International Brigades
- "Fifth International Brigade" redirects here. For the song, see Fifth International Brigade (song)
The International Brigades were Republican military units in the Spanish Civil War, formed of many non-state sponsored volunteers of different countries who traveled to Spain, to fight for the democratic government in the Spanish Civil War between 1936 and 1939. They fought against Spanish Nationalist forces, who were led by General Francisco Franco and assisted by Nazi German and Fascist Italian forces.
The Brigades recruited 60,000 men and women, as many as 10,000 of whom never returned. More than 55 nationalities were represented in the Brigades: during the Battle of Madrid alone, the XIIth Brigade counted representatives from no fewer than 17 nationalities in its ranks.
Constitution of the Brigades
The idea to use foreign Communist Parties to recruit volunteers (both Communist and non-Communists -- a non-Communist volunteer would first have an interview with an agent of the NKVD) to come to the aid of the Spanish Republic was proposed in Moscow in September 1936 by Willi Münzenberg, who was the chief of Comintern propaganda for Western Europe (perhaps at the suggestion by Maurice Thorez). By the end of September, the Italian and French Communist Parties had decided to set up a column. Luigi Longo, ex-leader of the Italian Communist Youth, was charged to make the necessary arrangements with the Spanish government. The Soviet Ministry of Defense also helped, since they had experience of dealing with corps of international volunteers (there had been precedents of such corps during the Russian Civil War). At first, the idea was opposed by Largo Caballero, but after the first setbacks of the war, he changed his mind, and finally agreed to the operation on 22 October. However, the Soviet Union did not withdraw from the Non-Intervention Committee, probably to avoid diplomatic conflict with France and the United Kingdom.
The main recruitment centre was in Paris, under the supervision of Polish communist colonel Karol "Walter" Swierczewski. On 17 October 1936, an open letter by Stalin to José Díaz was published in Mundo Obrero, arguing that liberation for Spain was a matter not only for Spaniards, but also for the whole of "progressive Humanity"; in a matter of days, support organisations for the Spanish Republic were founded in most countries, all more or less controlled by the Comintern.
Paths were arranged for volunteers: for instance, Josip Broz, who would became famous as Marshal Tito, was in Paris to provide assistance, money and passports for the volunteers from Eastern Europe. Volunteers were sent by train or ship from France to Spain, and sent to the base at Albacete. However, many of them also went by themselves to Spain. The volunteers were under no contract, nor defined engagement period, which would later prove a problem.
Also many Italians, Germans, and people from other countries with repressive governments joined the movement, with the idea that combat in Spain was a first step to restore democracy or advance a revolutionary cause in their own country. There were also many unemployed workers (especially from France), and adventurers. Finally, some 500 Communists who had been exiled to Russia were sent to Spain (among them, experienced military leaders from the First World War like "Kléber" Stern, "Gomez" Zaisser, "Lukacs" Zalka and "Gal" Galicz, who would prove invaluable in combat).
The operation was met by Communists with enthusiasm, but by Anarchists with scepticism, at best. At first, the Anarchists who controlled the borders with France were told to refuse Communist volunteers, and reluctantly allowed their passage after protests.
The first group of 500 men (mainly French, with a few exiled Poles and Germans) arrived in Albacete on 14 October 1936. They were met by international volunteers who had already been fighting in Spain: the surviving Germans from the Thälmann-Batallion, Italians from Gastone Sozzi and French from Commune de Paris. (Amongst these men was British poet John Cornford). Men were sorted according to their experience and origin, and dispatched to units.
Albacete base was under the command of André Marty, a French Communist whose obsession for plots and spies would trigger massive purges (Ernest Hemingway would draft a ferocious portrait of Marty in For Whom the Bell Tolls). Marty was essentially incompetent and owed his position to the friendship with Stalin. He was seconded by better leaders, who set up training for Cavalry, Artillery and Infantry, and hospitals.
The French Communist Party provided uniforms for the Brigades. Discipline was extreme. For several weeks, the Brigades were locked in their base while their strict military training was under way.
First Engagements: the Battle of Madrid
The first International Brigade, the XIth Brigade (numbered XI, next to the ten mixed brigades of the Spanish regular army), under command of "General" Emilio Kléber, was engaged during the Battle of Madrid, occupying its positions on 8 November 1936. There were the Edgard André (German), Commune de Paris (French), and Jarosław Dąbrowski (Polish) battalions, and a section of British machine-gunners, totalling around 1900 men. The XIIth brigade took its positions on 13 November 1936, with 1550 men.
The Battle of Madrid was a major success for the Republic - staving off the prospect of a rapid defeat at the hands of the Francoist forces. The role of the International Brigades in this victory was generally recognised and sometimes even exaggerated. For instance, the British Ambassador, Sir Henry Childon, declared that there were no Spaniards in the Army which had defended Madrid, in fact all but 3000 of the 40,000 Republican troops in the city were Spanish. Even though the International Brigades did not win the battle by themselves, nor significantly change the situation, they certainly did provide an example by their determined fighting, and improved the morale of the population by demonstrating the concern of other nations in the fight.
One of the strategic positions in Madrid was the Casa de Campo. There the Nationalist troops were Morrocans commanded by General Varela. They were excellent fighters in the open, but were ill-trained for urban warfare, a role for which the Republican's militiamen had shown prowess in from the early days of the war. They were thus stopped by the IIIrd and IVth Brigades of the regular Republican Army. On 9 November 1936, the whole XIth Brigade was at the Casa del Campo. In the evening General Kléber launched an assault on the Nationalist positions, which lasted for the whole night and part of the next morning. At the end of the fight, the Nationalist troops had been forced to retreat, abandoning all hopes of a direct assault on Madrid by Casa de Campo, while the XIth Brigade had lost a third of its men.
On the 12th, as the battle was raging on, the XIIth Brigade, under General "Lukacs", took its positions on the Valencia-Madrid road, with battalions Thälmann (Germans and Scandinavians), André Marty (French and Belgians) and Garibaldi (Italians). The XIIth launched an attack on Nationalist positions on the hill Cerro de los Angeles, which was unsuccessful (languages and communication problems, command issues, lack of rest, bad links with armoured units and insufficient artillery support seem to have contributed to the failure).
On the 19th, Anarchist units of the Republican Army were forced to retreat, and a foothold in the University City was taken by Nationalist troops -- Morrocan troops and legionnaires covered by the Nazi Condor Legion. The XIth Brigade was sent to drive the Nationalists out of the University City. The battle was extremely bloody, a mix of artillery and aerial bombardments with bayonet and grenade fights, room by room. Anarchist leader Buenaventura Durruti was shot there on the 19 November 1936, and died the next day. The battle in the University went on until 3/4 of the University City was under nationalist control. Both sides then started setting up trenches and fortifications. It was then clear that any assault from either side would be far too costly; the nationalist leaders had to renounce the idea of a direct assault on Madrid, and ready for a siege of the capital.
On 13 December 1936, 18,000 nationalist troops attempted an attack to close the encirclement of Madrid at Guadarrama -an engagement known as the Battle of the Corunna Road. The Republicans sent a Soviet armoured unit (under General Dmitry Pavlov, whose experience in Spain led to his rise in Red Army ranks and then tragic fall during the Second World War) and both XIth and XIIth International Brigades. Violent combat resulted in stopping the Nationalist advance.
An attack was then launched by the Republic on the Cordoba front. The battle ended in a form of stalemate (a communication was issued, saying: "Today, our advance continued without loss of land"). Poets Ralph Fox and John Cornford were killed. Eventually, the Nationalists advanced, taking the hydro-electric station at El Campo. André Marty accused the commander of the Marseillaise Battalion, Gaston Delasalle, of espionage and treason and had him executed (it is doubtful that Delasalle would have been a spy for Francisco Franco; he was denounced by his own second-in-command, André Heussler, who might have been a traitor himself and was later executed for treason by the French Resistance during the Second World War).
Further Nationalist attempts after Christmas to encircle Madrid met with failure, but not without extremely violent combat. On 6 January 1937, the Thaelmann Battalion arrived at Las Rozas and held its positions virtually to the last man. On the 9th, only ten kilometers had been lost to the Nationalists, when the XIIth and XIVth International Brigades and the 1st British Company arrived in Madrid. Violent Republican assaults were launched in attempt to retake the land, but with little success. On the 15th, trenches and fortifications were built by both sides, resulting in a stalemate.
The Nationalists did not take Madrid until the very end of the war in March 1939. There were also some pockets of resistants during the consecutives months.
The Battle of Jarama
On 6 February 1937, following the fall of Málaga, the nationalists launched an attack on the Madrid-Andalusia road, south of Madrid. The Nationalists quickly advanced on the little town Ciempozuelos, held by the XVth International Brigade, which was composed by the Saklatvala Battalion (British), the Dimitrov battalion (miscellaneous Balkan nationalities), the 6 Février Battalion (Belgians and French), the Canadian Mackenzie-Papineau Battallion and the Abraham Lincoln battalion (550 Americans, many of them African-American) lead by Robert Hale Merriman. There was also a sub unit of Irish men in this battle known as the Connolly Column. This group suffered heavy blows as there was only around 80 Irish men to begin with, these Irish men were made up of Southern Irish and Northern Irish.This particular instance shows the diverse backgrounds of those in the International Brigades, one an ex Catholic Christian Brother, the other an ordained Church of Ireland Clergyman, fighting and dying on the same side.
On 11 February 1937, all sentries of the André Marty battalion of the XIVth Brigade were stabbed and a Nationalist brigade crossed the Jarama. The Garibaldi Battalion stopped the advance with heavy fire. At another point, the same tactic allowed the Nationalists to deploy their troops past the river.
The British Saklatvala Battalion took most of the attack, on the 12th. It defended its positions under heavy artillery fire for 7 hours. The place became known as "Suicide Hill". At the end of the day, 225 men remained of the 600 of the British battalion. A company was made prisoner by ruse (Nationalists advanced amongst their ranks singing The Internationale).
On the 17th, the Republican Army struck back. The 23rd and the 27th, the International Brigades were engaged, but with little success. The Abraham Lincoln battalion was put under great pressure, with no artillery support. There were 120 killed and 175 wounded. Amongst the dead was the Irish poet Charles Donnelly [1].
As in Madrid, the fight resulted in a stalemate, since both sides had consolidated their positions to the point where no useful assault could be undertaken.
On the 22 February, 1937 the League of Nations Non-Intervention Committee ban on foreign national "volunteers" went into effect.
The Battle of Guadalajara
After the failed assault on the Jarama, the Nationalists attempted another assault on Madrid, from the North-East this time. The objective was the town of Guadalajara, 50 kilometers from Madrid. The whole Italian expeditionary corps (35,000 men, with 80 battle tanks and 200 field artillery) was deployed, as Mussolini wanted the victory to be credited to Italy. On 9 March 1937, the Italians made a breach in the Republican lines, but did not properly exploit the advance. However, the rest of the Nationalist army was advancing, and the situation appeared critical for the Republicans. A mixture of the best available units of the Republican army was quickly set up, among them the XIth and XIIth International Brigades.
At dawn on 10 March 1937 the Nationalists closed in, and by noon, the Garibaldi Battalion made its move. Some confusion arose from the fact that the sides were not aware of each other's moves, and that both sides spoke Italian; this resulted in scouts from both sides exchanging information without realising they were enemies. The Republican lines advanced and made contact with the XIth International Brigade. Fascist battle tanks were shot at and infantry patrols came into action (there took place the incident in which a fascist officer asked why Italian soldiers were shooting at his party, and was responded Noi siamo Italiani di Garibaldi, at which point the Fascists surrendered). The action went on as some sort of Italian civil war in foreign land. The common language was taken advantage of when the Republicans used loudspeakers to broadcast propaganda messages and airplanes to drop messages promising to pay Fascist deserters.
On the 11th, the Fascists broke the front of the Republican army. The Thälmann Brigade suffered heavy losses but succeeded in holding the Trijueque-Torija road. Garibaldi also held its positions. On the 12th, Republican planes and tanks attacked. The Thaelmann Brigade attacked Trijuete with bayonets and re-took the town, capturing numerous prisoners.
The International Brigades also saw combat in the battle of Teruel in January 1938. The 35th Brigade suffered heavily in this battle from aerial bombardment as well as shortages of food, winter clothing and ammunition. The XIV Brigade fought in the Battle of Ebro in July 1938, the last Republican offensive of the war.
The Disbandment of the International Brigades
The International Brigades were disbanded by the Republican government of Juan Negrin, who announced the decision in the League of Nations on September 21 1938 in an effort to get the Nationalist's foreign backers to withdraw their troops and to persuade the western democracies such as France and Britain to end their arms embargo on the Republic. By this time there were about 10,000 foreign volunteers still serving in Spain. Just over half of these came from fascist countries such as Germany, Italy or others such as Hungary which had authoritarian right wing governments. These men could not safely return home and were instead given honorary Spanish citizenship and were integrated in to Spanish units of the Popular Army. The remainder were repatriated to their own countries.
Composition of International Brigade units
The first brigades to be formed were mostly composed from French, Belgian, Italian and German volunteers, and were numbered as the XI(11th), XII(12th), and XIII(13th) Mixed Brigades. Later the XIV(14th), XV(15th), LXXXVI(86th), CXXIX(129th), and the CL(150th) Mixed Brigades were raised. According to the re-organisation of the Spanish army, which was constituted in ten mixed Brigades immediately after the failed coup; these brigades mixed experienced soldiers with volunteers who had just joined but had no experience of combat.
There were nearly 60,000 volunteers for the defense of the Spanish Republic. Most of them were workers, and half of them were from Paris. They included a large number of veterans of the First World War, which made them efficient fighters. The first engagements fought by the International Brigades during the Battle of Madrid demonstrated their military value.
The International Brigades were mainly Communists, or under Communist authority. Some were involved in the fighting in Barcelona against Republican opponents of the Communists: the POUM (Partido Obrero de Unificación Marxista, an anti-Stalinist Marxist party) and anarchists. However overseas volunteers from anarchist, socialist, liberal and other political positions also served with the brigades.
The battalions were often constituted by speakers of a particular nationality or language, so as to ease understanding of orders. They were named, formally at least, after heroes of the left among the predominant nationalities in each unit.
Later in the war, there was a tightening of military discipline amongst the Spanish Republican military, and learning Spanish became mandatory.
Nationalities
- Scandinavians 10,000
- French 10,000
- Germans 5,000
- Poles 5,000
- Italians 3,350
- Americans 2,800
- British 2,000
- Canadians 2,000
- Czechoslovakians 1,500
- Yugoslavs 1,500
- Hungarians 1,000
- Mexicans 1,000
- Irish 250
- Chinese 100
- Australians c.60
- New Zealanders c.12
- Albanians 27
Casualties
- Killed in action - 9,934 or 16%
- Wounded in action - 7,686 or 12.9%
- Missing in Action/Prisoners-of War - Unknown
Non-Spanish Battalions
- Abraham Lincoln Battalion: predominantly from the United States. The battalion was the first American military unit to be racially-integrated and was at one point commanded by Oliver Law, who became the first black man to lead white American combat troops.
- André Marty Battalion: predominantly French and Belgian.
- Checo-Balcánico Battalion: Czechoslovakian and Balkan.
- Commune de Paris Battalion: predominantly French.
- Deba Blagoiev Battalion: predominantly Bulgarian, later merged into the Djakovic Battalion.
- Djure Djakovic Battalion: Yugoslav, Bulgarian, anarchist, named after the former Yugoslav communist party president Đuro Đaković.
- Dimitrov Battalion: Greek, Yugoslavian, Bulgarian, Czechoslovakian, Hungarian and Romanian. Named after Georgi Dimitrov.
- Dombrowski Battalion: mostly Polish and Hungarian. Also Czechoslovakian, Ukrainian, Bulgarian and Palestinian Jews.
- Edgar André Battalion: mostly German. Also Austrian, Yugoslavian, Bulgarian, Albanian, Romanian, Danish, Swedish, Norwegian and Dutch.
- Español Battalion: Mexican, Cuban, Puerto Rican, Chilean, Argentinian and Bolivian.
- Figlio Battalion: mostly Italian; later merged with the Garibaldi Battalion.
- Garibaldi Battalion: mostly Italian. Also some Albanians and Yugoslavs.
- George Washington Battalion: the second US battalion. After heavy casualties at Jarama and Brunete, it was merged with the Lincoln Battalion, to form the Lincoln-Washington Battalion.
- Hans Beimler Battalion: mostly German; later merged with the Thälmann Battalion.
- Henri Barbusse Battalion: predominantly French.
- Henri Vuillemin Battalion: predominantly French.
- Italoespañol Battalion: Italian and Spanish.
- Louise Michel Battalion: French and Belgian, named after Louise Michel, a hero of the 1871 Paris Commune.
- Louise Michel II Battalion: predominantly French, later merged with the Henri Vuillemin Battalion.
- Mackenzie-Papineau Battalion: predominantly Canadian, named after two leaders of an 1837 revolt against the British Empire. Also known as the Canadian Battalion and "the MacPaps".
- Marsellaise Battalion: predominantly French, also some British.
- Mathis Rakosi Battalion: predominantly Hungarian.
- Adam Mickiewicz Battalion: predominantly Polish.
- Palafox Battalion: Yugoslavian, Polish, Czechoslovakian, Hungarian and French.
- Pierre Brachet Battalion: mostly French.
- Radford Battalion: mostly British.
- Rakosi Battalion: mainly Hungarian, also Czechoslovakians, Ukrainians, Poles, Chinese, Mongolians and Palestinian Jews.
- Saklatava Battalion: named after Shapurji Saklatvala, a British Communist MP of Indian descent. The name was not widely used and the Battalion's banner identified it as the "British Battalion". However, a significant proportion of its personnel were actually from Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and other Commonwealth countries.
- Sans nons o Des Neuf Nationalités Battalion: French, Belgian, Italian, German, Austrian, Dutch, Danish, Swiss and Polish.
- Six Février Battalion: French, Belgian, Moroccan, Algerian, Libyan, Syrian, Iranian, Iraqi, Chinese, Japanese, Indian and Palestinian Jewish.
- Thälmann Battalion: predominantly German, named after German communist leader Ernst Thälmann.
- Thomas Masaryk Battalion: mostly Czechoslovakian.
- Tschapaiew Battalion: Ukrainian, Polish, Czechoslovakian, Bulgarian, Yugoslavian, Turkish, Italian, German, Austrian, Finnish, Swedish, Norwegian, Danish, Belgian, French, Greek, Albanian, Dutch, Swiss and Baltic.
- Vaillant-Couturier Battalion: French, Belgian, Czechoslovakian, Bulgarian, Swedish, Norwegian and Danish.
- Veinte Battalion: Italian, Yugoslavian and Bulgarian.
- Henri Vuillemin Battalion: mostly French.
- Zwölfte Februar Battalion: mostly Austrian.
- Sub-battalion units
- Connolly Column: a group of about 80 Irish, named after Irish republican hero, James Connolly and led by Frank Ryan.
Status of the Brigades after the war
Since the Civil War was eventually won by the Nationalists, the Brigadiers were initially on the "wrong side" of history, especially since most of their home countries had a right-wing government (in France, for instance, the Popular Front was not in power anymore). However, since most of these countries found themselves at war with the very powers which had been fought in Spain, the Brigadists gained some prestige as the first guard of the democracies, having fought a prophetical combat. Retrospectively, it was clear that the war in Spain was as much a Spanish Civil war as a precursor of the coming Second World War. Some glory was therefore accredited to the volunteers (a great deal of the survivors having also fought gallantly during the World War), but this soon faded in the fear that it would promote (by association) communism. Also, the ambiguous stance viz. Germany of the Communist Parties in the West, during the period between the Hitler-Stalin pact and the German invasion of the Soviet Union, contributed to widespread uneasiness when evaluating the Brigadists' role in the politics of the Nazi era. Since the fall of the Soviet bloc, the International Brigades have been quite unanimously regarded as anti-Fascist heroes, and the legitimacy of their fight has, for the most part, washed away the stain of summary executions and Stalinist manipulation, despite being non-governmental combatants.
Swiss Brigadists
766 Swiss went to fight for the Republic, while only 40 went on the other side. It is interesting to note that the pro-republicans were later prosecuted for breaking the Swiss neutrality laws, which prohibit Swiss nationals from fighting for foreign countries, while the pro-fascists were never prosecuted. This might be explained on one hand by the anti-communism of the Swiss government at the time, but also because the Swiss living in Spain at the time (nearly 4000) were very much afraid of what was perceived as a communist movement. The Republican fighters were re-habilitated in the 1990s.
Interestingly, it has been noted that the punishments of those prosecuted were very variable (ranging from 15 days to 4 months in prison) but that the French-speaking tribunals had been as a rule much more lenient than the German-speaking ones. This is usually attributed to the more openly pro-fascist sentiment of the elite in those parts at the time.
Recognition of former Brigadists
On 26 January 1996 the Spanish government gave Spanish citizenship to the Brigadists. At the time, roughly 600 remained. By the end of 1938, Prime Minister Juan Negrin had promised Spanish citizenship to the Brigadists, a promise which had not been kept since the Republic had lost the war.
Symbolism and heraldry
The International Brigades were inheritors of a Communist aesthetic, which explains the numerous very stylised posters about the subject.
The flags featured the colours of the Spanish Republic : Red, Yellow and Purple, often along with Communist symbols (Red flags, hammer and sickle, fist,...). The emblem of the brigades themselves was the three-pointed red star, which is often featured.
People involved in the International Brigades
- List of Swedes who died in the Spanish Civil War
- George Aitken - father of Ian Aitken, who was later to be political editor of the Guardian
- Norman Bethune - a Canadian doctor who served with the Canadian Mackenzie-Papineau Battalion, or Mac-Paps, and developed new medical tactics
- Willy Brandt - West German Chancellor from 1969-1974
- John Cornford
- James Robertson Justice
- "Gal" Galicz
- Pierre Georges called Colonel Fabien
- David Guest
- Ernest Hemingway - although he was in Spain officially only as a reporter, Hemingway did not balk at lending a hand in the small arms training of the recruits
- General Emilio Kléber
- Oliver Law
- Laurie Lee
- Luigi Longo
- André Marty
- George Orwell - joined the ILP Contingent which fought with POUM rather than the communist-run International Brigades
- Abe Osheroff - American activist and director of 1974 documentary: Dreams and Nightmares
- Ezekias Papaioannou - later general secretary of AKEL
- László Rajk - Hungarian communist, later Minister of Interior then Minister of Foreign Affairs, executed in one of the first Stalinist show trials in 1949
- Henri Rol-Tanguy
- Frank Ryan
- Mehmet Shehu
- Stephen Spender
- Asim Vokshi - political editor of Gazeta Demokratike ABC
- Simone Weil
- "Gomez" Zaisser
- Mate Zalka (Lukacs)
- Žikica Jovanović Španac - a Serb who subsequently started an uprising in Serbia in 1941
- Petro Marko, Albanian writer from Himara, probably of Greek ancestry. He has written the novel Hasta la Vista describing his experience in the Spanish Civil War. Later in the war he was imprisoned in Ustica, Italy.
References
Nonfiction
- The Spanish Civil War, Hugh Thomas
- British Volunteers For Liberty, Bill Alexander
- Book of the 15th Brigade, edited by Frank Ryan
- Britons in Spain, Bill Rust
- Connolly Column, Michael O'Riordan, Dublin, New Books, 1979 (an account of the contribution of the Irish members of the Brigades)
- With the Reds in Andalusia - a memoir by Irish vol. Joe Monks.
- Homage To Catalonia, George Orwell, (an account of his time fighting with the POUM)
- A Moment of War, Laurie Lee
Fiction
- For Whom the Bell Tolls, Ernest Hemingway
- The Pursuit of Love, Nancy Mitford
- The Aesthetics of Resistance, Peter Weiss
- Winter in Madrid, C. J. Sansom
Internet pages
- Irish site on the SCW
- IBMT the international brigade memorial trust
- Farewell to the International Brigades
- Abraham Lincoln Brigade Archives
- Spartacus Educational
- The International Brigades (Veterans' Stories)
Photographs
Films
- Land and Freedom, by Ken Loach although the subject of the film is not the International Brigades, it portrays international volunteers, and the actual International Brigades are indeed featured.
- Sierra de Teruel by André Malraux (features the International bomber squadron in margin of the Brigades)
Audio streams
- [2] Martha Gellhorn talks about the Spanish Civil War (BBC Radio 4 audio stream).
- The Spanish Civil War - causes and legacy part of the BBC Radio 4 In Our Time series.