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Australo-Melanesian

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Left to right: New Caledonian women; Fijian musicians; a boy from Vanuatu; children from the Solomon Islands; Papuan girls; Aboriginal Australian dancers.

In physical anthropology, forensic anthropology and archaeogenetics, Australo-Melanesians (also known as Australasians or by the now generally obsolete terms Australomelanesoid or Australoid)[1] form an group of populations indigenous to Melanesia and Australia. Groups that are controversially included are found in parts of Southeast Asia, and South Asia.

The group includes Papuans, Aboriginal Australians and Melanesians (mainly from Fiji, New Caledonia, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu).

The populations grouped as "Negrito" (the Andamanese (from an Indian archipelago), the Semang and Batek peoples (from Malaysia), the Maniq people (from Thailand), the Aeta people, the Ati people, and certain other ethnic groups in the Philippines), the Vedda people of Sri Lanka and a number of dark-skinned tribal populations in the interior of the Indian subcontinent (some Dravidian-speaking groups and Austroasiatic-speaking peoples, like the Munda people) are also suggested by some to belong to the Australo-Melanesian group,[2][3][2] but there are controversies about this inclusion.[4]

The term Australoid belongs to a set of terms introduced by 19th-century anthropologists attempting to categorize human races. Some claim such terms are associated with outdated notions of racial types, and so are now potentially offensive.[5][6][7]

Terminological history

The term "Australoid" was coined in ethnology in the mid 19th century, describing tribes or populations "of the type of native Australians".[8] In physical anthropology, Australoid is used for morphological features characteristic of Aboriginal Australians by Daniel John Cunningham in his Text-book of Anatomy (1902). An Australioid (sic, with an additional -i-) racial group was first proposed by Thomas Huxley in an essay On the Geographical Distribution of the Chief Modifications of Mankind (1870), in which he divided humanity into four principal groups (Xanthochroic, Mongoloid, Negroid, and Australioid).[9] Huxley's original model included the native inhabitants of South Asia under the Australoid category. Huxley further classified the Melanochroi (Peoples of the Mediterranean race) as a mixture of the Xanthochroi (northern Europeans) and Australioids.[10]

Huxley (1870) described Australioids as dolichocephalic; their hair as usually silky, black and wavy or curly, with large, heavy jaws and prognathism, with skin the color of chocolate and irises which are dark brown or black.[11]

Australians were marked as Negroid on the racial Meyers Konversations-Lexikon (1885-90)

The term "Proto-Australoid" was used by Roland Burrage Dixon in his Racial History of Man (1923). In a 1962 publication, Australoid was described as one of the five major human races alongside Caucasoid, Mongoloid, Congoid and Capoid.[12] In The Origin of Races (1962), Carleton Coon attempted to refine such scientific racism by introducing a system of five races with separate origins. Based on such evidence as claiming Australoids had the largest, megadont teeth, this group was assessed by Coon as being the most archaic and therefore the most primitive and backward. Coon's methods and conclusions were later discredited and show either a "poor understanding of human cultural history and evolution or his use of ethnology for a racialist agenda."[6] Bellwood (1985) uses the terms "Australoid", "Australomelanesoid" and "Australo-Melanesians" to describe the genetic heritage of "the Southern Mongoloid populations of Indonesia and Malaysia".[13] Since the 1980s, anthropological terms in "-oid" have come to be avoided in some disciplines, especially in the United States, where the term Australo-Melanesian is now preferred.[year needed] In other areas, specifically in anthropological literature in India, the term Australoid continues to be preferred.[14]

Controversies

Inclusion

Left to right: Andamanese men; a Batek family; an Ati girl; a Veddah hunter; an Indian Tamil fisherman; Munda men. These groups are suggested to belong to the Australo-Melanesian group, but their inclusion is controversial.

The populations grouped as "Negrito" (the Andamanese (from an Indian archipelago), the Semang and Batek peoples (from Malaysia), the Maniq people (from Thailand), the Aeta people, the Ati people, and certain other ethnic groups in the Philippines), the Vedda people of Sri Lanka and a number of dark-skinned tribal populations in the interior of the Indian subcontinent (some Dravidian-speaking groups and Austroasiatic-speaking peoples, like the Munda people) are also suggested by some to belong to the Australo-Melanesian group,[2][3] but there are controversies about this inclusion.

Research involving cranial morphology, made by Indian anthropologists, however, suggests that the South Asian Indian populations have different cranial characteristics from Australoid groups. This difference has possibly been strengthened in recent times due to intermarriage with peoples of different origins.[15][4][2][3] A genetic study in 1985 suggested connections between tribal peoples of Southern India and Sri Lanka and Negrito populations of the Philippines and Malaysia.[16] Genetic studies have also found evidence of shared ancestry between Andaman Islanders and a genetic component found in peoples of the Indian subcontinent.[17]

Distribution

Further information: Aboriginal Australians, Melanesians, Papuans, and Negrito

Besides the Papuans, Australian Aboriginals and, Melanesians, the "Australoid" category is sometimes taken to include various tribes of India and Negritos.

The inclusion of Indian tribes in the group is not well-defined, and is closely related to the question of the original peopling of India, and the possible shared ancestry between Indian, Andamanese, and Sahulian populations of the Upper Paleolithic.

The suggested Australo-Melanesian ancestry of the original South Asian populations has long remained an open question. It was embraced by Indian anthropologists as emphasizing the deep antiquity of Indian prehistory. Australo-Melanesian hunter-gatherer and fisherman tribes of the interior of India were identified with the Nishada Kingdom described in the Mahabharata. Panchanan Mitra (1923) following Vincenzo Giuffrida-Ruggeri (1913) recognizes a Pre-Dravidian Australo-Veddaic stratum in India.[18]

Alternatively, the Dravidians themselves have been claimed as originally of Australo-Melanesian stock,[19] a view held by Biraja Sankar Guha among others.[20]

South Indian tribes specifically described as having Australo-Melanesian affinities include the Oraon, Munda, Santal, Bhil, Gondi, the Kadars of Kerala, the Kurumba and Irula of the Nilgiris, the Paniyans of Malabar, the Uralis, Kannikars, Mithuvan and Chenchus.[21].

But other Indian anthropologists of the post-colonial period, such as S. P. Sharma (1971) and D. N. Majumdar (1946, 1965), have gone as far as claiming Australo-Melanesian ancestry, to a greater or lesser extent, for almost all the castes and tribes of India.[22][4]

According to a large craniometric study (Raghavan and Bulbeck et al. 2013) the native populations of South Asia have distinct craniometric and anthropologic ancestry. Both southern and northern groups are most similar to each other and have generally closer affinities to various "Western Eurasian" groups. The study further showed that the native South Asians (including the Vedda) form a distinct group and are not aligned to the Australo-Melanesian group. However, Raghavan and Bulbeck et al., while noting the differences of South Asian from Andamanese and Australo-Melanesian crania, also explain that this is not in conflict with genetic evidence (found by Reich et al. in 2009) showing a common ancestry and genetic affinity between ancient South Asian hunter gatherers and the native Andamanese (a group sometimes considered to be related to Australo-Melanesians), stating: "The distinctiveness of Andamanese and southern Indian crania need not challenge the finding by Reich et al. for an “Ancestral South Indian” ancestry shared by southern Indians and Andamanese" and that "some populations are craniometrically specialised while others are not...What the present analysis adds is that southern Indians also have specialised craniometrics. Andamanese on the other hand have unspecialised craniometrics...Therefore, southern Indians' craniometric distinctiveness from Andamanese should be interpreted as a result of their craniometric specialisation rather than as evidence against a shared, ancient ancestry with Andamanese."[23]

Individuals with Australo-Melanesian phenotypes existed possibly also in East Asia (in and toward the south of East Asia) at least since Middle Paleolithic, such as Liujiang but were largely displaced by migrations of Eastern Eurasian rice farmers since Neolithic, who may have spread from Siberia or Central China to Southeastern Asia during Mesolithic and Neolithic and after adopting farming to the rest of Southeast Asia and Oceania.[24][25]

Physical features

Further information: Sinodonty and Sundadonty

In physical anthropology, the Australo-Melanesian group is characterized primarily by its characteristic dental morphology.[26] In Java, "Australo-Melanesian dentitions" are found in fossils until the mid-Holocene (c. 5,000 years ago), but are replaced by modern "Southern Mongoloid dentitions" (Sundadonty) in the Neolithic, suggesting the displacement and assimilation of the aboriginal Australo-Melanesian population by the Austronesian expansion.[27]

Genetics

Further information: Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia and Genetic history of Southeast Asia

Lineage debate

Numerous studies of archaeogenetics performed during 2009–2016 have suggested that Eurasian populations can be derived from an early division of the non-African lineage into an eastern and a western clade lineage before around 40,000 years ago.[28]

It has been argued, however, that this model of a primary split between eastern and western Eurasians is invalid for Oceania and Southeast Asia. It has been debated whether Australo-Melanesians split off from Eastern Eurasians after or before Eastern Eurasians split off from Western Eurasians.[29] The so-called "southern-route hypothesis" derives an Australasian lineage, comprising Australians, New Guineans, and possibly Southeast Asian Negritos.[30] A number of 2016 studies have presented a refined model of Australasian ancestry.[31][32][33][34]Reviewing the evidence, Lipson and Reich (2017) present as best-fitting model a derivation of the Australasian clade from the Eastern Eurasian clade at an early time, with substantial Denisovan admixture (of the order of 4%) before the Australasian clade split into the Australian and the New Guinean lineages.[30] More recently, Matsumura et al. 2019 found contradicting evidence. According to his study, Australo-Melanesians formed from independent lineages, a divergent branch of Eurasians not related to Eastern Eurasians, and supports a “two-layer” origin for Southeast Asia and Oceania.[35] However, according to Narashimhan et al. (2019), Australasian groups share a common root with East Asians: with the "AASI" component in South Asians, the Andamanese (as exemplified by the Onge), East Asians, and Aboriginal Australians sharing a deep ancestral split, stating that "essentially all the ancestry of present-day eastern and southern Asians (prior to West Eurasian-related admixture in southern Asians) derives from a single eastward spread, which gave rise in a short span of time to the lineages leading to AASI, East Asians, Onge, and Australians."[36][37]


Principal Component analysis of Australo-Melanesians with world populations, (Aghakhanian et al. 2015).

Pugach et al. (2013) find an ancestral association between Aboriginal Australians, New Guineans and the Mamanwa Negritos, with an estimated divergence time of at least 35,000 years, in support of the "southern migration route" scenario. In addition, the study finds evidence of gene flow between India and Australia at a later time, an estimated 141 generations ago (i.e. roughly 3,000 to 4,000 years ago), suggesting a possible late migration wave to Australia.[38]

File:Early stages of the Austronesian diaspora showing best-fit genomic proportions of Austronesian-speaking peoples in ISEA and their inferred population movements.png
Best-fit genomic mixture proportions of Austronesians in Island Southeast Asia and their inferred population movements, showing rates of admixture with pre-existing Australo-Melanesian populations[39]

For Australo-Melanesian populations within Austronesia (the Negritos, Papuans, and Orang Asli), they underwent fairly extensive population admixture with the incoming Austronesian migrants.[39]

A 2006 CFSL research article which assessed "3522 individuals belonging to 54 (23 belonging to the Austroasiatic, 18 to Dravidian, 7 to Tibeto-Burman and 24 to Indo-European linguistic groups) endogamous Indian populations, representing all major ethnic, linguistic and geographic groups" for genetic variations to support such classifications found no conclusive evidence. It further summed that "the absence of genetic markers to support the general clustering of population groups based on ethnic, linguistic, geographic or socio-cultural affiliations" undermines the broad groupings based on such affiliations that exist in population genetic studies and forensic databases.[40]

The term "Australioid race" was introduced by Thomas Huxley in 1870 to refer to certain peoples indigenous to South and Southeast Asia and Oceania.[41]

Terms associated with outdated notions of racial types, such as those ending in "-oid" have come to be seen as potentially offensive[42] and related to scientific racism.[6][7]

Hypothesized early presence in the Americas

Main article: Pleistocene peopling of the Americas
See also: Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas § Paleoamericans, Fuegians, and Pericúes
A cast of the Luzia Woman's skull

A speculative theory of Walter Neves in the 1990s proposed that an early Australo-Melanesian population may have been the earliest occupants of the New World. The theory was based on an analysis of the Luzia Woman fossil found in Brazil, and found tentative academic support.[43]

If this hypothesis is correct, it may mean that some Australo-Melanesian groups travelled north from Australasia to the continental shelf in East Asia and across the Bering land bridge, reaching the Americas by about 15,000 years ago. Alternatively, Austronesian seafarers traveled widely by sea in the prehistoric era and carried species of sweet potato and other goods back to the Asia Pacific area.[citation needed]

Australasian genetic evidence in Native Americans

In 2015, two major studies[citation needed] of the DNA of living and ancient people detect in modern Native Americans a trace of DNA related to that of native people from Australia and Melanesia. Australasian admixture in some living Native Americans, including those of the Aleutian Islands and the Surui people of Amazonian Brazil. Evidence of Australasian admixture in Amazonian populations was found by Skoglund and Reich (2016).[44]

Walter Neves and Mark Hubbe argue that these people descended from an separate wave of migration that was distinct from the one that gave rise to today's Native Americans, and drew on a different source population in Asia.[45]

Australasian morphology in Native Americans

Christy Turner states that "cranial analyses of some South American crania have suggested that there might have been some early migration of Australo-Melanesians.[46] However, Turner argues that cranial morphology suggests sinodonty, a dental pattern seen in people from eastern and northern Asia in the Native American populations she has studied.

One of the earliest skulls discovered in the Americas by archaeologists is an Upper Paleolithic specimen named the Luzia Woman in 1974 by archaeologist Annette Laming-Emperaire. Anthropologists variously described Luzia's features as resembling those of Indigenous Australians, Melanesians and the Negritos of Southeast Asia. Walter Neves, an anthropologist at the University of São Paulo, suggested that Luzia's features most strongly resembled those of Australian Aboriginal people. [47] According to Walter Neves a Brazilian anthropologist, archaeologist and biologist from the University of São Paulo ( Luzia's Paleo-Indian predecessors lived in South East Asia for tens of thousands of years, after migrating from Africa, and began arriving in the New World, as early as 15,000 years ago. Some anthropologists have hypothesized that Paleo-Indians migrated along the coast of East Asia and Beringia in small watercraft, before or during the LGM. Neves' conclusions have been challenged researchers who argued that the cranio-facial variability could just be due to genetic drift and other factors affecting cranio-facial plasticity in Native Americans.[48]

In November 2018, scientists of the University of São Paulo and Harvard University released a study that contradicts the alleged Australo-Melanesian origin of Luzia. Using DNA sequencing, the results showed that Luzia was entirely Amerindian, genetically.[49] It was published in the journal Cell article (November 8, 2018)[50], a paper in the journal Science from an affiliated team also reported new findings on fossil DNA from the first migrants to the Americas.[51]

Lagoa Santa remains from a site nearby to the Luzia remains carry DNA regarded as Native American. Two of the Lagoa Santa individuals carry the same mtDNA haplogroup (D4h3a) also carried by older 12,000+ remains Anzick-1 found in Montana and three of the Lagoa Santa individuals harbor the same Y chromosome haplogroup Q-M848 as found in the Spirit Cave genome of Nevada. The bust of Luzia displaying tropical facial features was created in 1999. André Strauss of the Max Planck Institute, one of the authors of the Journal Science article remarked "However, skull shape isn't a reliable marker of ancestrality or geographic origin. Genetics is the best basis for this type of inference," Strauss explained."The genetic results of the new study show categorically that there was no significant connection between the Lagoa Santa people and groups from Africa or Australia. So the hypothesis that Luzia's people derived from a migratory wave prior to the ancestors of today's Amerindians has been disproved. On the contrary, the DNA shows that Luzia's people were entirely Amerindian."[52]

See also

References

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  42. ^ Black, Sue; Ferguson, Eilidh (2011). Forensic Anthropology: 2000 to 2010. Taylor and Francis Group. p. 127. ISBN 9781439845899. Retrieved 3 July 2018. "There are considered to be four basic ancestry groups into which an individual can be placed by physical appearance, not accounting for admixture: the sub-Saharan African group ("Negroid"), the European group ("Caucasoid"), the Central Asian group ("Mongoloid"), and the Australasian group ("Australoid"). The rather outdated names of all but one of these groups were originally derived from geography"
  43. ^ Ancient voyage of discovery, Independent, The (London), Apr 8, 1996 by David Keys
  44. ^ Skoglund, Pontus; Reich, David (2016). "A genomic view of the peopling of the Americas". Current Opinion in Genetics & Development. 41: 27–35. doi:10.1016/j.gde.2016.06.016. PMC 5161672. PMID 27507099.. "Recently, we carried out a stringent test of the null hypothesis of a single founding population of Central and South Americans using genome-wide data from diverse Native Americans. We detected a statistically clear signal linking Native Americans in the Amazonian region of Brazil to present-day Australo-Melanesians and Andaman Islanders (‘Australasians'). Specifically, we found that Australasians share significantly more genetic variants with some Amazonian populations—including ones speaking Tupi languages—than they do with other Native Americans. We called this putative ancient Native American lineage “Population Y” after Ypykuéra, which means ‘ancestor' in the Tupi language family."
  45. ^ Mysterious link emerges between Native Americans and people half a globe away by Michael Balter published in the "American Association for the Advancement of Science" on July 21, 2015
  46. ^ Turner, Christy (2002). "Teeth, Needles, Dogs and Siberia: Bioarchaeological Evidence for the Colonization of the New World". The First Americans: The Pleistocene Colonization of the New World'. University of California Press. p. 138. ISBN 978-0-940228-50-4.
  47. ^ https://www.nytimes.com/1999/10/26/science/an-ancient-skull-challenges-long-held-theories.html
  48. ^ Stuart J. Fiedel (2004). "THE KENNEWICK FOLLIES: "New" Theories about the Peopling of the Americas". Retrieved 2008-02-15.
  49. ^ César Menezes (8 Nov 2018). "Estudo contradiz teoria de povoamento da América e sugere que rosto de Luzia era diferente do que se pensava (Research contradicts the theory of the occupation of the Americas and suggests that the Luzia's face was different from what was previously thought)" (in Brazilian Portuguese). G1. Retrieved 2018-11-09.
  50. ^ https://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674(18)31380-1
  51. ^ https://science.sciencemag.org/content/362/6419/eaav2621.abstract
  52. ^ https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2018-11/fda-tnf110918.php
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