subjects.[50]

Some zamindars from the Kamma community came into being during this period. For instance, Vasireddy Virappa Naidu was granted a Zamindari estate in 1670 and by 1725, his heirs were controlling 225 villages in the Krishna Valley.[51] Raja Vasireddy Venkatadri Nayudu and the Raja of Muktyala are individuals that belong to the Vasireddy Family. Another example is that of Raja Yarlagadda Guruva Nayudu; he was granted a sanad for the Devarakota Estate in 1576 from the Qutb Shahis.[52] The Devarakota Estate rulers assisted the Qutb Shahis and the early Asaf Jahi rulers in their military expeditions, and they assisted the revenue officers as well.[53][54] There are also a few zamindars from the Kamma community in Tamil Nadu, such as the Ravellas of Ilayarasanendal and the Pemmasanis of Kuruvikulam.[55] However, during this period, most Kammas were landholding agriculturalists or involved in mercantile activities.

Modern history

In 1802, after the British had established themselves in Coastal Andhra, the ‘Permanent Settlement’ was introduced. This British action reinforced the zamindari system, and a new landed aristocracy was created amongst Kammas as they received an additional 14 zamindaris during colonial rule, while still retaining older ones, such as the Vasireddy Zamindari and the Devarakota Estate.[56][57]

Most Kammas were ordinary landholding-farmers paying taxes to the revenue administration through the ryotwari system.[58] It was mainly these Kammas whose landholdings were consolidated, and their influence consequently increased, by the introduction of the ryotwari system as a replacement for the zamindari system in the 19th century.[59]

In the 1872 census, the Kammas made up 40 per cent of the agricultural population of the Krishna district (which included the present Guntur district until 1904). Along with Brahmins, they formed the dominant community of the district.[60] By 1921, their population in the district increased to 47 per cent, representing a large in-migration. The literate Kammas learned the Vedas, wore the sacred threads, taught Sanskrit and performed priestly functions for the lower-caste members, which are said to have generated controversies.[61] Despite their attachment to Brahminical orthodoxy, a narrative that Kammas propagate about how they were originally Kshatriyas but were persecuted and sought refuge with Kapus emphasizes their familiarity with the Kapus (cultivators) and the latter’s Shudra identity.[62]

Following the introduction of cash crops, such as sugarcane, tobacco, and cotton, there was a commercialization of agriculture that led to the development of transportation, infrastructure, urban growth, and industrialization. During this period, Vijayawada became a thriving commercial and railway center. This led Kammas to use their money from agricultural surpluses to invest in urban centers, start bus companies, food processing industries, and some became moneylenders, which led to their bypassing of the traditional merchant communities. [63]This economic mobility of the community was noted in N. G. Ranga's study in the 1920s. [63]

The Kammas were also politically active, associating themselves with the Indian National Congress almost from its inception, and agitated for farmers' interests. They formed the Kamma Mahajana Sabha, a caste association, in 1910, which received encouragement from the political leaders. Ranga also started a Madras Kamma Association in 1919 and founded a journal Kamma Patrika, later renamed to Ryot Patrika.[64] The Kammas constituted 6 per cent of the population in the Telugu-speaking of the Madras Presidency in 1921, a figure slightly higher than Brahmins, but lagging far behind 'Kapur or Reddi'.[65]

Construction of dams and barrages and establishment of an irrigation system in Godavari and Krishna River deltas by Arthur Cotton was a great boon to the Kamma farmers. Availability of water and the natural propensity for hard work made the Kammas wealthy and prosperous.[66] The money was put to good use by establishing numerous schools and libraries and encouraging their children to take up modern education.[67]

The Kammas of Karnataka mainly came from the Krishna Delta and settled mostly in Bellary and Raichur. They acquired lands in the Tungabhadra River Valley and benefited significantly from irrigation, which led to the value of their landholdings to increase. [68] The Kammas of Tamil Nadu have excelled in the cultivation of black cotton soils and later diversified into various industrial enterprises, particularly in Coimbatore and Kovilpatti.[69][70]Most of the Kamma owners of the textile and industrial enterprises in Coimbatore descend from aristocratic backgrounds, while that is not always the case with the cotton farmers. [71]

Classification

The varna system of Brahmanic ritual ranking never took hold in South Indian society outside Kerala. There were essentially three classes: Brahmin, non-Brahmin and Dalit.[72] Kammas naturally fall into the non-Brahmin class.[73] Classification of social groups in the Andhra region has changed frequently as the various communities jostle for status.[74] During the British Raj, the Kammas were considered to be "upper Shudra", along with the Reddy and Velama castes, under the varna system.[75][76]. Kammas claim the Kshatriya status and argued that the Kshatriya status was given based on one’s deeds, according to dharma. Despite this line of reasoning, by claiming that the contemporary Kammas were Kshatriyas because their ancestors had attained that status by virtue of good deeds or marriage into royal Kshatriya families like the Kakatiyas, in fact the Kammas proved the validity of pedigree rather than dharma in determining one's varna.[77]

Selig Harrison said in 1956 that

Kamma lore nurtures the image of a once-proud warrior clan reduced by Reddi chicanery to its present peasant status. Reddi duplicity, recounted by Kamma historian K. Bhavaiah Choudary, was first apparent in 1323 AD at the downfall of Andhra's Kakatiya dynasty. Reciting voluminous records to prove that Kammas dominated the Kakatiya court, Chaudary suggests that the Reddis, also influential militarists at the time, struck a deal at Kamma expense with the Moslem conquerors of the Kakatiya regime. The Kammas lost their noble rank and were forced into farming.[78]

.

Politics

Prior to the bifurcation of Andhra Pradesh, creating the new state of Telangana, the Kammas and the Reddys were politically and economically dominant in the state.[7]

During the 1980s, they played a key role in state and national politics with the inception of the Telugu Desam Party by its then President Nandamuri Taraka Rama Rao also called as NTR.[79]

Notable people

References

  1. ^ Christophe Jaffrelot, A. Kalaiyarasan, Kapu agitation in Andhra Pradesh is for political dominance and economic mobility, Indian Express, 20 April 2019.
  2. ^ Gilbertson, Amanda (21 December 2017). Within the Limits: Moral Boundaries of Class and Gender in Urban India. Oxford University Press. p. 111. ISBN 9780199091621.
  3. ^ Nāgabhūṣaṇaśarma, M.; Sastry, M. V.; Śēṣagirirāvu, C. (1995), History and culture of the Andhras, Telugu University, p. 80 Quote: "Next to birth and profession, it was region which accounted for sectarian sub-divisions in all the castes like those of Kammanadu being called Kamma-Brahmana, Kamma-Kapu, Kamma-Sresthi and so on."
  4. ^ a b Sastry, P. V. Parabrahma (1996), Rural Studies in Early Andhra, V.R. Publication, p. 59 Quote: "The modern Kamma sect of people in Andhra desa is originally of the Kapu families hailing from Kamma nadu or Kamma rashtra of the medieval period."
  5. ^ *Benbabaali, Caste Dominance and Territory in South India (2018), pp. 6–7: "These waves of military migration towards the South of the Indian peninsula from the fifteenth century onwards explain the significant presence of Kammas in Tamil Nadu, where they again turned into agriculturalists in times of peace."
  6. ^ Benbabaali, Caste Dominance and Territory in South India (2018), pp. 2–3; Keiko, Politics and representation of caste identity (2008), p. 356
  7. ^ a b Srinivasulu, K. (September 2002). "Caste, Class and Social Articulation in Andhra Pradesh: Mapping Differential Regional Trajectories" (PDF). London: Overseas Development Institute. pp. 3–4. Retrieved 30 March 2013.
  8. ^ Benbabaali, Caste Dominance and Territory in South India (2018), pp. 6–7, 25–29, 29–30
  9. ^ Bhaskar, T. L. S.; Bhat, Chandrashekhar (2007). "Contextualising Diasporic Identity". In Oonk, Gijsbert (ed.). Global Indian Diasporas: Exploring Trajectories of Migration and Theory. Amsterdam University Press. pp. 108–109, 112. ISBN 978-90-5356-035-8.
  10. ^ Keiko, Politics and representation of caste identity (2008), p. 356: "their actual dominance was originally limited to two districts on the lower banks of the Krishna River, namely Krishna and Guntur districts."
  11. ^ Lincoln, Bommala Abraham (1992), A study of place-names of Bāpaṭla Taluk: a study on onomastics, B. Subhashini, p. 118: "Here, Kamma indicates a stream. Cf: Gundlakamma: Prakasam District; Perakamma: a big Kamma, River Krishna"
  12. ^ Benbabaali, Caste Dominance and Territory in South India (2018), pp. 6–7: According to epigraphical records, the Krishna delta area was known as Kammanadu during the Chola empire—a toponym that probably came from the Buddhist monastic institutions called sanghakammas.
  13. ^ Rao, B. S. L. Hanumantha (1995), Social Mobility in Medieval Andhra, Telugu University, pp. 52–53
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  15. ^ Sarma, M Somasekhara; Sōmaśēkharaśarma, Mallampalli (1948), History of the Reddi Kingdoms (circa. 1325 A.D. to Circa 1448 A.D.), Andhra University, p. 278
  16. ^ Nāgabhūṣaṇaśarma, Modali; Sastry, Mudigonda Veerabhadra; Śēṣagirirāvu, Cīmakurti (1995), History and culture of the Andhras, Telugu University, p. 80
  17. ^ Keiko, Politics and representation of caste identity (2008), p. 356: "Its historical prominence, however, derived from the fact that it opened into the extensive Deccan plateau."
  18. ^ Keiko, Politics and representation of caste identity (2008), pp. 357–359: "their population in the Krishna delta in the 1872 census was one-fourth of their total strength in the entire Madras Presidency, but had increased by 1921 to about 47 per cent."
  19. ^ a b Benbabaali, Dalel (2018). "Caste Dominance and Territory in South India: Understanding Kammas' socio-spatial mobility". Modern Asian Studies. 52 (6): 1944. doi:10.1017/S0026749X16000755. ISSN 0026-749X. The martial activities of the Kamma agriculturists were intermittent and limited to times of war, when they worked as soldiers in the service of the Kakatiya kings of Warangal
  20. ^ Lakshmanna, Chintamani (1973). Caste dynamics in village India. Nachiketa Publications. p. 28. Ganapati Deva married girls from several castes. His relations included Jayapa, who was a Kamma . . .
  21. ^ Kumari, V. Anila (1997). The Andhra Culture during the Kakatiyan times. Eastern Book Linkers. p. 9. ISBN 9788186339152.
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  28. ^ Satyamurthy, K. (1990). Political geography of India. Printwell Publishers. p. 32. The Kamma-nayakas of the Musunuri family particularly Prolayanayaka and Kapayanayaka attempted successfully in freeing the land from the Muslim rule.
  29. ^ Rao, P. Raghunadha (1993). Ancient and medieval history of Andhra Pradesh. Sterling Publishers. p. 70. ISBN 9788120714953. These chiefs took the lead in organizing a war of independence against the Muslim rule and elected as their leader, Prolaya Nayaka, the Kamma chieftain of Musunuru . . .
  30. ^ Prasad, G. Durga (1988), History of the Andhras up to 1565 A. D. (PDF), Guntur: P. G. Publishers, p. 168
  31. ^ "The Hindu : Telugu cultural history". www.thehindu.com. 26 November 2002. He [Muppaalla Hanumantha Rao, the author of SAMAGRA ANDHRA DESA CHARITRA — SAMSKRITI — Third Volume] comes out with new evidence that, during this period, the Musunuri Kamma dynasty ruled Andhra for 50 years while the Reddy dynasty ruled the land for a hundred years plus another quarter of a century by the Reddy kings of Rajahmundry and the Velama kings had their sway over the region for some 150 years. He also finds that all these three major castes were one to begin with, but later split into three different sects {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |dead-url= (help)
  32. ^ Pramila, Kasturi (1 January 2002). Economic and social conditions of Āndhra Deśa, A.D. 1000 to 1323 A.D. Bharatiay Kala Prakashan. p. 162. Prolayanayaka of the Musunuri family who is considered to belong to the Kamma caste established an independent kingdom at Rekapalli.
  33. ^ Talbot (2001), p. 178; Eaton (2005), pp. 26–27; Chattopadhyaya (1998), pp. 57–59
  34. ^ Eaton, Richard M. (17 November 2005). A Social History of the Deccan, 1300-1761: Eight Indian Lives. Cambridge University Press. p. 50. ISBN 9780521254847.
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  39. ^ Gough, Kathleen (3 January 2008). Rural Society in Southeast India. Cambridge University Press. p. 29. ISBN 9780521040198. Also among the aristocrats was the high-ranking Telugu speaking Kamma Naidus, who governed villages and supplied military officers under the Vijayanagara kings and Nayak viceroys.
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  42. ^ Wagoner, Phillip B. (1993). Tidings of the king: a translation and ethnohistorical analysis of the Rāyavācakamu. University of Hawaii Press. p. 14. ISBN 9780824814953.
  43. ^ Patil, Madhao P. (1 September 1999). Court Life Under The Vijayanagar Rulers. B.R. Publishing Corporation. pp. 70–71. ISBN 9788176460941.
  44. ^ Jackson, William (2005). Vijayanagara Voices. Ashgate Publishing. p. 124. ISBN 0-7546-3950-9.
  45. ^ Stein, Burton; Stein, Formerly Professor of History School of Oriental and African Studies Burton (1989). The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara. Cambridge University Press. p. 88. ISBN 9780521266932.
  46. ^ Satyanarayana, A. (1 January 2007). Society, Economy And Polity In Modern Andhra. Kanishka Publishers Distributors. p. 7. ISBN 9788173919718.
  47. ^ Richards, John F. (1993). Power, administration, and finance in Mughal India. Variorum. pp. 331–332. ISBN 9780860783664.
  48. ^ Narayanarau, V.; Shulman, D. D.; Subrahmanyam, S. (2003). Textures of Time: Writing History in South India. Other Press LLC. p. 264. ISBN 1-59051-044-5.
  49. ^ Sarma, Mukkamala Radhakrishna; Committee, Osmania University Dept of Ancient Indian History, Culture & Archaeology Felicitation; History, Osmania University Dept of (2004). Glimpses of our past--historical researches: festschrift in honour of Prof. Mukkamala Radhakrishna Sarma, former emeritus fellow. Felicitation Committee, Dept. of Ancient Indian History, Culture, and Archaeology & Dept. of History, Osmania University. p. 293.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  50. ^ Benbabaali, Dalel (2018). "Caste Dominance and Territory in South India: Understanding Kammas' socio-spatial mobility". Modern Asian Studies. 52 (6): 1945. doi:10.1017/S0026749X16000755. ISSN 0026-749X.
  51. ^ Benbabaali, Dalel (2018). "Caste Dominance and Territory in South India: Understanding Kammas' socio-spatial mobility". Modern Asian Studies. 52 (6): 1938–1976. doi:10.1017/S0026749X16000755. ISSN 0026-749X. Some wealthy Kammas, such as Vasireddy Virappa Naidu in 1670, were elevated to the status of hereditary zamindars. By 1725, his heirs were controlling 225 villages in the Krishna delta.
  52. ^ Pradesh (India), Andhra; Sivasankaranarayana, Bh (1977). Andhra Pradesh district gazetteers. Printed by the Director of Print. and Stationery at the Govt. Secretariat Press; [copies can be had from: Govt. Publication Bureau, Andhra Pradesh]. p. 53.
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  55. ^ Vadivelu, A. (24 August 2016). The Aristocracy of Southern India. Mittal Publications. pp. 161 and 168.
  56. ^ Benbabaali, Dalel (2018). "Caste Dominance and Territory in South India: Understanding Kammas' socio-spatial mobility". Modern Asian Studies. 52 (6): 1946. doi:10.1017/S0026749X16000755. ISSN 0026-749X. "In 1802, soon after their establishment in Coastal Andhra, the British introduced the Permanent Settlement that reinforced the zamindari tenure system. A new landed aristocracy was created among Kammas as they received another 14 zamindaris under colonial rule, the zamindar of Guntur being one of the wealthiest."
  57. ^ Harrison, Selig S. (8 December 2015). India: The Most Dangerous Decades. Princeton University Press. p. 211. ISBN 9781400877805.
  58. ^ Benbabaali, Dalel (2018). "Caste Dominance and Territory in South India: Understanding Kammas' socio-spatial mobility". Modern Asian Studies. 52 (6): 1946. doi:10.1017/S0026749X16000755. ISSN 0026-749X. "most Kammas were small farmers paying taxes directly to the revenue administration under the ryotwari system. These Kamma ryots, whose private-property rights were now consolidated, emerged as the main beneficiaries of the construction of dams on the Krishna and Godavari rivers around 1850."
  59. ^ Kumar, P. Pratap (2013). "Andhra Pradesh: Economic and social relations". In Berger, Peter; Heidemann, Frank (eds.). The Modern Anthropology of India: Ethnography, Themes and Theory. Routledge. p. 18. ISBN 9781134061112.
  60. ^ Keiko, Politics and representation of caste identity (2008), p. 357.
  61. ^ Keiko, Yamada (2008). "Politics and representation of caste identity in regional historiography: A case study of Kammas in Andhra". The Indian Economic & Social History Review. 45 (3): 358–359. doi:10.1177/001946460804500302. ISSN 0019-4646.
  62. ^ Keiko, Yamada (2008). "Politics and representation of caste identity in regional historiography: A case study of Kammas in Andhra". The Indian Economic & Social History Review. 45 (3): 359. doi:10.1177/001946460804500302. ISSN 0019-4646. One story states that the Kammas were originally Kshatriyas, but were persecuted by a king because one of them called the monarch a bastard. They therefore sought refuge with the Kapus, and adopted the custom of their protectors. Familiarity with Kapus and the latter's Sudra status is emphasised in the narrative.
  63. ^ a b Benbabaali, Dalel (2018/11). "Caste Dominance and Territory in South India: Understanding Kammas' socio-spatial mobility". Modern Asian Studies. 52 (6): 1946. doi:10.1017/S0026749X16000755. ISSN 0026-749X. "The commercialization of agriculture in Coastal Andhra, following the introduction of cash crops such as sugarcane, tobacco, and cotton, led to the development of transportation infrastructure, urban growth, and industrialization. In the Krishna delta, the small town of Vijayawada became a thriving market and an important railway junction. Kamma farmers diversified their activities by investing in urban areas, using their agricultural surplus to start bus companies or food-processing industries such as rice mills and sugar factories. Those who were able to commercialize their own agricultural production and to become moneylenders progressively sidelined the traditional merchant castes and business communities." {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  64. ^ Keiko, Politics and representation of caste identity (2008), pp. 360–361.
  65. ^ Keiko, Politics and representation of caste identity (2008), p. 356.
  66. ^ Murty, K. R. (2001). Parties, Elections and Mobilisation. New Delhi: Anmol Publications. p. 20.
  67. ^ Bhattacharya, Sabyasachi (2002). Education and the disprivileged: nineteenth and twentieth century India. Orient Blackswan. p. 58. ISBN 978-81-250-2192-6.
  68. ^ Benbabaali, Dalel (2018/11). "Caste Dominance and Territory in South India: Understanding Kammas' socio-spatial mobility". Modern Asian Studies. 52 (6): 1966. doi:10.1017/S0026749X16000755. ISSN 0026-749X. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  69. ^ Stein, Burton (1989). Vijayanagara. Cambridge University Press. p. 46. ISBN 0-521-26693-9.
  70. ^ Chari, Sharad (2004). Fraternal Capital. Stanford University Press. p. 162. ISBN 0-8047-4873-X.
  71. ^ Benbabaali, Dalel (2018). "Caste Dominance and Territory in South India: Understanding Kammas' socio-spatial mobility". Modern Asian Studies. 52 (6): 1965. doi:10.1017/S0026749X16000755. ISSN 0026-749X. As migrants in Tamil Nadu, the Kamma Naidus claim that they had to struggle and work hard to reach the social position they enjoy today. This might be true for the descendants of small cotton farmers, but most of the big textile industrialists of Coimbatore have an aristocratic ancestry
  72. ^ Fox, Richard G. (January 1969), "Varna Schemes and Ideological Integration in Indian Society", Comparative Studies in Society and History, 11 (01): 27–45, doi:10.1017/S0010417500005132: "When recognition of a regional varna scheme has been unavoidable—such as the tripartite division into Brahmins, non-Brahmins, and Untouchables in much of the South— it has been explained in terms of an historical corruption or breakdown of the standard four-class system, rather than regarded as a functional entity in its own right."
  73. ^ Gopi, K. N. (1978), Process of Urban Fringe Development: A Model, Concept Publishing Company, p. 35
  74. ^ Kumar, P. Pratap (2013). "Andhra Pradesh: Economic and social relations". In Berger, Peter; Heidemann, Frank (eds.). The Modern Anthropology of India: Ethnography, Themes and Theory. Routledge. p. 14. ISBN 9781134061112.
  75. ^ Bhattacharya, Sabyasachi (2002). Education and the disprivileged: nineteenth and twentieth century India. Orient Blackswan. p. 17. ISBN 978-81-250-2192-6.
  76. ^ Ayres, Alyssa; Oldenburg, Philip (2002). India briefing: quickening the pace of change. M. E. Sharpe. p. 138. ISBN 978-0-7656-0813-0.
  77. ^ Keiko, Politics and representation of caste identity (2008), pp. 364:
  78. ^ Harrison, Caste and the Andhra Communists (1956)
  79. ^ Political Parties in South Asia, S. K. Mitra and M. Enskat, 2004, Praeger/Greenwood, p.115, ISBN 0-275-96832-4
  80. ^ http://templesinindiainfo.com/b-munuswamy-naidu/
  81. ^ a b c d e "Khammas of AP have money power, so they just go get it". Retrieved 7 September 2016.

Bibliography

  • Benbabaali, Dalel (2018), "Caste Dominance and Territory in South India: Understanding Kammas' socio-spatial mobility", Modern Asian Studies, 52 (06): 1938–1976, doi:10.1017/S0026749X16000755, ISSN 0026-749X
  • Keiko, Yamada (2008), "Politics and representation of caste identity in regional historiography: A case study of Kammas in Andhra", The Indian Economic and Social History Review, 45 (3): 353–380, doi:10.1177/001946460804500302
  • Harrison, Selig S. (June 1956). "Caste and the Andhra Communists". The American Political Science Review. 50 (2): 378–404. JSTOR 1951675. (subscription required)

Further reading

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