Names of Cambodia

For Kamboja migration to West/Southwest India, see Migration of Kambojas § The Kambojas in West/Southwest India.

Cambodia or Kambodia is the English transliteration of the French name Kambodge, which name stands for Sanskrit Kamboja (Persian Kambujiya or Kambaujiya). In Chinese historical accounts, the land was known as Chenla. The ancient inscriptions of Cambodia always refer to this name as Kambuja or Kamvuja rather than the standard Kamboja. Kamboja was the name of the Indo-Iranian tribe and their country originally located in Pamirs and Badakshan in Central Asia but later some clans of this people had moved south and transplanted colonies in eastern and Central Afghanistan also. During early second century BCE, some clans of this people in alliance with the Sakas, Pahlavas, and Yavanas had entered India and spread into Sindhu, Sauvira, Punjab, Rajasthan and Saurashtra/Gujarat from where they spread further into Central, Eastern and Southern India. It is believed that a group from amongst these south-western Kambojas (i.e. Gujarat/Saurashtra) had sailed to Southeast Asia and founded the Kambuja colony in the Mekong valley of the Indo-China Archipelago.

Political vs cultural connections

It was first pointed by D. B. Spooner that there is a connection between the very name Kambodia and the Persian borderland Kamboja. It has been held by some that the Vedic name Kamboja from north-west had got transplanted into Indo-China by the process of Aryanisation or Sanskritisation, where the sacred geography of Sanskrit classics was replicated and the old Sanskrit names with their hallowed topography were faithfully adopted by far-flung rulers in their anxiety to garner prestige. But, it is added here that while this may be true for names like Ayodhya, Mathura, Kusumpura, Vaishali, Indrapuri, Hastinapura, Dvaravati etc which names may have been adopted in the south-east because of their hallowed topography as they all belonged to the sacred geography of Aryavarta, but the names like Kamboja, Gandhara, Takshsila, Rajapura, Singanagari (Sinhapura of Kashmir), Rumadesa (Rumaveise) etc which were considered a part of the Bahikadesa (outlier country) and therefore, the land of the despised Mlechcha or barbaric people, were not reputed around this time for their sacred or hallowed geography. Even Albert Weber frankly states that it is certainly very strange as to why only this name was precisely chosen to name Farther India as the Kamboja .

The references to these names in the Javan and Kambodian legends clearly implies that there was a direct historical and political rather than cultural connection with the Far East

Bombay Gazetteer writes: "Fair ground can therefore be claimed for the presumption that the leading position given to Kamboja, Gandhara, Taxila and Rumadesha in Javan and Kambodian legends and place-names is a trace of an actual and direct historical and political connection between the northwest of India and the Malay Archipelago".

Ancient inscriptional and literary evidence quite supports the above view.

Modern research reveals that there had been direct historical and political relations between the Indo-Iranian Kambojas and the regions/countries like southern India, Sri Lanka, Burma, Suvaranabhumi (Malay Peninsula) and the Kambuja of Indo-China Archipelago. The historical connections between Kambodia and the Indo-Iranian Kambojas appear to go back to first few centuries of Christian era. This relates to the time-frame when the Kambojas from Central Asia had out-spread into south-west and southern India in alliance with the Sakas, Pahlavas and the Yavanas etc. Initially, the intercourse between these Kambojas and Indo-chinese peninsula was purely commercial but with time it had evolved into political and colonial relationship. In ancient inscriptions of Kambuja, the Kambuja rulers indirectly connect themselves to the lineage of the Kambujas (Kambojas). The Baksei Chamkrong inscriptions dated 947 AD tries to link the lineage of Kambuja ruling family to a legendary prince Kambu and Apsara Mera. This mythical connection was apparently designed by court pundits of the Cambodian ruling family to give a divine and noble origin to the Kambuja rulers which should accord with their royal splendor and worldly glory. Probably, the conditions of time had necessitated this device since the Kambojas at this time had come to be regarded, in general, as of the Mlechcha and barbaric status in the eyes of orthodox Brahmanical class. Thus, instead of directly admitting that king Rajendravarman II was of the Kamboja lineage, the Baksei Chamkrong inscriptions instead follows a round-about way to attribute to him a divine lineage from sage-prince Svayambhuva Kambu (i.e. Kambuja=Kamboja) and Apsara (celestial nymph) Mera. Buddha Prakash comments on the Kambu-Mera legend thus: "Originally, Kambuja denoted the territory round the Vat Phu hill near Bassac in Laos in the north-eastern corner of Cambodia. After the occupation of the kingdom of Fu-nan by the rulers of that state in sixth century, the word Kambuja began to signify the whole of the region now forming part of the states of Laos, Cambodia and Cochinchina. Later on, in an endeavor to invent an etymology for this name in terms of the current tradition of tracing the descent of royal families from reputed rsis or sages, the court 'pundits of the Kambuja monarchs connected it with the name of the mythical Sage Kambu Swayambhuva and the nymph Mera, given to him by Siva. The conception of the descent of the Kambujas from Kambu and Mera was the counterpart of the tradition of the origin of the kings of Fu-nan from Kaundinya and Soma. But behind this belated etymology one can easily observe the idea of finding a palatable explanation of an obscure nomenclature" .

The modern scholars do not believe the Kambu-Mera legend on the origin of the Kambuja rulers of Cambodia.

Evidence of commercial connections

Ancient Buddhist texts like Ankuravathu section of Petavatthu Jataka attests that a direct caravan route (known as Kamboja-Dvaravat marga) existed between ancient Kamboja (Pamir-Badakshan) and port of Dvaravati in Saurashtra peninsula In ancient times, Saurashtra had been a great center of trade where merchants from various nations used to flock

Ancient Sanskrit texts like Kautiliya Arthashastra, Brihat Samhita, Mahabharata and Ramayana etc attest that, besides being formidable warriors (Shastr-opajivins), the ancient Kambojas were also noted as excellent traders, agriculturists and cattle-culturists (varta-opajivins).

The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea makes mention of several sea ports beginning with Barbaricum at the mouth of the Indus, followed by Barygaza (Bharukachcha, modern Bharoch), Soparaka (Sopara), Calliena (Kalyan) and Muziris (in Kerala) etc all located along the west coast of India southwards. Besides these more important seaports, there were also lesser ports like Sindan, Dvaravati, Kamboika (Kambojika, on gulf of Khambat) and Gandhar (near Bharukachcha) etc. The important international ports of Barbaricum, Bharukachcha, Dvaravati, and Soparaka were easily accessible for international trade and the merchants from Kamboja, Gandhara, Sindhu, Sauvira, and Saurashtra used to sail from these ports on the country's western coast. Huge trade ships carrying merchandise from Kamboja, Gandhara, Sindhu, Saurashtra etc in western India are said to have been sailing from there directly to southern India, Sri Lanka, south Myanmar and Suvarnabhumi.

The ports of Gandhara and Kamboika located in south-east Saurashtra probably also served as residential headquarters for the traders from Gandhara and Kamboja.

It is also significant that early Buddhist literary sources from north India refer to the northerners as being involved in trade in horses. Evidence exists that horse merchants from Kamboja were in active trade as far as Ceylone. This trade had been going on with eastern, western and southern India as late as medieval ages. King Devapala (810–850 CE) of Bengal, king Vishnuvardhana of Hoysala dynasty (1106–1152 CE) of Mysore and king Vallabhadeva of Pandya kingdom (12th century) located in extreme southern tip of India, had powerful fleets of Kamboja horses in their cavalry. Don Martino observes: The traders from north-west Kamboja had been conducting trade in horses with Sri Lanka following west coast of India since remote antiquity. According to E. Muller also, "… (with time) the Kambojas had adopted the Mussalman creed and used to trade all along the west coast of India from Persian Gulf down to Ceylone and probably further-east…"

See also: Kamboja-Dvaravati Route

Kamboja and Yavana Colonies in Sri Lanka

Kamboja colony Sri Lanka, Ancient Sinhala

There are a number of indications that the Indian expansion in the first few centuies AD was commercial in origin. Sinhalese inscriptions from Koravakgala at Situlpahuwa in the Hambantota district contain the word "Kaboja"' (Sanskrit Kamboja) and attest the existence of one Grand Trade Guild of the Kambojas (Kabojhya Mahapugyana) and one Kamboja Sangha (Gote-Kabojhyana) in Anuradhapura in ancient Sinhala. [10]. This evidence incontrovertibly proves that the Kambojas were actively involved in the international trade by sea with Ceylon and other nations beyond. Scholars believe that these inscriptions date back to at least third or second century BCE or earlier. There is also a reference to one Kamboja-gama i.e a village named Kamboja in the Rohana province of Anuradhapura. The Pali text Sihalavatthu of about fourth century CE, attests that a group of people called the Kambojas (p 109) were in Rohana on the Island of Tambapanni i.e Sri Lanka. Similarly, the Yona colonists are also attested to have been settled in Pandukabhaya in Anuradhapura who were also probably a group of traders from the north-west. Several Iranian records speak of an embassy from Sri Lankan king to Iranian emperor Anusharwan (Ruled 531 AD-578 AD). Sri Lankan king is reported to have sent the Persian emperor ten elephants, two hundred thousand pierces of teakwood and seven pearl divers.

For Kambojas in Sri Lanka, see Kamboja Colonists of Sri Lanka.

See also: Migration_of_Kambojas § Kambojas_in_Sri_Lanka

For Ancient Inscriptions of Sri Lanka and the Kambojas, see: [11]

Kamboja merchants in the Indo-China Peninsula

There is a Buddhistic reference to a trader and Arhant named Bahya who was native of Bharukachcha (modern Bhroach) in south-east Sauarashta/Gujarat. He engaged himself in trade, voyaging in a sea ship. Seven times he sailed down the Indus and across the sea and returned safely home. On the eighth occasion, while on his way to Suvarnabhumi, his ship was wrecked, and he floated ashore on a plank, reaching land near Soparaka. This Buddhist evidence verifies that (1) trade ships plied between upper Indus countries and the sea ports like Bharukachcha and Soparaka and (2) between Bharukachcha/Soparaka and Suvarnabhumi & further beyond as far as Indo-China as well. Other Buddhist texts also attest that there was a regular trade between Bharukaccha, Soparaka and Suvarnabhumi and also between Suvarnabhumi and Benares (Molini), Suvarnabhumi and Mithila, Suvarnabhumi and Savatthi, and Suvannabhumi and Pataliputra.. There is also a tradition in Ceylon (recorded in the Pūjāvaliya) that Tapassu and Bhalluka, the two merchant brothers from Pokkharavati (=Pushkalavati now Charasaddha) in Uttarapatha in what is now North West Frontier Province of Pakistan (the ancient land of the Kamboja and Gandhara), "visited the east coast of Ceylon and built a Cetiya there. An inscription also makes a similar record" . Ancient Buddhist texts also attest that the distance between Sri Lanka and Suvarnabhumi was seven hundred leagues and with a favourable wind it could be covered in seven days and nights. This powerful ancient evidence indisputably proves that the traders from Sri Lanka were in active trade with Suvarnabhumi and other states of Southeast Asia. Since both the Kamboja and Yona trading groups were already operating in Sri Lanka where they had set-up their trade-posts in Anuradhapura, it is perfectly reasonable to conclude that the lure of gold, spices, Sandalwood, Eaglewood and Camphor of Suvarnabhumi and other Southeast Asian states had tempted these merchants to venture further into Suvarnabhumi as well as into Indo-Chinese Archipelago. It is therefore perfectly logical to assume that the Kamboja traders must have established another commercial settlement or colony in Indo-China in Southeast Asia as well. Very interestingly, there is also an ancient reference to a Kambojagama in Thailand, located south-east of Haripunjaya, in lower Menam. Apparently, this Kambojagama implies another Kamboja settlement in Far East known after that one in Sri Lanka. The Kamboja traders-colonists seem to have reached Malay Peninsula from Sri Lanka via sea-route and then from Malay-Peninsula, following the Takola-Mart land-route, they appear to have reached Lavo or Lopburi in Thailand where they founded Kambojagama, and then onwards, they may have reached Mekong Basin where they founded the Kambuja or Kamboja commercial settlement in Bassac near Vat Ph'u hills. The Takola-Mart land-route referred to above was discovered in the recent past by Quaritch Wales and has been mentioned in his book The Way to Angkor The reference to a battle between the Kambojas of Ligor and the Mons of Haripunjaya (Lamphun) based on various ancient Pali Chronicles composed in Chiangmai (The Chamadevivamsa, The Jinakalamali and The Mulasasna) reveals that there had been an earlier Kamboja stronghold in Ligor in Central Malaya as well, from where the Kambojas had expanded into lower Menam. The launching pad for trade with Malaya (Suvarnabhumi) and Indo-Chinese states was obviously the Kamboja commercial settlement of Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka. The new commercial colony in Thailand was named Kambojagama and that in Vat-Ph'U near Bassac in Indo-China was named Kambuja understandably after the traders' clan/country name.

The trail is clearly visible

File:KambujaMap006.jpg

The probable Kamboja trail (see Sultanate of Kedah).

The foregoing discussion demonstrates that from the Kamboja located in north-east Afghanistan, the Kamboj merchants travelled to Gujarat/Saurashtra following either the well known Kamboja-Dvaravati land route or the water-course of river Indus. The landlocked port of Kamboi (Kamboika < Kambojika) and the Gulf of Kambey (Khambat or Kambat) in Saurashtra carry the unmistakable relics of the Kamboj presence in Gujarat. From Gujarat following sea-route, the Kambojas sailed to Sri Lanka. The presence of 'Grand Trade Guild of Kambojas' (Kabojhiya-mahapugiyana) as well as one 'Kamboja Sangha or Corporation' (Gota-Kabojhi(ya]na) in ancient Anuradhapura province and one Kambojagama (Kamboja village) in Rohana province in Sri Lanka verify ancient Kamboj trade-activities in that island. From Sri Lanka, the Kamboj traders/colonists took sea-route in Indian Ocean and reached Ligor (Central Malaya) which also seems to have formed another Kamboja commercial stronghold in Malay Peninsula. From Malay Peninsula following the Takola-Mart land route, they reached central Thailand. The ancient Kambojagama located in the south-east of Haripunjaya in lower Menam verifies Kamboja settlement in Thailand as well. On further movement, the Kamboj colonists apparently reached Bassac near Vat-Ph'u hill in Mekong valley where they founded the well-known Kambuja or Kamboja colony of Indo-China. The above trail seems to be quite logical and scientific and probably leaves no room for suspicion or scepticism.

In the first century, AD, numerous Indians migrated to Java and settled down there for trade and commerce as well as for spread of Buddhism. According to Chinese Buddhist records, Guna Varman, grandson of the king of Kabol, arrived in China by way of Ceylon and Java in 424 AD and made his way to Capital of the Sung Dynasty of China. See link: [12]. Within a few years of his departure, the ex-prince renounced his crown for monk's bowl, and came to convert the people of Chopo (Java) to Hinayana. The king of Java is sais to have built a Chaitya in his honor in Java. This evidence abundantly attests that the Kamboja-Dvaravati Route was alternatively used for travelling from Kamboja in north-west to Java and China via Ceylon; and that the land of the Kambojas and Gandharas in the north-west was in direct intercourse not only with Ceylon but also with Malaya/Java and further beyond with Indochina and China as well. Also the Varman, the Kshatriya surname of the prince of Kabol powerfully connects the Kabol princes with Kambuja since the princes of Kambuja also used Varman as part of their names, and also traced their lineage to Aryan Kambujas. This evidence sufficiently proves that the Kambuja Varman rulers of Kambodia may indeed have been connected with north-west Kambojas.

From commercial to political arena

With time, the Kamboja trade settlement in the land of abundance i.e Mekong basin grew in importance and assumed wider political dimensions. Possibly, the Kamboja trading community was soon followed by some adventurous Kamboja Chieftain (probably the Kambu of the Cambodian legends) accompanied by a band of soldiers who gave a political twist to the story and converted the commercial settlement into organised political State to be known as the Kambuja kingdom.

Some scholars like John Keay express doubts as to how could the Kambojas located in the extreme north-west of Indian subcontinent are related to the Kambuja rulers of Indo-China when the two were separated by a distance more than 3000 thousands miles! The answer to John's question is very simple as follows:-

The merchants from Kamboja were already settled in ancient Sri Lanka prior to Christian era as is powerfully attested by numerous ancient epigraphic inscriptions of Sri Lanka. The distance, therefore, was never 3,000 miles (5,000 km) but much less and easy to traverse. Moreover, the incidence is not unique in history. We have somewhat similar analogy though separated in time by more than thousand years, in respect of the European traders who also came to India and Far-East as traders but later grew in power and became masters of the Indian subcontinent and of Cambodia. If the traders from European countries, located thousands of miles away could do it in India and Far East in seventeenth century AD, then the Kamboja traders from Saurashtra/Gujarat or better still from Sri Lanka could also have done it easily in the nearby Indo-China in 5th/6th centuries as well.

Legends about Kambuja

There are several myths on the origin of Kambuja kingdom in Southeast Asia.

An old tradition, written in the Baksei Chamkrong inscription, dated 947 A.D, explains that word Kambuja derives from the name of Svayambhuva Kambu, a learned prince from Arya-desa who reached Indochina peninsula and married a nymph named Mera (probably an indigenous maid) and founded the Kambuja or Kamboja dynasty in South East Asia . The union of Kambu and Mera, whose merged names probably also explain the origin of the term 'Khmer', produced a line of kings from which the Angkor sovereigns claimed descent . Robert Casey supposes that name "Kambuja" is etymologically related to the name "Kambu" as Kambu+ja, where "ja" in Sanskrit is said to mean "son or descendant". Hence, Kambujas, the sovereigns of Angkor, according to Casey's interpretation, mean the "descendants of prince Kambu" .

Commenting on the Kambu-Mera legend, J. L.Kamboj writes that the Kambu legend seems to imply that some learned and adventurous chieftain from Kamboj lineage managed to reach Mekong basin and laid the foundations of Kambuja in Indo-China. According to Kamboj, name Kambu and Kambuj are apparently corrupted forms of the standard Sanskrit term Kamboj .

According to another legend, 'A certain king of Adityavamsa of Indraprastha (near Delhi), being displeased with one of his sons, named Phra Thong, drove him out of his kingdom. The prince arrived in the country of Kok Thlok (the Khmer name of Kamboja meaning the land of the Thlok tree) where ruled a Cham prince who was dispossessed of his throne by the newcomer. One evening, the prince meets a Nagi of marvelous beauty on the sandbank by the rising tide with whom he immediately falls in love and makes his queen. The Naga-raja (the king of the Nagas), bride's father, increases his son-in-law's kingdom by drinking the water that covered the country, builds him a capital city and changes the name of the country to Kambuja or Kamboja' .

Another popular legend prevalent in Kambuja says that "In the country of Rome or Romaveisei, not far from Takkhsinla (Taxila), reigned a great and wise king. His son, the Vice king, Phra Thong by name- having done wrong, was banished and after many adventures, settled in Cambodia . The time is not indicated but we gather from the context that it must have been 4 th century" . It is worth remembering that the Rumadesa or Rumaveisei was the ancient name of salt-range area located to the north-west Punjab. Thus, Romaveisei or Rumadesa country was very contiguous to the ancient Kamboja which fact certainly implies that the young prince referred to in this Cambodian legend may have been the learned prince Kambu (Kamboj) referred to in the Kambu-Mera legend of Cambodia .

The earliest known members of the Kamboja royal family in Kambuja from the lineage of sage-prince Kambu are prince Srutavarman (little son of prince Kambu), prince Shreshthavarman, prince Viravarman and princess Kambuja-rajalakshami.

On Soma Nagi and Apsara Mera legends

There is a very close analogy between the mythical origin of the Pallavas of Kanchi and of the Kambujas of Cambodia. Hermit Kaundinya vs Nagi Soma legend on the genealogical origin of the royal dynasty of Funan has its counterpart in the Ashvathama vs Nagi legend in the genealogical myth of the Pallavas as described in the Rayakotto Copper plates. Again, Hermit Kambu vs Apsara Mera legend on the genealogy of the Kambuja kings of Kambodia has its close analogy and kinship in the Ashvathama vs Apsara Madani legend on the origin of Pallavas as stated in some other copper plates of the Pallavas. According to Victor Goloubew, the Nagi legend takes its origin from the Scythians and plays a paramount role in the lands penetrated by the Pallavas and their culture. The Nagi legend of the Scythians, which Goloubew finely connects with the legends in Tamil literature in the Pallava Copper-plates as well as in the Cambodian annals, testifies to the spread of the Scythian legend from Central Asia to Southern India as well as in the far Eastern kingdom of Kambhoja. According to Cadambi Minakshi, the Nagi legend of the Scythians, which is also connected with legends in Tamil literature and Pallava copper plates as well as the annals of Cambodia, deserves a special significance regarding the Pallava identity with Iranian Pahlavas. According to George Coedes, the Kambu vs Apsara Mera legend on the genealogy of Kambuja kings of Cambodia shows a close kinship with the genealogical myth of the Pallavas of Kanchi. Thus, it can be seen that the Scythian Nagi legend reveals close affinities and connections of the Pallavas of Kanchis with the Pahlavas of Central Asia. Likewise, the legend also connects the same Pallavas/Pahlavas with the Kambuja/Kambojas of Cambodia. Thus if north-western Pahlavas were indeed the originators of Pallava dynasty of Kanchi, then the Kambojas of North-west could also similarly be believed to have been the originators of the Kambuja dynasty of Cambodia. It needs to be emphasised here that a very close connection of the Sakas (Scythians), the Kambojas and the Pahlavas has been stated in numerous ancient Sanskrit texts like Mahabharata, Valmiki, Ramayana and the Puranas, etc. In the Puranic literature, the Sakas, Kambojas Yavanas, Pahlavas and Paradas have been noted as closely allied tribes and have been referred to as pañca.gana (five hordes). Ramayana also closely associates the Kambojas with the Pahlavas and the Sakas—so much so, according to Mahabharata evidence, that the Sakas, Yavanas, Pahlavas and the Tushara soldiery from Scythia had joined the Kurukshetra War under the supreme command of Sudakshina Kamboja. These outlandish tribes were all located in the Scythian belt in Central Asia and, therefore, were followers of a common culture and social customs, predominantly Iranic. Thus, based on Nagi/Apsara legends, it can be safely stated that the Kambuja ruling family of Cambodia had also its origin in north-western Kambojas of Indo-Iranian affinities.

The appearance of certain iconographic motives, of Iranian affinities, from Cambodia—viz: the pre-Angkorian iconography of images of Surya with their short tunics, short boots and sashes similar to those of Zoroastrians; the cylindrical tiara of the statues of Vishnu; the mysterious "Scythian Brahman" mentioned several times in Khmer inscriptions; the name "Kambuja", obviously derived from the Iranian "Kamboja;" and finally, the discovery at Oc Eo in western Cochin China of an intaglio representing libation to fire and of a cabochon with a Sassanid effigy abundantly furnish tangible proof of Funan's relations with the Iranian world.

Vasishtha, Agasti, Kaundinya and Kambhoja connection

Sage Vasishtha and Agasti were brothers and sons of Mitravaruna (Mithravaruna). Sage Vasishtha had several sons including Shakti, Indra Pramati, Kundina etc. From Vasishtha began the Vasishtha clan of the Brahmanas, from Kundina, the Kaundinya line and from Agasti the Agastya line of Brahmanas. There are several references in ancient Sanskrit literature which indicate close connections between the Vasishthas and ancient Kambojas. Sage Vasishtha and his descendants were mostly active in the Aryanisation of north and north-western India. But sage Agasti, sage Kundina and their descendants played active role in the Sanskritization of southern India. One sage Kaundinya finds reference in Satapatha Brahamana (14-155,20) as well as in Mahabharata. There are numerous references to the Kaundinyas in Indian inscriptions and Tamil literature. Southern Indian recension of Ramayana refers to one Kambhoja sage who was close friend of sage Agasti and had his hermitage on the banks of river Godavari (See Abduction of Sita: Panchavati: [13]). This epic reference, if to be believed, indicates that the seers from the Agastya, Kambhoja and Kaundinya lines were all involved in the Aryanisation of southern India. It appears likely that after these seers and missionaries had completed the Aryanisation of southern India, they had transplanted themselves to Southeast Asia including Suvaranabhumi and Indo-China in order to expand the boundaries of Aryan India. Thus, we find respective references to sage Kaundinya as well as to prince Kambu or Kambuja (i.e. Kamboja), the founders of kingdom of Funan as well as of Kambuja as referenced in the ancient Kambodian legends.

For Kamboja-Vasishtha connections, see also: Brahmanism of Ancient Kambojas

Suryavamshi (solar) vs Chandravamshi (lunar) kings

Funan line of kings is said to have belonged to the lunar (Chandravamsa) lineage of Kshatriyas. Likewise, the Kambuja line of kings is stated to have belonged to the solar (Suryavamsa) lineage. This proves that so-called sage Kaundinya as well as the learned prince Svayabhumva Kambu (or Kambuja) were both from the Kshatriya lineage since SOLAR and LUNAR lineages are attributed to the Kshatriyas only. Therefore, it appears likely that Kaundinya, the so-called founder of Funan colony in Indo-China was probably a Kshatriya chief who became known as Kaundinya possibly because his family priests belonged to Kaundinya gotra Brahmins. It is noteworthy that the gotra of a Kshatriya is taken to be same as the gotra of his purohit or priest . Charles Eliot also writes that though Kaundinya was a Brahman gotra, yet it was often used by Kshatriyas and the conqueror of Camboja (Cambodia) belonged to Kshatriya caste . Further, the family name of the kings of Kambuja is stated to have been Cha'li which means Kshatriya. If this evidence is to be believed, then we may have to accept that the founder-colonists of Funan and Kambuja dynasties were from Kshatriya lineage and were probably the Kambojas from Gujarat/Saurashtra.

Alternative views on routes of immigration

We have stressed here that the Kamboja colonists of Kambuja in Indo-China were from Saurashtra/Gujarat who had their trade-posts already operative in Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka. To all probability, it was a Kamboja section from Gujarat (or better from Sri Lanka) who had sailed to Far East as traders/merchants and colonised Kambuja in Indochina around centuries of AD. But alternatives views have also been suggested. According to P. C. Bagchi, the Kambojas who had set-up the Kambuja colony in Indo-China were a nomadic tribe of Central Asia and had reached Mekong basin via Tibet, following the land route behind the Himalayans. It is interesting to note that Brahmanical Sanskrit text Brahma Purana, believed to be a creation of 5th century AD, attests one section of the Kambojas to have been living near Tibet/Assam. The province Khamba of Tibet still carries the relics of Sankrit Kamboja. Probably, they were a section of the Kashmiri/Pamiran Kambojas who may have receded to Tibet in the wake of Kushan pressure during first or second century AD. Noted scholar Sir James Fergusson has also listed one of the possibilities that the Kambojas might have followed the land route behind the Himalayan to reach Indochina Celebrated George Coedes also states that the penetrations of the colonists to Southeast Asia may have been through the narrow valleys of rivers originating in China and the confines of Tibet. Chiang Kien, a Chinese Envoy to Bactria (127 BCE) leaves us evidence of the Bamboos and textiles being imported from South-west China and sold in the local markets of Afghanistan. On his enquiry, he learnt that these goods were first brought to East India through Yunnan, Burma-Tamralipti from where they came all the way to North India-Afghanistan following apparently the famed Uttarapatha land route. All these references sufficiently indicate the existence of alternative land routes by which the colonists including the Kambojas might have landed into Indo-China.

Opinions of some scholars

B. R. Chatterjee:

• The descendants of the Kambojas are the modern Kambohs. Among 84 clans (gotras), the names of which are said to have been derived from the name of Siva, figure people of Maga reminding us of the Iranian Magi, and Kamari or Khamari, providing us with a probable explanation of the name Khmer, the people of Kamboja desa par excellence.

P. C. Bagchi & S. Chattopadhyaya:

• "The Kambojas, a nomadic tribe, lived beyond Himalayas in Central Asia. One of their branches entered India in very early times and after a while lost its identity as distinct people by merging into the local population, but other batches of them must have entered east Tibet and the valley of Mekong from another direction. By this assumption only, we can explain why the name Kambuja was given to the kingdom founded in the middle valley of the Mekong. In eastern Tibet their name can be traced in the name of the province of Khams and it was probably from this region that the Kamboja invasion of Assam took place in later times. A branch of them migrated to North Bengal at an early period though their actual invasion came at a later date"

Bombay Gazetteer:

• The Indian colonists from north-west India (i.e. Kamboja, Gandhara, Romadeisha, Taxila) had reached Kambodia via Sea Ships launched from Suarashtra/Gujarat sea coasts of western India. Numerous legends and traditions with regard to Java and Kambodia are still prevalent in Gujarat/Kathhiawad regions which show that Gujarat seacoasts had been the launching pads for these sea-adventures to the Far East. These legends further shed light on trade relations between Java/Kambuja and the north-west India during first few centuries of Christian era. link.

Ruth Whitehouse:

• “(The Kambujas is) the ethnic name of the people who founded the kingdom of CHENLA in present southern Laos, the first kingdom of the KHMERS. Its origin is unknown, but could possibly be seen in another ethnic name, that of the Iran Kambojas, as there are signs of SASSANIAN influence in the the southern part of the Indochinese Peninsula. According to a Cambodian dynastic legend preserved in a 10th-century inscription, the origin of the kings of CAMBODIA goes back to the union of the hermit Kambu with the celestial nymph Mera, names probably related to both 'Kambuja ' and 'Khmer'; the names 'Cambodia' and 'Kampuchea' have the same etymology”

The Calcutta review:

• "Kambojas---Kamboh of Kamboj or Cochin are of the same kind . Elsewhere they are classed among nations of the south-west and also among the nations of the west . Those from the east were a colony from the west (Calcutta Review, No cii, p 306)" .

Specht's views:

• "The people by whom this Punjab and Kashmir influence may have been introduced from north (into Cambodia) are the people who still call themselves Khmers to whose skill, as builders, the magnificence of Cambodian temples, lakes and bridges is apparently due. The resemblance of Cambodian and Kabul valley work of art recalls the praise of the Chinese writers of Han (BC 206 – AD 24) and Wei (AD 386 – 556) dynasties, of the craftmen of Kipin i.e Kophene or Kamboja—that Kabul valley, whose skill was not less remarkable in sculpture and chiseling stones than in working gold, silver, copper and tin into vases and other articles". Ninth century record of Pehova mention one architect Achyuta, son of Rama of Kambojas.

Ke LeThan:

• "The art of Angkor Vat dates only from ninth century. It is a mixture of Persian (Iranian) and Indo-European origin...".

Society of Arts (Great Britain):

• "The country (Cambodia) took its name from an Aryan tribe of the North-West Frontier of India, called Cambojas. Whenever they (Cambojas) found their numbers increasing beyond the means of support to be found in the Tirah and Kurum highlands, they raided the rich lowlands of Hindustan, their raids at last extending into Farther India, where meeting with no more highly-civilized people than themselves, they permanently settled and gave their name to Cambogia (Cambodia)........ They also gave their name to Cambyses, whose family it has been recently said, descended from the Cambojas. Camb, means "bent", " curved", " arched" , and hence a "crest" the "neck of a horse", and again, the comb of a cock, and hence "strong", "brave", "warlike", and "truculent" and it is interesting to note that Afridi, the same word as "Afrite" in the "Arabian Nights" is, in these latter senses, but a translation of Camb. This word Camb appears in Scotland in the form of Cambus, marking a "bend" in the Frith of Forth, in Cambus-kenneth, Cambus-lang, et cetera, and in Campbell, the clan of "crooked" mouths ; and in England in Cambridge, the town of the " curved " ford of the Granta........" .

Kumar Suresh Singh (People of India‎, 2003):

• “It is believed that the Kamboj of Punjab came to India from Central Asia about three thousand years ago. They established their principalities in north-western India and fought on the side of Kauravas in the battle of Mahabharata. Later on they dispersed throughout India: from Orissa some of them migrated to Kambodia in the first century AD, where they later on formed a State” (Kambuja)..

Chandra Chakraberty:

• The Kambojas were a Saka tribe, possibly mixed with other Caspian clans who through Tibet, settled in Mekong Valley, known after them as Kambuja.

Indological Research Institute:

• “Kamboj (mentioned in Anguttara Nikaya was located) in North East, Dawarka being its capital. It has been noticed that there lived a king in Kamboj whose name was Kaundinya. This capital in the first century AD was known as Dvaravati- but it can not be identified with Dvaravati of Shri Krishna. But it shows that the word Dvaravati was very well known in India in first century A.D.”

Phillip Baker's views:

• "Tibbetts (1957: 40) mentions two other places where Arabs may have lived during the century; they were banned from China: Champa and Funan. While there again appears to be no conclusive evidence in either case there were certainly Muslims established in Champa by the eleventh century (A History of South-east Asia - 1955, Page 29, Daniel George Edward Hall; also Hall, 1981, p 221). There are also grounds for thinking that Persians may earlier have been established in Funan. The name Kambuja applied by the Khmers to their kingdom from not later than tenth century, is thought to be linked to the Persian Kambojas (Hall 1981: 31, 105)".

R. K. Mukerjee:

• R. K. Mukerjee, a distinguished Indian historian and scholar: The far-famed ancient regions of India such as Gandhara, Kamboja, Kalinga, Dasarana, Malava, Sriksetra and Ayudhya etc had transplanted themselves across the seas into Indo-China.

Sir James Fergusson:

• According to Sir James Fergussan: 'It must be born in mind that the country around Taxila, including Kandhahar, Kabul and Udyana (in Swat valley) in ancient time was called Camboja and it was the head-quarters of Serpent-worship. The architecture of Kashmir bears considerable resemblance to that of Cambodia. There is a general consensus that the Kambujas came from India. If this were so, it seems certain that it was not from the east coast that they migrated. The Indians who introduced Buddhism and Buddhist architecture into Java went there from Gujerat or the country on the west-coast. This hardly seems doubtful, and there is a greater probability of a migration from upper Indus to Cambodia than from Gujerat to Java' . "Ceylon was always addicted to Snake-worship and may have formed a half way house . On the other hand, it is by no means improbable that migrations may have taken place behind the Himalayas; in fact, that the religion of the two countries was derived from some common center in northern India......The point is stressed here that there must have been a connexion between the two countries (i.e. Sri Lanka and Cambodia), and that the traditions of Cambodia point to Taxila as their parent seat" .

George Coedes:

• Writes G. Coedes: "Perhaps the reign of this foreigner (i.e Indian prince Chan-ta'n who seized the throne of Funan in 357), coming after the exchange of embassy with Murundas (Kushanas), accounts for some connections we are tempted to establish in several fields between Funan and ancient Cambodia on the one hand and the Iranian world on the other. We will see later that at the end of fifth century, the servant of a king of Funan bore the name or title of Chiu-ch'ou-lo, which could be identical with title Kujula in use among the Kushans. A little later, in seventh century, we see a Scythian (Saka) Brahman arriving from Dekkan and marrying the daughter of king Ishanvarman I. The pre-Angkorian iconography of images of Surya, with their short tunics, short boots and sashes similar to those of Zoroastrians, is clearly of Iranian inspiration. Perhaps these images represent the sun considered as a Magian or Scythian Brahman., who is designated by the name Sakabrahmana in Angkorian epigraphy. Even the cylindrical coiffure of the pre-Angkorian images of Vishnu can be regarded as showing Iranian influence. It is true that the immediatev model for this hair style is found in the sculpture of the Pallavas of Kanchi, but we also know that one group of scholars is convinced of the northern origin of the Pallavas, maintaining that they are descendants of the Pahlavas. Finally, even the name of the Kambujas, the heirs of Funan, may be related to the Iranian Kambojas. It would be imprudent for the moment to push these comparisons too far, but the discovery at Oc Eo in western Cochin China of an intaglio representing libation to fire and of a cabochon with a Sassanid effigy has furnished tangible proof if Funan's relations with Iranian world".

Buddha Parkash:

• "In the word Kambuja, one may see the reflection of the name of a tribe called Kamboja, which originally lived in the Pamir-Badakshan region and had pronounced Iranian affinities in racial and cultural traits. Along with the Sakas, this tribe infiltrated into India and spread over the whole of northern India, particularly, the Punjab and the U.P. (Uttar Pradesh)" .....A Kushana prince Chan-ta-n had transplanted himself into Indo-China and seized the throne from the ruling dynasty of Fu-nan. Following this, the Sakas and some other related people also entered Indo-China. It is reasonable to believe that the Kambojas had joined this band and set up a Kambuja colony to the north of Fu-nan . "The author of the Vayu Purana mentioned Kumudadvipa for Kusudvipa. This term Kumuda is an adaption of the Ptolemic name Komdei, which signifies Kamboja, a tribe of Persian affinity, inhabiting the Indo-Iranian borderlands, particularly the Badakshan region, in ancient times, and then descending into the Indian plains in subsequent times. It is believed that these Kambojas migrated to South-East Asia after the commencement of Christian era and settled in what came to be known as Kambuja-desa or Cambodge as well as other regions. That there were Persian colonies in South-East Asia is clear from the repeated references to 'Po-sse', which probably lay in Sumatra and represents the site of modern 'Pasem' or 'Paceman'. Under these circumstances, the name Kumudadvipa may have sprung to the minds of these geographers” .

Walpola Rāhula and Sōmaratna Bālasūriya:

• "A legend says that the Kambojas, who played an important role in the Mahabharata War migrated (after the victory) eastwards across the Bay of Bengal and settled down in modern Cambodia giving their name to the country...".

Mamata Choudhury:

• "Kambuja, the ancient name of Cambodia in South east Asia, has possibly derived its name from that of the Kambojas, a Hindu tribe who colonized the Country".

The Indian Review:

• "Camboj (Cambodia) was colonised by Indians coming from Kambhoj (a country near Taxila.) There is a reference to Indian migration in 65 B. C, and Haddon says that the Javanese ballads tell of an Indian prince who came to Java about 78 or 120 AD where he found a nomadic people" .

Bernard Brodie:

• "It has been suggested that enterprising people from Gujarat and north gave the names of their original homes to their new ones wherever they settled or colonized. Thus Cambodia is from Kamboja in Kabul, Madura, in the south is from Mathura, as also Muttra on the coast of Ceylon, Arabia and Java………………".

I. M. Muthanna:

• "According to the great Indologists, the Civilization of Burmese and Tibetans is derived from India. The Burma or Brahma is purely of Indian origin. Lower Burma or Pegu had been conquered by emigrants from Eastern India and there have been regular flow of people between India and South-East Asia. About the colonization of Cambodia, it was said, that about the 4th century AD, a band of adventurers of Takshashila, called Kambhoja, that great university centre of northern India, set off to South-East Asia where they founded a kingdom called Cambodia" .

Nagendranath Vasu:

• "The Kamboj originally lived in Kamboja located at the foot of Indian Caucasus. From there they proceeded to the shores of the distant Pacific ocean and established the Kingdom of Kamboj which is now Cambodia.

J. L. Kamboj:

• "The ancient Kambojas are known to have been living in Pamir- Badakshan. With time, section of them crossed Hindukush and settled not only in Kabol, Gandhar and Kashmir but during second/first centuries BCE, in alliance with Shakas, Yavanas and Parthavas they had spread into Sindhu Sauvira, Gujarat-Kathiwad, Rajasthan, Punjab as well as eastern and southern parts of India as well. A group from these Kambojas had later went to South-East Asia and set-up a Kambuja colony in Mekong basin in Indo-China…..……..The Kambojas who founded the Kambuja colony in Mekong basin came from north-west Kamboja following the land route through Siam and Laos".

Chaudhury Bawauddin:

• Until fifth century AD, the Parthians, Shakas and the Kambojas had been ruling in northern/north-western parts of India. The Kamboja kingdom of the north-west became a first target to the Hunas in 470 AD in which the Kambojas appear to have lost the battle. These were indeed difficult times for the Kambojas since little later they had also lost Kathiawad- Gujarat to the invaders. As a consequence, a section of the Kambojas had left India either via Bengal and Burma, following a land route via Siam and Laos to Indo-China or else after the destruction of Vallabhi in Saurashtra, they left Gujarat, sailed along west coast of India following sea route via Sri Lanka, reached Indo-China and founded the Kambuja kingdom there.

O. P. Paliwal:

• 'There is a community known as Kamboj living in northern India. They have been associated both with Gandhara (present Kandhahar in Afghanistan) region of Ancient India and with the Cambodia in SE Asia. J. L. Nehru writes in his Discovery of India that the settlers gave old Indian names to their settlements in Cambodia. Thus, Cambodia as it is known today was ancient Kamboja, which was an important city in ancient Gandhara. Great epic Mahabharata mentions the role of the Kamboj army in the battle of Kurukshetra. Kambuj army and Kamboj prince Sudakshin had taken part in the great war on the side of Kauravas against the Pandavas. Kamboj also find mention in Brahmanda Purana, one of our eighteen Puranas, supposed to have been written between second and fourth century AD. The Indian settlers in Cambodia called themselves Kamboj and thus began the era of Khmerization of the then prevailing civilization in the Orient' .

Ian Harris:

• “According to Indic tradition, the Kambojas were involved in the Mahabharata war and subsequently settled in Cambodia then called Indapata. These may have been the legendary ancestors of the Khmers. Kondanna (Kaundinya) , an early king of country is said to have been pious Buddhist although the firm establishment of Buddhism in the country can be dated to the reign of Jayavarman III (rule c 1181-1201)”

Bihar Research Society:

• Probably the word Kamboja in early Sanskrit literature and in Asoka's inscriptions, meant or included the Sakas of Seistan..... The Kambojas spoke a separate dialect belonging to the Indo-Iranian family. Their descendants are still called " Kamboh " in the Panjab and the North-Western Frontier Provinces. Later on the Kambojas colonised Further India and gave their name to modern Cambodia .

Journalist Rama Rao:

• "Kambhojas are anciently mentioned to live in the region of Punjab and there is an echo of a migration to somewhere on the Godavari. Later from there seafarers and adventurers gave the name to a region of southeast Asia --Kampuchea or Cambodia. "'

Sudarshan Tiwari

Commenting on verses (X.43-44) of Manusmriti, Tiwari writes as under: "Shakas were white skinned tribes according to legend on contests between Vasishtha and Viswamitra of the epics. According to Manusmriti (X.43-44), they, along with Paundrakas, Odras (who are called Andhras in Indian history), Dravidas, Kambojas (the Vermas who later ruled Cambodia), Yavanas, Paradas, Pahlavas (the Verma Kings of later Mamallapuram), Chinas (Chin rulers of China?), Kiratas (rulers of Nepal mountains), Daradas, and Khasas as 'Varatya Kshatriyas' (Kalluka's comments) …… "

Besides the above, numerous other scholars also accept the historical relationships between Indo-Iranian Kambojas and Kambodia.0

Some hints on India's commercial intercourse with the Far-East

• There are numerous references in Indian texts, accounts of Arab travelers, Chinese historical accounts, old inscriptions as well as the magnificent ruins of ancient monuments like Angkor and Borobudur which demonstrate India's ancient connections with the Far East. The old stories in Sanskrit contain many accounts of perilous sea voyages and ship-wrecks. Non-Indian accounts like those from the Greeks and Arabs show that there was a regular maritime intercourse between India and the Far East, at least, as early as first century BC. Ancient books like Kathasagara, Buddhist Jatakas etc refer to the fascinating regions of the Far East including Suvarnabhumi, the fabulous "Land of Gold.". Evidence shows that wave after wave of traders, colonists, priests and craftsmen reached southern Asia, Ceylon, Siam and distant Cambodia both from east and west coasts of India. A prince from Gujarat is said to have embarked with 5000 followers in 6 large and about 100 small vessels and settled at Matarem in the center of the Java in 603 AD. Extensive trade and commerce was carried on with Gujarat and other countries, and the bay of Matarem was filled with adventurers from all parts. The Indian colonists brought Indian art and architecture into Far East where the Indian sculpture achieved its greatest triumphs ". Passenger ships plied regularly between the Gujarat, Ceylon, Ganges and Malay Peninsula (Suvarabhumi) in the middle of the first millennium A.D. "There is a confirmation of the account we have of the large ships from the time of Agatharcides down to the 16th century, the ships of Gujarat which traversed the Indian Ocean in all ages." (V. A. Smith)

• According to Pandit Nehru: "From the first century of the Christian era onward wave after wave of Indian colonists spread east and south-east reaching Ceylon, Burma, Malaya, Java, Sumatra, Borneo, Siam, Cambodia, and Indo-China. ………. There appear to have been four principal waves of colonization from the first century A.C. and in between there must have been a stream of people going eastwards. But the most remarkable feature of these ventures was that they were evidently organized by the state….. The Cambodia, as it is known now, was called Kamboja, which was a well known town in ancient India, in Gandhara or the Kabul Valley. This itself indicates roughly the period of this colonization, for at that time Gandhara (Afghanistan) must have been an important part of Aryan India".

• Cultural Heritage of Ancient India observes: "The impact of Indian trade and culture in the neighboring countries is traced as early as third century B.C. if not earlier. Indians migrated in large numbers to Malaysia and Indonesia in ancient times. We find place-names in Sanskrit in Sumatra, Java, Champa, Kambuja, Suvarnabhumi and Suvarnadvipa bearing unmistakable evidences of the early cultural and commercial, if not political, colonisation of the Western Pacific by the Indians. The earliest inscriptions so far traced in Champa (Vietnam), Java and Borneo were inscribed in the Brahmi script of north Indian variety and in Sanskrit language........Indian merchants, princes, priests, monks, and intellectuals both Brahmanical and Buddhist cooperated intensively with the gifted indigenous populations. Thus the foundation was laid of the Greater Indian Concept which was predominantly a cultural expression of the collaboration of the races and nations….."

• Ratanlal Joshi writes: "Kashmir has not only been the source for the development of Sanskrit literature but the stories of Mahabharata, Ramayana and Buddha spread throughout Asia, China, and Japan from this region only. It was from Kashmir that Indian culture along with Sanskrit literature and Buddhism traveled to various countries of Asia and merged with their cultures. Even today, this is visible in the cultures of Indonesia, Philippines, Malaya, Kamboj (Cambodia) and Siam. Kashmir has acted as a launch-medium to spread the Indian culture all over Asia. It was a medium and a central point from which Indian culture spread from Sri Lanka to Central Asia and from Egypt to Japan.... The China and Kambodia are also known to have been receiving their consignments of saffron from Kashmir.....". Further, according to the same author, the Kambojas had also ruled over Kashmir. Mahabharata (VII.4.5) also informs us that the Kambojas had ruled over Kashmir. Thus, the above text from Joshi also implies that cultural and commercial intercourse existed between Kashmir/Kamboja of north-west the Kambuja/Cambodia of Southeast Asia.

Prince Norodam Sihanouk and Indian Kambojas

Angkor Wat, built by Kamboja king Suryavarman II in the early 12th century as his state temple and capital city

Prince Norodom Sihanouk, king of Cambodia visited India in March 1955. The Indian Kambojas organized grand meeting on March 18 in New Delhi where the prince was honored and was presented an Abhinandan Patra on behalf of the 'All India Kamboj Mahasabha, by its President, Ganga Singh Soni. Remarked prince Sihanouk "I am fortunate to be among my Indian Kamboj brethren and am proud of my ancient blood connection with the Indian Kambojas....". On special invitation from the Cambodian prince, a four member delegation of the Indian Kambojs comprising Ganga Singh Soni, S. Hazara Singh Jossan, Col Lal Singh Turna and S. Himat Singh Thind visited Cambodia on November 13, 1959 to participate in the Jalutsava celebrations which is a national festival of Kambodia. The Kamboj delegation was given a wide publicity and rousing royal reception in Cambodia and its members were treated as special Guests of the State of Cambodia.

Intermarriages and blood mixing

The colonists and the ruling families of Kambuja who originally came from north-west Kamboja, for reasons of convenience, married with the local elites and thus there apparently occurred a blood mixing between the original population and the new colonists, at least, at the surfacial layer. This possibility has also been accepted by G Coedes and other scholars on this subject.

See also

• Migration of Kambojas
• History of Sri Lanka
• Kamboja colonists of Sri Lanka
• Pallavas
• Sage Kambu Swayambhuva

Books and magazines

• Les Etats hindouises d'Indochine et d'Indonesie, 1964, George Coedes
• Indianised States of Southeast Asia, 1968, George Coedes
• Inscriptions du Cambodge, Vol I, George Coedes
• Bulletin de la Société des études indochinoises, Société des études indo-chinoises
• Bulletin de la Societe des Etudes Indochinoises, volume 24, Pierre Dupont
• A History of South-east Asia, 1955, Daniel George Edward Hall
• The Journal of Asian Studies, 1956, Association for Asian Studies, Far Eastern Association (U.S.)
• Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, J. L. Kamboj
• The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, S. Kirpal Singh
• Ancient Buddhist texts 'Petavathu Jataka', 'Sihalavattu', etc.
• These Kamboj People, 1979
• Kaamboj Itihaas, 1972, H. S. Thind
• India and the World, Hoshiarpore, 1961, Buddha Parkash
• The foundamental Unity of India (From Hindu Sources), 1914, p 130, by Radhakumud Mookerji
• Bombay Gazetteeer, Vol I, Part I
• Artibus Asiae, Vol XXIV, B. R. Chatterji
• India and Central Asia, P. C. Bagchi
• Indian Antiquary, II, 1883, Specht
• Inscriptions of Kambuja, R. C. Majumdar
• On Merchants and Monsters: Common Motifs in Tales from Medieval China and 19th-century Bukhara, by Siamak Adhami
• History of Ceylone, Vol I, Part by S. Parnavitana.
• The Archaeology of Seafaring in Ancient South Asia, [Cambridge World Archaeology], 2003, Himanshu Prabha Ray, Norman Yoffee, Susan Alcock, Tom Dillehay, Stephen Shennan, Carla Sinopoli
• Ships and the Development of Maritime Technology on the Indian Ocean, 2002, David Parkin, Ruth Barnes
• The Sun and the Serpent: A Contribution to the History of Serpent-worship, 1905, Charles Frederick Oldham
• Tree and Serpent Worship: Illustrations of Mythology and Art in India in the first and fourth century after Christ, 2004 (ed), James Fergusson
• History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, 1899, James Fergusson
• Mémoires de la Société académique indo-chinoise, 1879, Société académique indo-chinoise, Paris
• Short Studies in the Science of Comparative Religions Embracing All the Religions of Asia, 1998, J. G. R. Forlong
• Rivers of Life, Part 1, or Sources and Streams of the Faiths of Man in all Lands Showing the Evolution of Faiths from the Rudest Symbolisms to the Latest Spiritual Developments, 2002, p 110, J. G. R. Forlong - Kessinger Publishing

Recommended reading

• Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency, by Bombay (Indian state); read pages 491 & 498 to 500 link

• A Current Tradition among the Kambojs of North India Relating to the Khmers of Cambodia, B. R. Chatterji'; read pp 253–254 link

External links

• All Gratitude To Myanmar: [14]
• International Relations in Ancient and Medieval Lanka: [15]
• The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: [16]
• International Trade Of Sindh From Its Port Barbaricon (Banbhore) 200 BC to 200 AD:[17]
• A Tribute to Hinduism - Seafaring in Ancient India: [18]
• Early Indian Trade and the Traders: [19]
• On Merchants and Monsters: Common Motifs in Tales from Medieval China and 19th-century Bukhara:[20]
• The Beginnings of Civilization in South India: Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 29, No. 3 (May, 1970), pp. 603–616, Clarence Maloney
• A Tribute to Hinduism - Seafaring in Ancient India: [21]
• Kambojas and Kambodia:[22]
• Indianized State of South East Asia: G Coedes, 1968; Read pp 46–47:
• [23]