Europeans in Oceania: Difference between revisions

European Oceanians
Total population
	26,000,000 ; 62% of Oceania's population (2018)
Regions with significant populations
	Australia, Hawaii, New Caledonia and New Zealand
Languages
	Predominantly English, French and Spanish
Religion
	Christianity (Anglicanism/Protestantism and Roman Catholicism) and Judaism
Related ethnic groups
	European diaspora

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Revision as of 22:55, 6 January 2022

European exploration and settlement of Oceania began in the 16th century, starting with Portuguese settling the Moluccas and Spanish (Castilian) landings and shipwrecks in the Marianas Islands, east of the Philippines, followed by the Portuguese landing and settling temporarily (due to the monsoons) in the Tanimbar or the Aru Islands and in some of the Caroline Islands and Papua New Guinea, and several Spanish landings in the Caroline Islands and New Guinea.^{[citation needed]} Subsequent rivalry between European colonial powers, trade opportunities and Christian missions drove further European exploration and eventual settlement. After the 17th century Dutch landings in New Zealand and Australia, but not settling these lands, the British became the dominant colonial power in the region, establishing settler colonies in what would become Australia and New Zealand, both of which now have majority European-descended populations. States including New Caledonia (Caldoche),^[2] Hawaii,^[3] French Polynesia^[4] and Norfolk Island also have considerable European populations. Europeans remain a primary ethnic group in much of Oceania, both numerically and economically.^{[citation needed]}

European settlement and colonization

Australia and New Zealand

European settlement in Australia began in 1788 when the British established the Crown Colony of New South Wales with the first settlement at Port Jackson. New Zealand was part of New South Wales until 1840 when it became a separate colony and experienced a marked increase in European settlement.^{[citation needed]}

Child immigrant Maira Kalnins in August 1949. Kalnins was travelling with her family to start a new life in Australia after the postwar occupation of her native Latvia by Russian forces. Her photogenic qualities won her the role as the central figure in a publicity campaign to mark the 50,000th new arrival in Australia.^[5]

While the largest European ethnic group to originally settle in both Australia and New Zealand were the English, the settler population in Australia from early times contained a large Irish Catholic component, in contrast to New Zealand which was more Scottish in composition.

For generations, the vast majority of both colonial-era settlers and post-independence immigrants to Australia and New Zealand came almost exclusively from the British Isles. However, waves of European immigrants were later drawn from a broader range of countries. Australia, in particular, received large numbers of European immigrants from countries such as Italy, Greece, Germany, Malta, the Netherlands, and Yugoslavia following the Second World War. Today, Australia has the largest Maltese population outside of Malta itself.^[6]

Assimilation policies of the 1940s and 1950s required new continental European arrivals to learn English, adopt to pre-existing European Australian cultural practices and become indistinguishable from the Australian-born population as quickly as possible.^[7] This was also the case in New Zealand. The government of New Zealand held the belief that immigrants from continental Europe would be able to easily assimilate to the pre-existing culture.^[8] By the time restrictions on non-white immigration began being lifted in the late 1960s, the governments had already moved towards a policy of integration, where new immigrants were allowed to retain their original cultural identities.^[7]^[9] This echoed developments in other immigrant-receiving countries outside of Oceania, notably Canada.^[7]

Clipperton Island

The remote eastern Pacific atoll was uninhabited when discovered by Europeans in the 1520s. Some claim Spanish explorer Ferdinand Magellan was the first to find it in 1521,^[10] which would make Clipperton and certain islands of Micronesia the first areas of the Pacific to be reached by outsiders. Others believe it was discovered by Spaniard Alvaro Saavedra Cerón on November 15, 1528.^[11]^[12] Clipperton Island was named after British pirate John Clipperton, who was said to have stayed there in 1705, with 21 other mutineers.^[13] There have since been rumors that Clipperton may have hid treasures.^[10]

In 1708, sailors from the French ships Princess and Découverte reached the atoll and named it Ile de la Passion, annexing it for France.^[10] The first scientific expedition took place in 1725 by Frenchman M.Bocage, who lived on the atoll for several months.^[10] The exploitation of the Guano in the Pacific during the 19th century revived interest in the atoll, after many years of no human inhabitation.^[14] American Guano Mining Company claimed it under the Guano Islands Act of 1856; Mexico also claimed it due to activities undertaken there as early as 1848–1849. On 17 November 1858 Emperor Napoleon III annexed it as part of the French colony of Tahiti. This did not settle the ownership question. Mexico reasserted its claim late in the 19th century and established a military outpost on Clipperton in 1897.^[10]

In 1906, The British Pacific Island Company acquired the rights to guano deposits in 1906 and began working in conjunction with the Mexican government to establish a colony. A lighthouse was erected, and by 1914 approximately 100 settlers were living there.^[15] These people were Mexicans of European or Mixed European descent.^[16] They were sent supplies every two months via a ship from Acapulco, however, the escalation of fighting in the Mexican Revolution diverted the suppliers’ attention.^[15] The regular resupply visits soon ceased and the inhabitants were left to their own devices.^[15] By 1915, the inhabitants were dying, and the survivors wanted to leave on the American war ship Lexington which had reached the atoll in late 1915. The Mexican government refused, declaring that evacuation was not necessary.^[10] Nearly all the men, except for Victoriano Álvarez, died from either malnutrition or failed escape attempts. As the last living male, Álvarez proclaimed himself "king" at some point, and took to enslaving, murdering, and raping the remaining women and children.^[15]

Álvarez's reign ended when the women successfully managed to kill him.^[15] The survivors, consisting of three women and seven children, were rescued from the island by a passing US ship in 1917.^[15]^[16]

No further attempts at permanent colonization have occurred since the 1910s, and Clipperton Island is currently a possession of France. Humans last inhabited it during World War II, when the US Navy occupied the atoll. France began maintaining a humanless automatic weather station on Clipperton in 1980.^[16]

Easter Island

The island was inhabited by Polynesians known as the Rapa Nui prior to European discovery. Archeological evidence suggests they arrived around 400 AD.^[17] The island is internationally recognized for its Moai statues, constructed by the Rapa Nui.^[18]

The first European to land on Easter Island was the Dutch admiral Jacob Roggeveen, who discovered it on Easter Day, 1722.^[19] Roggeveen and his crew described the natives as worshiping huge standing statues with fires while they prostrated themselves to the rising sun.^[20]

Don Felipe Gonzales, a Spanish captain, was the next to land at Easter Island in 1770. Gonzales and his men spent four days ashore. In that time they learned that the natives had their own local form of script.^[19] He attempted to claim the island for the King of Spain, and was able to convince the natives to ink a Spanish deed of cession.^[21] Gonzales estimated a population of some 3,000 persons.^[20]

A civil war likely occurred between 1770 and the arrival of British navigator Captain James Cook in 1774.^[19] Cook found a devastated population of only 600 to 700 men, with fewer than 30 women being found.^[19] Cook also observed that the large statues had been overthrown.^[19] In 1786, the French navigator Jean-François de Galaup, comte de Lapérouse made an unsuccessful effort to introduce domestic animals.^[19] European sailing vessels and whalers occasionally visited the island from 1792 onward, and by 1860 the population had returned to 3,000.^[19]

Peruvians of European or Mixed European descent introduced slavery to the island in 1862.^[19]^[22] Easter Island was one of many islands targeted by Peru, and was the hardest hit due to its geographical proximity to the South American coast.^[22] More than 1,400 Rapa Nui were kidnapped;^[22] some ended up being sold in Peru as domestic servants, while others became manual laborers on plantations.^[22] The slavery, labelled as an "immigration scheme", caused outrage in the country.^[22] Many Peruvians believed it was damaging the reputation of their nation in the eyes of the rest of the world, and the government eventually announced that they would "prohibit the introduction of Polynesian settlers."^[22]

470 captured Rapa Nui were sent back to Easter Island, on a ship that was only large enough to support 160 passengers.^[22] The ship was infested with disease carrying rodents,^[22] and when they reached the island, only fifteen passengers were still alive.^[22] The surviving passengers had contracted smallpox during the journey, and spread it to the rest of the island, causing a deadly epidemic.^[22]

In 1863, French Catholic priest Eugène Eyraud heard about the recent events on the island, and decided to travel there as a missionary.^[23] Using his own funds, Eyraud sailed from Tahiti to Easter Island, where he arrived on January 2, 1864.^[24] Eyraud made extensive preparations to prepare for his voyage. He took bolts of cloth with which to cover the natives, carpenter's tools, various pieces of timber and wood with which to build a cabin, a barrel of flour, two or three catechisms and prayer books in Tahitian and a bell with which to call the natives to prayer.^[24] Additionally, he also took five sheep and some cuttings of trees that he hoped might adapt to the climate on Easter Island.^[24] Eyraud ended up spending most of the year there.

In 1866, he established a Catholic mission on the island, with his missionaries influencing the natives to abandon their old practices.^[23] Eyraud had converted the entire population to Catholicism by 1868.^[19] Tuberculosis came to the island in 1867, which led to the death of a quarter of the island's population, and Eyraud died of it on August 23, 1868, nine days after the last islanders had been baptized.^[25]

The native population, estimated to have once been 10,000 before European discovery, had been reduced to 111 towards the end of the 19th century.^[17] No countries showed any interest in colonzing Easter Island up to that point, because of its remoteness.^[23] Britain recommended Chile to claim it in order to keep France from doing so first.^[23] In 1888, Rapa Nui king Atamu Tekena signed a deed by Chilean naval captain Policarpo Toro, giving Chile full sovereignty over the island.^[23] The treaty also consisted of a symbolic act; Atamu Tekena took grass in one hand and dirt in the other. He gave Policarpo Toro the grass and kept the dirt for himself, meaning that the Rapa Nui would always be true owners of the land. Chileans have since come to be known among Rapa Nui as "mauku" (meaning "grass" in their language).^[23]

In the mid-20th century, Norwegian scientist Thor Heyerdahl proposed a theory that the natives were of Indigenous American descent, due to the similarity between Rapa Nui and Inca stonework.^[17] Heyerdahl maintained the idea that native South Americans were capable to sail through the Pacific Ocean on route to Easter Island.^[26] To test his theory, in 1947 he left the coast of Peru on a rudimentary wooden boat, the Kon Tiki.^[26] Following the currents, he managed to arrive at French Polynesia.^[26] Heyerdahl held this as evidence that one could reach Easter Island setting sail from the Americas, even though French Polynesia is approximately 3,440 kilometers North of Easter Island. His theory has since been disproven by DNA testing, which shows that the Rapa Nui have Polynesian genes, not Indigenous American genes.^[26]

Today, the people living on Easter Island are largely descendants of the ancient Rapa Nui (approximately 60%), and they run the bulk of the tourism and conservation efforts on the island.^[18] The rest of the population are primarily Chileans of European and Mestizo origin, with some Rapa Nui on the island having European blood as a result of race mixing.^[27] Despite the current European presence, the island's Polynesian identity is still strong.^[17]

Federated States of Micronesia

FS Micronesia's archipelago (known as the Caroline Islands) is notable for having had some of Oceania's earliest exposure to Europeans.

After thousands of years in isolation, European contact with Oceanians was established during 1521 in the neighboring Micronesian region of Guam, when a Spanish expedition under Ferdinand Magellan reached its shoreline. Oral accounts have been passed down of the day Europeans first set foot on Micronesian soil.^[28] The natives believed the men to be gods, and brought gifts for them,^[28] but there was some kind of misunderstanding, and violence broke out between the two groups.^[28] The first contact that Spain had with the Carolines was in 1525, when a summer storm carried the navigators Diogo da Rocha and Gomes de Sequeira eastward from the Moluccas (by way of Celebes). They ended up reaching several of the Caroline islands, staying there until January 20, 1526.^[29] In the Carolines, colonization by the Spanish did not formally begin until the early 17th century.

Micronesia was the first part of Oceania that was evangelized, with Catholicism becoming widespread in the Carolines and elsewhere during the first few hundred years of European colonization.^[30]

Venereal disease devastated the islands of Pohnpei and Kosrae during the mid-19th century.^[28] The disease came about due to the prostituting of Micronesian girls, some as young as nine, to European whalers. The prostitutes were compensated with tobacco rather than money.^[28] Charles W. Morgan, an officer on a whaleship in Kosrae, recounted in his journals:

One day when out cutting ironwood poles, we came to a small village, and the sight of the people in it was perfectly terrible. They were simply eaten up alive with the most loathsome of diseases. The state some of them were in was so sickening that I hurried away into the woods, and cursed the white man who had turned loose this horrible thing among these poor helpless people. The sight of those in that village, where they had been put by themselves to be slowly eaten up the disease, haunted me for years.
— Charles W. Morgan (October 1852), ^[28]

Spain sold the Carolines to Germany in 1899 under the terms of the German–Spanish Treaty of that year.^[31] Germany placed them under the jurisdiction of German New Guinea. Their acquisition created a need for German-speaking Catholic missionaries. Unlike Protestant denominations, the Catholic Church did not yet have indigenous church leaders, and it would be years before it got them. ^[30]

The first two German priests arrived in the Carolines in 1903 to work alongside the remaining Spanish priests. One of the two, Salesius Haas, was assigned to Yap where he taught German to island students.^[30] A stream of new German missionaries soon flowed into the Carolines and the Mariana Islands, which had also become a German possession.^[30] Seven priests from North Rhine-Westphalia arrived in 1904, and an equal number were sent out in 1905 and 1906.^[30] By 1907, German missionaries no longer worked side by side with the Spanish; they had replaced them entirely.^[30]

German efforts to reorganize the traditional social hierarchy and recruit forced labor for construction resulted in a rebellion by inhabitants of Sokehs Municipality in 1910.^[32] This is known as the Sokehs rebellion (or the more derogatory 'Ponape rebellion'),^[32] and is considered a key event in Germany's brief history of colonial rule in the Pacific.^[32]

Germany lost control of the Carolines to Japan during World War I. Japan's own colonization likewise ended with World War II, following their defeat to the United States. Beginning in 1947, the area became a United Nations Trust Territory, before attaining sovereignty in the 1980s, under the name the Federated States of Micronesia.^[33]

FS Micronesia has been heavily reliant on aid from the United States since World War II. They entered a compact free trade agreement in 1986 that gives America full authority and responsibility for the defense of the FSM. The Compact provides U.S. grant funds and federal program assistance to the FSM.^[31] In addition to American assistance, FS Micronesia also receives a significant amount of aid from Australia.^[34]

Galápagos Islands

The eastern Pacific archipelago of the Galápagos Islands, while administered by South American nation Ecuador, is sometimes considered Oceanian.^[35] This is not only because of their similar geology and distance from Ecuador (approximately 1000 kilometers), but also because they were never inhabited by any Indigenous people of the Americas.^[36]^[37]^[38] The islands were discovered by chance in 1535 when Spanish navigators were sailing from Panama to Peru,^[36] remaining unclaimed until Ecuador officially took possession in 1832.^[19] The first human recorded to have lived there was a man called Patrick Watkins. He became stranded on the islands in 1807, and he inhabited them for several years. Watkins survived by trading his Galápagos-grown vegetables in exchange for items from visitors.^[39] Eventually, he managed to steal a vessel and escape to Ecuador.^[39] The Galápagos Islands subsequently became internationally recognized, following a 1835 visit from British naturalist Charles Darwin, with the unique wildlife of the islands greatly influencing Darwin's theory on natural selection.^[19]

For the first 100 years under Ecuadorian rule, the islands were used as a penal colony, and as such only a select number of South American convicts inhabited them.^[39] In 1929, a German couple named Friedrich Ritter and Dore Strauch began residing on a part of the archipelago called Floreana Island. Their experiences were published in a German newspaper, and Ritter encouraged more Germans to visit the islands, which led to an increase in European tourism.^[39] The population has been steadily increasing since the 1970s. This has been as a result both of the growth in tourism as well as the opportunities for fishing in the area.^[39] It reportedly increased by 60% between 1999 and 2005.^[39] However, in 1998 steps were taken to try and stop the growth of the population, which have not been entirely effective.^[39] The 25,000 current inhabitants are mostly Ecuadorians, and the racial makeup reflects this, with 76% being Mestizo (half-European/half-Indigenous), and a smaller percentage being purely European.^[40]

Hawaii

Captain James Cook became the first European to set foot on Hawaiian soil in 1778.^[41] Cook returned a year later and was killed in a confrontation with Hawaiians at Kealakekua Bay.^[41] In 1820, the first Christian missionaries arrived, and shortly afterward European traders and whalers came to the islands. They brought with them diseases that devastated the Native Hawaiian population. Hawaiians numbered about 300,000 when Cook arrived; in 1853, the native population was down to 70,000.^[41]

By the 1890s, American colonists controlled Hawaii's sugar-based economy, and they overthrew the kingdom to establish the Republic of Hawaii.^[41] The US officially annexed Hawaii as a territory in 1898.^[41] Hawaiians began using the term Haole to refer to foreigners, and it soon became synonymous with wealthy whites. White skin-color alone did not confer Haole status on new arrivals from Portugal, Spain, or even Germany and Norway. These people were merely immigrants brought to Hawaii as ordinary plantation workers, and only became "Haole" once they had emerged from the unskilled labor category and moved into middle or upper class positions.^[42]

In 1959, the US government organized a vote in Hawaii to determine if the territory should become a state.^[43] The vote passed, and Hawaii became their 50th state.^[43] The legitimacy of this vote is disputed, the ballot contained only two options: for Hawaii to stay a US territory or for Hawaii to become a US state.^[43] Migrants of European origin have remained highly prevalent since 1959, with whites today currently making up nearly 30% of Hawaii's 1.4 million population. By contrast, native Hawaiians made up 97% of the population in 1853.^[44]

Hawaiian culture, and by extension Polynesian culture, began to penetrate the European-dominated mainland of the United States during the 1960s. This was partly due to the rise of Tiki,^[45] as well as Hollywood films.^[46] That decade, it became common for white Californian parents to send their children to Hawaii for the summer.^[47] In the middle part of the 1980s, Honolulu was rocked by the grisly murders of five women (mainly of European origin).^[48] Such types of crime were unheard of in Hawaii at the time.^[49] The serial killer remains unknown, and he has been nicknamed the Honolulu Strangler. Evidence strongly suggests it was the now deceased Howard Gay, a white mainland American.^[48]

Several white figures well-known in the mainland US and abroad have been born in Hawaii. They range from those who left at an early age (Lauren Graham, Timothy Olyphant),^[50]^[51] to those who lived considerable portions of their lives on the islands. Actress Kelly Preston was born in Honolulu in 1962, spending her youth not only in Hawaii, but also in another Oceanian region, Australia.^[52]^[53] She graduated from Honolulu's Punahou School in 1980, forging a successful film career in Los Angeles not long afterwards.^[53] Preston, who has English, Irish, German and Scottish ancestry, claimed in a 2002 interview that she was additionally "about 1⁄32 Hawaiian".^[53]

Juan Fernández Islands

The archipelago was discovered in 1563 by Spanish explorer Juan Fernández.^[54] Like with the Galápagos Islands, also in the far eastern Pacific, there is no evidence of Indigenous American or Polynesian settlement prior. However, there is a relative lack of historical research regarding the area in the Pacific between Easter Island and South America, meaning that an early Polynesian connection cannot be conclusively ruled out for either archipelago.^[55]

Fernández lived on the islands for some years, stocking them with goats and pigs.^[54] After his departure, the Juan Fernández islands were visited only occasionally.^[54] Scottish seaman Alexander Selkirk was stranded there between 1704-1709, and his adventures are believed to have inspired Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe.^[54] The islands were used as shelters by whalers and buccaneers around this time, and then were permanently settled by fishermen and pastoralists by the late 19th century.^[55] Chile had gained possession of the islands earlier that century, and used them as penal colonies on many occasions, particularly for political prisoners.^[54]

Santa Clara Island is currently uninhabited, and most live in the village of Robinson Crusoe, on Bahía Cumberland.^[54] The majority of the archipelago's 900 inhabitants are Europeans descended from the first families.^[56] Analysis of the mitochondrial haplogroups found in the present-day population revealed that 79.1% of islanders carried European haplogroups, compared to 60.0% for the mainland Chileans from Santiago.^[57] The Juan Fernández rock lobster (Jasus frontalis) supports 70% of the economy,^[58] and the inhabitants have long followed rules to protect their lobsters and livelihoods.^[58]

On 27 February 2010, a tsunami struck the islands, following the 8.8 magnitude earthquake off Maule, Chile. There were at least at least 8 deaths.^[59] The only warning the islanders had came from a 12-year-old girl,^[59] who noticed the sudden drawback of the sea that forewarns of the arrival of a tsunami wave, saving many of her neighbours from harm.^[60]

Niue

Niue was originally inhabited by voyagers from eastern Polynesia.^[61] Captain James Cook became the first European to discover it, making three failed attempts to land in 1774.^[62] At first, he and his men made no contact with the natives. Further along the coast, he saw Niueans from a distance, and at a third stop he came ashore and the two groups met.^[62] Fighting ensued, with shooting and spear throwing coming from both.^[62] Cook was eventually chased away, and named it the "Savage Island" when he departed.^[63] It has been claimed that the natives were merely performing a traditional challenge, even though Cook interpreted it as a hostile reception.^[63]

The first European missionaries to arrive on the island were a group from the London Missionary Society on the Messenger of Peace in 1830.^[63] As part of the expedition, The Rev. John Williams took two Niue boys with him to Tahiti, and subsequently sent them back to the island as teachers.^[64] But once they returned, influenza had broken out among the natives, and the two youths were accused of bringing it from Tahiti.^[64]^[65] Following the influenza outbreak, Niue became fearful of outsiders spreading further diseases.^[65]

The British missionaries ultimately failed to convert the Niueans to Christianity.^[63] Niueans didn’t convert to Christianity until 1846 when one of their own people, Nukai Peniamina, returned to the island after getting evangelized in Samoa.^[63] Christanity helped bring an end to internal wars between islanders.^[61]

By the time well-known congregationalist and missionary George Lewis arrived in 1861, almost all of the population of Niue welcomed him as devout Christians.^[63] Only eight Niueans on the island at that point were still non-Christians.^[63]

Niue became a British colony in 1900, and was brought within the boundaries of New Zealand in 1901, along with the Cook Islands.^[63] Niueans and several other native Oceanian ethnicities served alongside European New Zealanders during World War I.^[63] After suffering losses in their Māori Contingent during the 1915 Gallipoli campaign with Australia, New Zealand MP Māui Pōmare led a recruiting mission in Niue and the Cook Islands' Rarotonga.^[66] 148 Niuean men, 4% of the island's population, were soldiers in the New Zealand armed forces from that point on.^[67]^[68] World War II, however, would have no impact on the island.

Niue started seeking self-governance after World War II, but, financial aid and family remittances helped delay this until 1974, when Niue officially became a self-governing state in free association with New Zealand.^[63] Currently, it is estimated that around 194 of the population have European ancestry. This accounts for 12% of Niue's overall population.^[69]

Norfolk Island

Archaeological findings reveal the island was inhabited by Polynesians between the 15th and 16th centuries.^[70] It is unknown why their settlement ended.^[70] In 1774, Captain James Cook became the first European to discover the island while on his second voyage to the South Pacific.^[70] Cook named the Island after the Duchess of Norfolk in England.^[71]

Norfolk was settled by the British in March 1788, merely five weeks after the First Fleet of convicts arrived in Sydney, New South Wales. They viewed the island's pines as being useful for ships masts and the local flax as good for sails.^[70] The island's climate made it ideal for agriculture and farming, and Sydney came to be reliant on Norfolk for food.^[70]

Convicts and free settlers inhabited the island up until 1814, when the island was abandoned due to dangerous landing sites, feelings of isolation, and the growth of the Australian colony in general.^[70] A second convict settlement started in 1825, which saw the island become infamous across the world for the harsh treatment of prisoners.^[70] Convict transportation to New South Wales ceased in the early 1850s and the settlement was mostly abandoned, with only 11 people remaining by 1855.^[70]

On 8 June 1856, Anglo-Tahitians from Pitcairn were relocated to Norfolk due to overpopulation on their islands. They and the remaining 11 from 1855 were the island's main inhabitants from there on. Their mixed race descendants make up a significant number of Norfolk's current 2,000 or so residents.^[70]

Janelle Patton, a 29 year old European Australian woman from Sydney, was violently murdered in Norfolk Island on Easter Sunday, 2002. The murder happened while Patton was on a morning walk, with the killer incurring 64 stab wounds.^[72]^[73] Her case attracted significant media attention in Australia and New Zealand, partly because she was the first person to be murdered on the island since 1893 (others claimed it was the first murder in Norfolk's history).^[72]^[74]^[75] In 2006, European New Zealander chef Glenn Peter Charles McNeill was arrested for her murder near the city of Nelson, on the South Island of New Zealand, after being identified by an Australian Federal Police investigation.^[76]

Pitcairn Islands

The highly remote islands were discovered in 1767 by the British, and remained uninhabited until 1790, when they were settled by mutineers from HMS Bounty.^[77] The settlers were led by the British-born Fletcher Christian. He sailed to the islands with eight of his own men, six Tahitian men and 12 Tahitian women, whom he had met in present-day French Polynesia. Pitcairn was annexed by Britain in 1838, and by 1856 inhabitants were moved to Norfolk Island because of overpopulation.^[77] Some returned to Pitcairn, and it is their descendants who make up the population of 47.^[77] As a result of the original ethnic makeup of the island, the current inhabitants are racially mixed Anglo-Tahitians (or Euronesians).^[78]^[79] Pitcairn is labelled as a "cultural melting pot", and has strong influences from both Britain and Tahiti.^[80] In 2004, seven citizens of Pitcairn, including three descendants of Fletcher Christian, were brought to trial on the island on 55 counts of sexual abuse with girls.^[78]

In 2021, it was reported that all 47 residents had received COVID-19 vaccinations.^[81]

Relationship with Native Oceanians

Starting in 1863, natives from Vanuatu, the Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea, New Caledonia, Fiji, Kiribati and Tuvalu were recruited by European Australians to form a labor force, for the sugar industry in Queensland and other industries. The thought at the time was that whites could not labor properly in the tropics of far north Queensland.^[82] It has been established a proportion of these individuals were kidnapped/coerced by Australians, as was the case with Oceanian German colonists and Guatemalan/Mexican coffee plantation recruiters in the 19th century.^[83]^[84] This period in Australia's history causes debate, since a significant number of islanders are known to have come at their own free will.^[85]^[84] Kidnapping-type scenarios occurred most frequently in the Solomon Islands according to author Clive Moore. In his 1985 book, Kanaka – A History of Melanesian Mackay, Moore wrote, "the [Solomon] Islanders often thought the men on the big ships wanted to barter ... but when they tried to trade ... their canoes were smashed and they were forced on board."^[86]

Many of the islanders faced harsh working conditions and separation from their cultures.^[84] Two groups of Australians who were against these practices were missionaries and labor unions,^[85] while a faction within the media and government also expressed concern.^[87]^[88] The labor unions opposed the presence of the islanders since they believed that white laborers were losing work opportunities, and that wages were being maintained at artificially low levels.^[85] It has been claimed that early on their conditions were as close to slavery as the laws of the era would allow, but in the late 1860s, official contracts became commonplace.^[82] Towards the end of the 19th century, communities had been formed, and certain people were able to take control of their working lives, running their own farms.^[85] Their overall outcome contrasted those of the Kiribatians taken to work on coffee plantations in Guatemala and Mexico. Only 250 of the 1,200 working in Central America ended up surviving.^[83]

Following its independence from Britain in 1901, the Australian government passed the Immigration Restriction Act and Pacific Island Labourers Act, which is considered to be part of the wider White Australia policy. The act ordered the deportation of the workers to their home islands.^[85] They lobbied against deportation, arguing they had married local residents, had children at school, owned farms and were practicing Christianity.^[85] Deportations began in 1904 with approximately 7,000 being forced to leave.^[85] Following strong lobbying, exemptions were made for 1,200 individuals, primarily land owners and/or husbands of Australian women.^[89] The islanders who avoided deportation did not face the same level of discrimination from Australians as Aboriginals did. The main restriction put upon them was the Liquor Act 1912, which prohibited the supply of alcohol.^[82]

European Australians are also documented as having visited areas in Micronesia other than Kiribati during the late 19th century, due to the copra trade which had begun to flourish in the 1870s.^[28] Andrew Farrell, an Australian trader visiting Micronesia, recounted in his journals, "In return for copra, islanders first demanded tobacco, and it had to be the best. Scores of other articles were in demand, like cloths, axes and knives, hand sowing machines, scissors, needles and thread, mirrors and cones, hooks and line, pots and pans, mouth organs, rice, hard biscuits, beads, perfume and, in the Gilberts and Marshalls, rifles, flintlock muskets, revolvers, powder and shot."^[28]

Scholarly work and aid

From the 1950s onward, Europeans living in Australia have made an effort to try to understand the often obscure histories of the islands around them.^[90] The historian Jim Davidson was simultaneously foundation professor of Pacific history at the Australian National University, author of Samoa mo Samoa [Samoa for the Samoans] (1967) and advisor in the drafting of constitutions for the newly independent Cook Islands, Nauru, Micronesia and Papua New Guinea.^[91] Under his watch, the Journal of Pacific History commenced publication in 1966, which some believe announced Australia as the major center for scholarship on the Pacific/Oceania.^[91] At the Australian National University in 1960, the art historian Bernard Smith wrote European Vision and the South Pacific 1768-1850, A study in the history of art and ideas, while Australian geographer Oskar Spate wrote an authoritative three-volume history of the Pacific, published between 1979 and 1988.^[91] In 1980, former Australian National University student Greg Dening, who later taught in Melbourne, revised his Harvard doctoral dissertation as Islands and Beaches, which was an anthropologically-based history of the Pacific.^[91]

Australia are currently the biggest donors of aid to the Oceania region.^[92] The next biggest donors, New Zealand and China, were reported as having only donated one sixth of Australia's aid up until 2017.^[93] Additionally, Australia and New Zealand are the region's primary trading partners.^[94]^[95] New Zealand in particular has substantial trade with Samoa and Tonga.^[96] Australia is the main development partner of the Solomon Islands, providing $187 million of Official Development Assistance (ODA) in 2018-19.^[93] During that same timeframe, Australia provided $572.2 million to Papua New Guinea, as well as pledging around $5–60 million to most other countries in the region.^[93]

In 2012, the Australian government launched a $320 million program titled Pacific Women Shaping Pacific Development, to improve the political, economic and social opportunities of women in all regions of the Pacific.^[97] The program was conceived to last up until 2022.^[97] Between 2012 and 2016, the Australian government also claims to have educated 8,500 school children in the Federated States of Micronesia and the Marshall Islands about climate change mitigation and disaster risk management.^[98]

Francis X. Hezel, a European American priest who moved to Micronesia in 1963, is well-known in the area for his scholarly and educational work.^[99]^[100] The Micronesian Seminar, known as MicSem, was founded by Hezel in 1972. It is a private non profit, non governmental organization that engages in public education, with a purpose to assist the people of Micronesia in reflecting on life in their islands under the impact of change in recent years.^[101] Hezel has also written several books related to Micronesia.^[102]^[99]

Racial mixing

In Australia, New Zealand and Hawaii, mixing between Europeans and native ethnicities is common, with many having mixed race backgrounds.^[103]^[104]^[105] The history of European New Zealanders mixing with native Maoris dates back to before 1840, when the Treaty of Waitangi was signed to give Maori's equal rights. Pākehā (European) whalers, sealers and traders established liaisons with Maori women, resulting in mixed race children very early on in New Zealand's colonial history.^[104] In Australia, there is a misconception that most mixed Aboriginal individuals were the result of mass rapes.^[105]

Sports

Early European Australians are credited with pioneering the sport known as Australian rules football, which may have been influenced by the Aboriginal sport of Marn Grook.^[106] They have successfully exported the sport to Oceanian countries which do not have a significant European population, such as Papua New Guinea and Nauru.^[107] When continental Europeans began arriving in large numbers during the 20th century, they formed Association football clubs (termed soccer clubs due to the prevalence of Australian rules and rugby). Examples of such clubs include Melbourne Knights (formed by Croatian immigrants), Marconi Stallions (formed by Italian immigrants) and Sydney Olympic (formed by Greek immigrants). They were all replaced at the top level with new clubs in 2005, due to fears that their ethnic-based identities were discriminatory.^[108] Many continental European Australians from the second generation onward have also since taken to Australian rules or rugby league.

Current European population in Oceania

The total population of people that have European ancestry in Oceania is over 26,000,000, with the inclusion of the population of Hawaii and the exclusion of Indonesia.

Coral Sea Islands - 100% of the population. There are only 4 inhabitants in total, all meteorologists working at a station on Willis Island.^[109] They are of European Australian origin.^[110]
Juan Fernández Islands – Most of the 900 inhabitants on the Islands are of European descent (including Spanish, British, German and other European ethnicities). However, the exact figures are not available.^[111]
Pitcairn Islands - Nearly all of the population of 47 have some form of European ancestry, they are Euronesian (Polynesian and European), with ancestry from Britain and Tahiti. Exact figures are not available.
Norfolk Island – About 50% British-Polynesian from Pitcairn Island (1,070 people) and 50% British ancestry mainly via Australia (1,070 people).
Australia (European Australian) – 85% of the population or roughly 21,800,000 based on the 2016 census.^[1]
Galápagos Islands – 85% of the population or roughly 21,000 have some form of European ancestry, 76% are mixed European Mestizos, while 9% are solely European.^[40]
New Zealand (New Zealand European) – 71.76% of the population or 3,372,708 people based on the 2018 census.^[112]
Easter Island - Based on the 2002 census, 39% of the population or 1,478 have some form of European ancestry, they are either mixed Rapa Nui-European, mixed European Mestizo or solely European.^[27] The population of Easter Island had increased from 3,791 in 2002 to 7,750 in 2017, as such these figures may not be necessarily accurate today.
New Caledonia (Caldoche) – 27.1% of the population or about 71,700; the territory is part of France.^[113]
Christmas Island^{[note 1]} – About 25% (460) of the population had European ancestry in 2016 (generic European Australian ancestry, as well as immediate English and Irish ancestry). 48% (884) of the population were listed as having undetermined ancestry in the census, meaning the figure for Europeans may not be accurate.^[114]
Hawaii – 24.1% of the population (2010 U.S. Census)^[115]
Cocos (Keeling) Islands^{[note 1]} – An estimated 100 ethnic Europeans live on the West Island. They make up 18.38% of the total population.
French Polynesia – 10% of the population (mostly French) or 26,700, and 6-8% are Euronesian (Polynesian and European ancestry).^[4]
Northern Mariana Islands – Figures regarding Europeans living in the Northern Mariana Islands are not kept track of. A combined total of 15.2% (8,203) are listed as either "Other" or multiple races in the 2010 census, these individuals could be interpreted as being European and mixed European.^[116]
Niue – About 12% (194) of the population have European ancestry. This figure also includes Asian residents, meaning it may be slightly inaccurate.^[69]
Cook Islands – Figures regarding Europeans living in the Cook Islands are not kept track of. A combined total of 11.9% (2,117) of the population are listed as "Other" in the 2011 census, which could be interpreted as encompassing Europeans.
Fiji – Figures regarding Europeans living in Fiji are not kept track of. 10.9% (55,790) of the population are listed as "Other" in the 2012 census, which could be interpreted as encompassing Europeans.^[117]
Federated States of Micronesia – Figures regarding Europeans living in FS Micronesia are not kept track of. 8.9% (9,116) of the population are listed as "Other" in the 2020 census, which could be interpreted as encompassing Europeans.^[118]
Samoa – 7.4% (14,493) of the population have some form of European ancestry, 7% are Euronesian (Polynesian and European ancestry) and 0.4% are solely European.^[119]
Tokelau – Figures regarding Europeans living in Tokelau are not kept track of. A combined total of 6.4% (105) are listed as either "Other" or "Unspecified" in the 2019 census, these individuals could be interpreted as being European or mixed European.^[120]
American Samoa – Figures regarding Europeans living in American Samoa are not kept track of. A combined total of 3.9% (2,627) are listed as either "Other" or "Mixed" in the 2010 census, these individuals could be interpreted as being European or mixed European.
Tonga – Figures regarding Europeans living in Tonga are not kept track of. A combined total of 3.1% (3,135) are listed as either "part-Tongan", "Other" or "Unspecified" in the 2016 census, these individuals could be interpreted as being European and mixed European.^[121]
Nauru – Figures regarding Europeans living in Nauru are not kept track of. 3.1% (288) of the population are listed as "Other" in the 2011 census, which could be interpreted as encompassing Europeans.^[122]
Guam – 2% of the population have Spanish and European British ancestry (2000 Census) or about 1,800 people. Guam has a history of Spanish settlement before 1900 and is now under US rule.^[123]
Marshall Islands – Figures regarding Europeans living in the Marshall Islands are not kept track of.^[124] 2% (1,063) of the population are listed as "Other" in the 2006 census, which could be interpreted as encompassing Europeans.
Kiribati – Figures regarding Europeans living in Kiribati are not kept track of. 1.8% (1,982) of the population are listed as "Other" in the 2015 census, which could be interpreted as encompassing Europeans.^[125]
Palau – 1.2% or roughly 233 of the population are listed as White (European) in the 2020 census.
Indonesia^{[note 2]} – 0.33% or roughly 900,000 of the population are Indo (mixed Europeans with Dutch and Native Indonesian ancestry). Figures regarding people with solely European ancestry are not available.
Solomon Islands – Figures regarding Europeans living in the Solomon Islands are not kept track of. 0.3% (2,055) of the population are listed as "Other" in the 2009 census, which could be interpreted as encompassing Europeans.^[126]
Papua New Guinea – The country has a population of 7,275,324 as of 2017. Figures regarding race are not available.
Wallis and Futuna – Among the 11,558 residents, there is a small minority who were born in Metropolitan France or are of French descent. However, the exact figures are not known.
Midway Atoll – The islands have a population of approximately 39 as of 2019. It is known that none of these individuals are Native Hawaiians, although there is no further information available.^[127] These are the only islands in the Hawaiian Archipelago that are not part of the state of Hawaii.^[128]
Bonin Islands – Virtually all of the Bonin Islands' 2,440 inhabitants are Japanese citizens. This includes a proportion with ancestors from the United States and Europe. No exact figures are available.^[129]
Volcano Islands – There are 380 inhabitants on the Islands. Figures regarding race are not available.
Minami-Tori-shima – 0% of the population. There are no human inhabitants on the Island.^[130]
Tuvalu – The census lists Tuvalu as being 96% Polynesian and 4% Micronesian. There is no "Other" category on the census, as such it could be interpreted that the country does not have residents of European origin.^[131]
Baker Island – 0% of the population. There are no human inhabitants on the island.^[132]
Howland Island – 0% of the population. There are no human inhabitants on the island. The island is considered uninhabitable, although there are indications of early visitors, most likely native Oceanians drifting from windward islands.^[133]
Jarvis Island – 0% of the population. There are no human inhabitants on the island.^[134]
Johnston Atoll – 0% of the population. There are no human inhabitants on the island.^[135] It is closed to public entry, and limited access for management needs is only granted by Letter of Authorization from the United States Air Force and a Special Use Permit from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
Kingman Reef – 0% of the population. There are no human inhabitants on the island.^[136]
Wake Island – 0% of the population. There are no human inhabitants on the island.^[127] It is one of the most isolated islands in the world, and access is restricted by the United States government. The nearest inhabited island is Utirik Atoll in the Marshall Islands, 592 miles (953 kilometers) to the southeast.^[127]
Ashmore and Cartier Islands – 0% of the population. There are no human inhabitants on the islands.^[137]
Macquarie Island – 0% of the population. There are no human inhabitants on the island. and it can only be reached via an expedition cruise from the Australian city of Hobart.^[138] While there were no people living on the island when Australian sealer Frederick Hasselborough discovered it in 1810, it is thought that Polynesians may have possibly inhabited it in the past.^[36]^[139]
Clipperton Island – 0% of the population. There have been no human inhabitants on the island since 1945.^[140]

The dominant European group of Australia are referred to as Anglo-Celtic Australians (although this does not include non-British Europeans); the proper term for Australians of European ancestry is European Australian. In New Zealand, the census gathers information on ethnicity, not ancestry. It shows the majority of the New Zealand population identify as New Zealand European. The term Pākehā used in some previous Censuses has a similar meaning.^{[citation needed]}

Notes

^ ^a ^b Australian external territory; often considered a part of Asia due to geographic proximity.
^ Transcontinental country.

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@@ Line 30: / Line 30: @@
 In 1708, sailors from the French ships ''Princess'' and ''Découverte'' reached the atoll and named it ''Ile de la Passion'', annexing it for France.<ref name="clipglob"/> The first scientific expedition took place in 1725 by [[French people|Frenchman]] M.Bocage, who lived on the atoll for several months.<ref name="clipglob"/> The exploitation of the [[Guano]] in the Pacific during the 19th century revived interest in the atoll, after many years of no human inhabitation.<ref name="clipglo">{{cite web |title=Oceania Military Guide |url=https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/oceania/index.html |website=GlobalSecurity.org |access-date=6 January 2022}}</ref> American Guano Mining Company claimed it under the [[Guano Islands Act]] of 1856; [[Mexico]] also claimed it due to activities undertaken there as early as 1848–1849. On 17&nbsp;November 1858 Emperor [[Napoleon III of France|Napoleon&nbsp;III]] annexed it as part of the French colony of [[Tahiti]]. This did not settle the ownership question. Mexico reasserted its claim late in the 19th century and established a military outpost on Clipperton in 1897.<ref name="clipglob"/>
 [[File:SobrevivientesClipperton.jpg|thumb|Survivors from Clipperton Island, 1917.]]
-In 1906, The British Pacific Island Company acquired the rights to guano deposits in 1906 and began working in conjunction with the Mexican government to establish a colony. A [[lighthouse]] was erected, and by 1914 approximately 100 settlers were living there.<ref name="atlasob">https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/clipperton-island</ref> These people were [[Mexicans]] of European or Mixed European descent.<ref name="ibi">{{cite web|url=https://www.ibiblio.org/lighthouse/clp.htm |title=Lighthouses of Clipperton Island |publisher=Ibiblio.org |date= |accessdate=2022-01-06}}</ref> They were sent supplies every two months via a ship from [[Acapulco]], however, the escalation of fighting in the [[Mexican Revolution]] diverted the suppliers’ attention.<ref name="atlasob"/> The regular resupply visits soon ceased and the inhabitants were left to their own devices.<ref name="atlasob"/> By 1915, the inhabitants were dying, and the survivors wanted to leave on the American war ship ''Lexington'' which had reached the atoll in late 1915. The Mexican government refused, declaring that evacuation was not necessary.<ref name="clipglob"/> Nearly all the men, except for Victoriano Álvarez, died from either malnutrition or failed escape attempts. As the last living male, Álvarez proclaimed himself "king" at some point, and took to enslaving, murdering, and raping the remaining women and children.<ref name="atlasob"/>
+In 1906, The British Pacific Island Company acquired the rights to guano deposits in 1906 and began working in conjunction with the Mexican government to establish a colony. A [[lighthouse]] was erected, and by 1914 approximately 100 settlers were living there.<ref name="atlasob">{{Cite web|url=https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/clipperton-island|title = Clipperton Island}}</ref> These people were [[Mexicans]] of European or Mixed European descent.<ref name="ibi">{{cite web|url=https://www.ibiblio.org/lighthouse/clp.htm |title=Lighthouses of Clipperton Island |publisher=Ibiblio.org |date= |accessdate=2022-01-06}}</ref> They were sent supplies every two months via a ship from [[Acapulco]], however, the escalation of fighting in the [[Mexican Revolution]] diverted the suppliers’ attention.<ref name="atlasob"/> The regular resupply visits soon ceased and the inhabitants were left to their own devices.<ref name="atlasob"/> By 1915, the inhabitants were dying, and the survivors wanted to leave on the American war ship ''Lexington'' which had reached the atoll in late 1915. The Mexican government refused, declaring that evacuation was not necessary.<ref name="clipglob"/> Nearly all the men, except for Victoriano Álvarez, died from either malnutrition or failed escape attempts. As the last living male, Álvarez proclaimed himself "king" at some point, and took to enslaving, murdering, and raping the remaining women and children.<ref name="atlasob"/>
 Álvarez's reign ended when the women successfully managed to kill him.<ref name="atlasob"/> The survivors, consisting of three women and seven children, were rescued from the island by a passing US ship in 1917.<ref name="atlasob"/><ref name="ibi"/>
@@ Line 41: / Line 41: @@
 The first European to land on Easter Island was the Dutch admiral [[Jacob Roggeveen]], who discovered it on [[Easter|Easter Day]], 1722.<ref name="brit"/> Roggeveen and his crew described the natives as worshiping huge standing statues with fires while they prostrated themselves to the rising sun.<ref name="easter">{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Easter-Island/People|title=Easter Island - People &#124; Britannica|website=www.britannica.com}}</ref>
-[[Felipe González de Ahedo|Don Felipe Gonzales]], a Spanish captain, was the next to land at Easter Island in 1770. Gonzales and his men spent four days ashore. In that time they learned that the natives had their own local form of script.<ref name="brit"/> He attempted to claim the island for the [[Charles III of Spain|King of Spain]], and was able to convince the natives to ink a Spanish deed of cession.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Langdon |first1=Robert |last2=Fischer |first2=Steven Roger |title=EASTER ISLAND'S 'DEED OF CESSION' OF 1770 AND THE ORIGIN OF ITS RONGORONGO SCRIPT |journal=The Journal of the Polynesian Society |date=1996 |volume=105 |issue=1 |pages=109–124 |jstor=20706648 |oclc=5544739060 }}</ref> Gonzales estimated a population of some 3,000 persons.<ref name="easter"/>
+[[Felipe González de Ahedo|Don Felipe Gonzales]], a Spanish captain, was the next to land at Easter Island in 1770. Gonzales and his men spent four days ashore. In that time they learned that the natives had their own local form of script.<ref name="brit"/> He attempted to claim the island for the [[Charles III of Spain|King of Spain]], and was able to convince the natives to ink a Spanish deed of cession.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Langdon |first1=Robert |last2=Fischer |first2=Steven Roger |title=Easter Island's 'Deed of Cession' of 1770 and the Origin of ITS Rongorongo Script |journal=The Journal of the Polynesian Society |date=1996 |volume=105 |issue=1 |pages=109–124 |jstor=20706648 |oclc=5544739060 }}</ref> Gonzales estimated a population of some 3,000 persons.<ref name="easter"/>
 A civil war likely occurred between 1770 and the arrival of British navigator Captain [[James Cook]] in 1774.<ref name="brit"/> Cook found a devastated population of only 600 to 700 men, with fewer than 30 women being found.<ref name="brit"/> Cook also observed that the large statues had been overthrown.<ref name="brit"/> In 1786, the French navigator [[Jean-François de Galaup, comte de Lapérouse]] made an unsuccessful effort to introduce domestic animals.<ref name="brit"/> European sailing vessels and [[whaling|whalers]] occasionally visited the island from 1792 onward, and by 1860 the population had returned to 3,000.<ref name="brit"/>
@@ Line 74: / Line 74: @@
 The first two German priests arrived in the Carolines in 1903 to work alongside the remaining Spanish priests. One of the two, Salesius Haas, was assigned to [[Yap State|Yap]] where he taught German to island students.<ref name="2001x"/> A stream of new German missionaries soon flowed into the Carolines and the [[Mariana Islands]], which had also become a German possession.<ref name="2001x"/> Seven priests from [[North Rhine-Westphalia]] arrived in 1904, and an equal number were sent out in 1905 and 1906.<ref name="2001x"/> By 1907, German missionaries no longer worked side by side with the Spanish; they had replaced them entirely.<ref name="2001x"/>
-German efforts to reorganize the traditional social hierarchy and recruit forced labor for construction resulted in a rebellion by inhabitants of [[Sokehs|Sokehs Municipality]] in 1910.<ref name="rebel">{{cite web|author=Peter Sack |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/jso_0300-953x_1997_num_104_1_2011 |title=The ‘Ponape Rebellion’ and the Phantomisation of History - Persée |publisher=Persee.fr |date=2009-10-23 |accessdate=2021-12-31}}</ref> This is known as the [[Sokehs rebellion]] (or the more derogatory 'Ponape rebellion'),<ref name="rebel"/> and is considered a key event in Germany's brief history of colonial rule in the Pacific.<ref name="rebel"/>
+German efforts to reorganize the traditional social hierarchy and recruit forced labor for construction resulted in a rebellion by inhabitants of [[Sokehs|Sokehs Municipality]] in 1910.<ref name="rebel">{{cite journal|author=Peter Sack |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/jso_0300-953x_1997_num_104_1_2011 |title=The 'Ponape Rebellion' and the Phantomisation of History - Persée |journal=Journal de la Société des Océanistes |publisher=Persee.fr |date=2009-10-23 |volume=104 |issue=1 |pages=23–38 |doi=10.3406/jso.1997.2011 |accessdate=2021-12-31}}</ref> This is known as the [[Sokehs rebellion]] (or the more derogatory 'Ponape rebellion'),<ref name="rebel"/> and is considered a key event in Germany's brief history of colonial rule in the Pacific.<ref name="rebel"/>
-Germany lost control of the Carolines to [[Japan]] during [[World War I]]. Japan's own colonization likewise ended with [[World War II]], following their defeat to the [[United States]]. Beginning in 1947, the area became a [[United Nations trust territories|United Nations Trust Territory]], before attaining sovereignty in the 1980s, under the name the Federated States of Micronesia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.doi.gov/oia/islands/fsm |title=Federated States of Micronesia &#124; U.S. Department of the Interior |publisher=Doi.gov |date= |accessdate=2021-12-31}}</ref>
+Germany lost control of the Carolines to [[Japan]] during [[World War I]]. Japan's own colonization likewise ended with [[World War II]], following their defeat to the [[United States]]. Beginning in 1947, the area became a [[United Nations trust territories|United Nations Trust Territory]], before attaining sovereignty in the 1980s, under the name the Federated States of Micronesia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.doi.gov/oia/islands/fsm |title=Federated States of Micronesia &#124; U.S. Department of the Interior |publisher=Doi.gov |date= 11 June 2015|accessdate=2021-12-31}}</ref>
 FS Micronesia has been heavily reliant on aid from the United States since World War II. They entered a [[Compact of Free Association|compact free trade agreement]] in 1986 that gives America full authority and responsibility for the defense of the FSM. The Compact provides U.S. grant funds and federal program assistance to the FSM.<ref name="USDOS">{{cite web|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1839.htm|title=Micronesia, Federated States of|website=U.S. Department of State}}</ref> In addition to American assistance, FS Micronesia also receives a significant amount of aid from Australia.<ref>https://www.lowyinstitute.org/sites/default/files/chinese_aid_in_the_pacific_fsm_snapshot_0.pdf</ref>
@@ Line 86: / Line 86: @@
 ===Hawaii===
-Captain James Cook became the first European to set foot on Hawaiian soil in 1778.<ref name="smith"/> Cook returned a year later and was killed in a confrontation with Hawaiians at [[Kealakekua Bay]].<ref name="smith">{{cite web|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/hawaii-history-and-heritage-4164590/|title=Hawaii - History and Heritage|first=Smithsonian|last=Magazine|website=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> In 1820, the first [[Christians|Christian]] missionaries arrived, and shortly afterward European traders and whalers came to the islands. They brought with them diseases that devastated the [[Native Hawaiians|Native Hawaiian]] population. Hawaiians numbered about 300,000 when Cook arrived; in 1853, the native population was down to 70,000.<ref name="smith"/>
+Captain James Cook became the first European to set foot on Hawaiian soil in 1778.<ref name="smith"/> Cook returned a year later and was killed in a confrontation with Hawaiians at [[Kealakekua Bay]].<ref name="smith">{{cite news|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/hawaii-history-and-heritage-4164590/|title=Hawaii - History and Heritage|first=Smithsonian|last=Magazine|website=Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref> In 1820, the first [[Christians|Christian]] missionaries arrived, and shortly afterward European traders and whalers came to the islands. They brought with them diseases that devastated the [[Native Hawaiians|Native Hawaiian]] population. Hawaiians numbered about 300,000 when Cook arrived; in 1853, the native population was down to 70,000.<ref name="smith"/>
 By the 1890s, [[Americans|American]] colonists controlled Hawaii's sugar-based economy, and they overthrew the kingdom to establish the [[Republic of Hawaii]].<ref name="smith"/> The US officially annexed Hawaii as a territory in 1898.<ref name="smith"/> Hawaiians began using the term [[Haole]] to refer to foreigners, and it soon became synonymous with wealthy whites. White skin-color alone did not confer Haole status on new arrivals from [[Portugal]], Spain, or even Germany and [[Norway]]. These people were merely immigrants brought to Hawaii as ordinary plantation workers, and only became "Haole" once they had emerged from the unskilled labor category and moved into [[middle class|middle]] or [[upper class]] positions.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lind |first1=Andrew W. |title=Hawaii's people |date=1980 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-0704-7 |hdl=10125/39974 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
@@ Line 94: / Line 94: @@
 Hawaii became their 50th state.<ref name="legacyof"/> The legitimacy of this vote is disputed, the ballot contained only two options: for Hawaii to stay a US territory or for Hawaii to become a US state.<ref name="legacyof">https://www.facinghistory.org/sites/default/files/Hawaiis_Legacy_of_Colonialism.pdf</ref> Migrants of European origin have remained highly prevalent since 1959, with whites today currently making up nearly 30% of Hawaii's 1.4 million population. By contrast, native Hawaiians made up 97% of the population in 1853.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/immigration/japanese/hawaii-life-in-a-plantation-society/ |title=Hawaii: Life in a Plantation Society &#124; Japanese &#124; Immigration and Relocation in U.S. History &#124; Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress &#124; Library of Congress |publisher=Loc.gov |date= |accessdate=29 December 2021}}</ref>
-Hawaiian culture, and by extension [[Polynesia]]n  culture, began to penetrate the European-dominated mainland of the [[United States]] during the 1960s. This was partly due to the rise of [[Tiki culture|Tiki]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wallswithstories.com/interior/tiki-culture-popular-in-america-in-the-50s-and-60s-and-inspired-by-maori-and-polynesian-cultures.html|title=Tiki Culture: Popular in America in the 50s and 60s and inspired by Maori and Polynesian cultures|date=10 August 2017}}</ref> as well as [[Hollywood]] films.<ref>https://artshumanitieshawaii.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/Monahan-Megan-2019-AHSE-HUIC.pdf</ref> That decade, it became common for white [[California]]n parents to send their children to Hawaii for the summer.<ref>{{cite news |first=Wanda |last=Adams |date=3 November 1996 |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1996-11-03-tr-60656-story.html |title=Looking for Old Lahaina |work=[[Los Angeles Times]]}}</ref> In the middle part of the 1980s, [[Honolulu]] was rocked by the grisly murders of five women (mainly of European origin).<ref name="stran">{{cite web|url=https://kealakai.byuh.edu/the-tragic-deaths-of-five-women-and-an-escaped-murderer-known-as-the-honolulu-strangler|title=The tragic deaths of five women and an escaped murderer known as the “Honolulu Strangler”|date=22 October 2021|website=BYUH Ke Alaka'i}}</ref> Such types of crime were unheard of in Hawaii at the time.<ref>{{cite web|last=Shute |first=Megan |url=https://www.onlyinyourstate.com/hawaii/honolulu-strangler-mystery-hi/ |title=The Mystery Of Hawaii's Honolulu Strangler Still Baffles People Today |publisher=Onlyinyourstate.com |date=9 September 2017 |accessdate=30 December 2021}}</ref> The serial killer remains unknown, and he has been nicknamed the [[Honolulu Strangler]]. Evidence strongly suggests it was the now deceased Howard Gay, a white mainland American.<ref name="stran"/>
+Hawaiian culture, and by extension [[Polynesia]]n  culture, began to penetrate the European-dominated mainland of the [[United States]] during the 1960s. This was partly due to the rise of [[Tiki culture|Tiki]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wallswithstories.com/interior/tiki-culture-popular-in-america-in-the-50s-and-60s-and-inspired-by-maori-and-polynesian-cultures.html|title=Tiki Culture: Popular in America in the 50s and 60s and inspired by Maori and Polynesian cultures|date=10 August 2017}}</ref> as well as [[Hollywood]] films.<ref>https://artshumanitieshawaii.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/Monahan-Megan-2019-AHSE-HUIC.pdf</ref> That decade, it became common for white [[California]]n parents to send their children to Hawaii for the summer.<ref>{{cite news |first=Wanda |last=Adams |date=3 November 1996 |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1996-11-03-tr-60656-story.html |title=Looking for Old Lahaina |work=[[Los Angeles Times]]}}</ref> In the middle part of the 1980s, [[Honolulu]] was rocked by the grisly murders of five women (mainly of European origin).<ref name="stran">{{cite web|url=https://kealakai.byuh.edu/the-tragic-deaths-of-five-women-and-an-escaped-murderer-known-as-the-honolulu-strangler|title=The tragic deaths of five women and an escaped murderer known as the "Honolulu Strangler"|date=22 October 2021|website=BYUH Ke Alaka'i}}</ref> Such types of crime were unheard of in Hawaii at the time.<ref>{{cite web|last=Shute |first=Megan |url=https://www.onlyinyourstate.com/hawaii/honolulu-strangler-mystery-hi/ |title=The Mystery Of Hawaii's Honolulu Strangler Still Baffles People Today |publisher=Onlyinyourstate.com |date=9 September 2017 |accessdate=30 December 2021}}</ref> The serial killer remains unknown, and he has been nicknamed the [[Honolulu Strangler]]. Evidence strongly suggests it was the now deceased Howard Gay, a white mainland American.<ref name="stran"/>
-Several white figures well-known in the mainland US and abroad have been born in Hawaii. They range from those who left at an early age ([[Lauren Graham]], [[Timothy Olyphant]]),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/gilmore-girl-lauren-graham-on-growing-up-around-the-world-1484065429|title=‘Gilmore Girl’ Lauren Graham on Growing Up Around the World|date=10 January 2017|via=www.wsj.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/facts/Timothy-Olyphant|title=Timothy Olyphant Facts &#124; Britannica|website=www.britannica.com}}</ref> to those who lived considerable portions of their lives on the islands. Actress [[Kelly Preston]] was born in Honolulu in 1962, spending her youth not only in Hawaii, but also in another Oceanian region, Australia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thecourier.com.au/story/6831788/vegemite-among-kelly-prestons-great-loves/|title=Vegemite among Kelly Preston's great loves|first=Peter Mitchell, AAP US|last=Correspondent|date=14 July 2020|website=The Courier}}</ref><ref name="kok">{{cite web|url=https://careerkokua.hawaii.gov/career/article/?id=23 |title=Kelly Preston Hollywood Actor |publisher=Careerkokua.hawaii.gov |date=21 October 2002 |accessdate=29 December 2021}}</ref> She graduated from Honolulu's Punahou School in 1980, forging a successful film career in [[Los Angeles]] not long afterwards.<ref name="kok"/> Preston, who has [[English people|English]], [[Irish people|Irish]], [[Germans|German]] and [[Scottish people|Scottish]] ancestry, claimed in a 2002 interview that she was additionally "about {{frac|1|32}} Hawaiian".<ref name="kok"/>
+Several white figures well-known in the mainland US and abroad have been born in Hawaii. They range from those who left at an early age ([[Lauren Graham]], [[Timothy Olyphant]]),<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/gilmore-girl-lauren-graham-on-growing-up-around-the-world-1484065429|title='Gilmore Girl' Lauren Graham on Growing Up Around the World|newspaper=Wall Street Journal|date=10 January 2017|via=www.wsj.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/facts/Timothy-Olyphant|title=Timothy Olyphant Facts &#124; Britannica|website=www.britannica.com}}</ref> to those who lived considerable portions of their lives on the islands. Actress [[Kelly Preston]] was born in Honolulu in 1962, spending her youth not only in Hawaii, but also in another Oceanian region, Australia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thecourier.com.au/story/6831788/vegemite-among-kelly-prestons-great-loves/|title=Vegemite among Kelly Preston's great loves|first=Peter Mitchell, AAP US|last=Correspondent|date=14 July 2020|website=The Courier}}</ref><ref name="kok">{{cite web|url=https://careerkokua.hawaii.gov/career/article/?id=23 |title=Kelly Preston Hollywood Actor |publisher=Careerkokua.hawaii.gov |date=21 October 2002 |accessdate=29 December 2021}}</ref> She graduated from Honolulu's Punahou School in 1980, forging a successful film career in [[Los Angeles]] not long afterwards.<ref name="kok"/> Preston, who has [[English people|English]], [[Irish people|Irish]], [[Germans|German]] and [[Scottish people|Scottish]] ancestry, claimed in a 2002 interview that she was additionally "about {{frac|1|32}} Hawaiian".<ref name="kok"/>
 ===Juan Fernández Islands===
@@ Line 103: / Line 103: @@
 Fernández lived on the islands for some years, stocking them with goats and pigs.<ref name="britjuan"/> After his departure, the Juan Fernández islands  were visited only occasionally.<ref name="britjuan">{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Juan-Fernandez-Islands|title=Juan Fernández Islands &#124; islands, Chile &#124; Britannica|website=www.britannica.com}}</ref> Scottish seaman [[Alexander Selkirk]] was stranded there between 1704-1709, and his adventures are believed to have inspired [[Daniel Defoe]]'s ''[[Robinson Crusoe]]''.<ref name="britjuan"/> The islands were used as shelters by whalers and buccaneers around this time, and then were permanently settled by fishermen and pastoralists by the late 19th century.<ref name="press"/> Chile had gained possession of the islands earlier that century, and used them as penal colonies on many occasions, particularly for [[political prisoner]]s.<ref name="britjuan"/>
-[[Santa Clara Island]] is currently uninhabited, and most live in the village of Robinson Crusoe, on [[Robinson Crusoe Island|Bahía Cumberland]].<ref name="britjuan"/> The majority of the archipelago's 900 inhabitants are Europeans descended from the first families.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/1843/2016/07/28/off-the-edge-of-the-world|title=Off the edge of the world|date=28 July 2016|via=The Economist}}</ref>  Analysis of the mitochondrial [[haplogroup]]s found in the present-day population revealed that 79.1% of islanders carried European haplogroups, compared to 60.0% for the mainland Chileans from [[Santiago]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fgene.2020.00669/full |title=Frontiers &#124; The Genetic Population Structure of Robinson Crusoe Island, Chile &#124; Genetics |publisher=Frontiersin.org |date= |accessdate=2021-12-31}}</ref> The Juan Fernández rock lobster (''[[Jasus frontalis]]'') supports 70% of the economy,<ref name="oceana"/> and the inhabitants have long followed rules to protect their lobsters and livelihoods.<ref name="oceana">{{cite web|url=https://oceana.org/blog/fishing-forever-lobstermen-behind-chiles-certified-sustainable-fishery/ |title=Fishing Forever: The Lobstermen Behind Chile’s Certified-Sustainable Fishery |publisher=Oceana |date=2016-02-01 |accessdate=2021-12-31}}</ref>
+[[Santa Clara Island]] is currently uninhabited, and most live in the village of Robinson Crusoe, on [[Robinson Crusoe Island|Bahía Cumberland]].<ref name="britjuan"/> The majority of the archipelago's 900 inhabitants are Europeans descended from the first families.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/1843/2016/07/28/off-the-edge-of-the-world|title=Off the edge of the world|date=28 July 2016|via=The Economist}}</ref>  Analysis of the mitochondrial [[haplogroup]]s found in the present-day population revealed that 79.1% of islanders carried European haplogroups, compared to 60.0% for the mainland Chileans from [[Santiago]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=Frontiers &#124; The Genetic Population Structure of Robinson Crusoe Island, Chile &#124; Genetics |year=2020 |publisher=Frontiersin.org |doi=10.3389/fgene.2020.00669 |pmid=32676101 |doi-access=free |last1=Mountford |first1=H. S. |last2=Villanueva |first2=P. |last3=Fernández |first3=M. A. |last4=Jara |first4=L. |last5=De Barbieri |first5=Z. |last6=Carvajal-Carmona |first6=L. G. |last7=Cazier |first7=J. B. |last8=Newbury |first8=D. F. |journal=Frontiers in Genetics |volume=11 |page=669 |pmc=7333314 }}</ref> The Juan Fernández rock lobster (''[[Jasus frontalis]]'') supports 70% of the economy,<ref name="oceana"/> and the inhabitants have long followed rules to protect their lobsters and livelihoods.<ref name="oceana">{{cite web|url=https://oceana.org/blog/fishing-forever-lobstermen-behind-chiles-certified-sustainable-fishery/ |title=Fishing Forever: The Lobstermen Behind Chile's Certified-Sustainable Fishery |publisher=Oceana |date=2016-02-01 |accessdate=2021-12-31}}</ref>
 On 27 February 2010, a [[tsunami]] struck the islands, following the [[2010 Chile earthquake|8.8 magnitude earthquake]] off [[Maule, Chile]]. There were at least at least 8 deaths.<ref name="TimeMag">Harrell, Eben (2 March 2010). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110604143303/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1969009,00.html?iid=sphere-inline-bottom "Chile's President: Why Did Tsunami Warnings Fail?"]. ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]''. Retrieved 4 March 2010.</ref> The only warning the islanders had came from a 12-year-old girl,<ref name="TimeMag"/> who noticed the sudden [[Tsunami#Drawback|drawback]] of the sea that forewarns of the arrival of a tsunami wave, saving many of her neighbours from harm.<ref name=bodenham2010>Bodenham, Patrick (9 December 2010). [https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/adrift-on-robinson-crusoe-island-the-forgotten-few-2154919.html "Adrift on Robinson Crusoe Island, the forgotten few"]. ''The Independent''. Retrieved 7 April 2014.</ref>
 ===Niue===
-Niue was originally inhabited by voyagers from eastern Polynesia.<ref name="nzniue">{{cite web|url=https://www.rnz.co.nz/collections/u/new-flags-flying/nff-niue/about-niue |title=Niue - a brief history from 7 - Niue |publisher=RNZ |date= |accessdate=2022-01-05}}</ref> Captain James Cook became the first European to discover it, making three failed attempts to land in 1774.<ref name="tt">{{cite web|url=https://eprints.qut.edu.au/215994/1/poster_profiles_set_TTPF.pdf |title=TTPF_Front_Bit |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2022-01-05}}</ref> At first, he and his men made no contact with the natives. Further along the coast, he saw Niueans from a distance, and at a third stop he came ashore and the two groups met.<ref name="tt"/> Fighting ensued, with shooting and spear throwing coming from both.<ref name="tt"/> Cook was eventually chased away, and named it the "Savage Island" when he departed.<ref name="pocket"/> It has been claimed that the natives were merely performing a traditional challenge, even though Cook interpreted it as a hostile reception.<ref name="pocket">{{cite web|url=https://niuepocketguide.com/a-brief-history-of-niue/ |title=A Brief History of Niue |publisher=Niue Pocket Guide |date= |accessdate=2022-01-05}}</ref>
+Niue was originally inhabited by voyagers from eastern Polynesia.<ref name="nzniue">{{cite web|url=https://www.rnz.co.nz/collections/u/new-flags-flying/nff-niue/about-niue |title=Niue - a brief history from 7 - Niue |publisher=RNZ |date= |accessdate=2022-01-05}}</ref> Captain James Cook became the first European to discover it, making three failed attempts to land in 1774.<ref name="tt">{{cite web|url=https://eprints.qut.edu.au/215994/1/poster_profiles_set_TTPF.pdf |title=TTPF_Front_Bit |date= |accessdate=2022-01-05}}</ref> At first, he and his men made no contact with the natives. Further along the coast, he saw Niueans from a distance, and at a third stop he came ashore and the two groups met.<ref name="tt"/> Fighting ensued, with shooting and spear throwing coming from both.<ref name="tt"/> Cook was eventually chased away, and named it the "Savage Island" when he departed.<ref name="pocket"/> It has been claimed that the natives were merely performing a traditional challenge, even though Cook interpreted it as a hostile reception.<ref name="pocket">{{cite web|url=https://niuepocketguide.com/a-brief-history-of-niue/ |title=A Brief History of Niue |publisher=Niue Pocket Guide |date= 6 February 2021|accessdate=2022-01-05}}</ref>
 The first European missionaries to arrive on the island were a group from the London Missionary Society on the [[Messenger of Peace (missionary ship) |Messenger of Peace]] in 1830.<ref name="pocket"/> As part of the expedition, The Rev. [[John Williams (missionary)|John Williams]] took two Niue boys with him to Tahiti, and subsequently sent them back to the island as teachers.<ref name="niue1901"/> But once they returned, [[influenza]] had broken out among the natives, and the two youths were accused of bringing it from Tahiti.<ref name="niue1901">{{cite web|author=By W.H.S. |url=http://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document//Volume_10_1901/Volume_10%2C_No._3%2C_September_1901/Niue_or_Savage_Island%2C_by_W._H._S.%2C_p_168/p1 |title=Journal of the Polynesian Society: Niue Or Savage Island, By W. H. S., P 168 |publisher=Jps.auckland.ac.nz |date= |accessdate=2022-01-05}}</ref><ref name=Williams1984>{{cite book |last1=Williams |first1=John |title=The Samoan journals of John Williams, 1830 and 1832 |date=1984 |publisher=Australian National University Press |hdl=1885/114743 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Following the influenza outbreak, Niue became fearful of outsiders spreading further diseases.<ref name=Williams1984/>
@@ Line 116: / Line 116: @@
 By the time well-known [[Congregational church|congregationalist]] and missionary [[William George Lawes|George Lewis]] arrived in 1861, almost all of the population of Niue welcomed him as devout Christians.<ref name="pocket"/> Only eight Niueans on the island at that point were still non-Christians.<ref name="pocket"/>
 [[File:Hoisting the Union Jack over Savage Island, 1900.jpg|thumb|left|Hoisting the [[Union Jack]] flag over [[Niue]], 1900.]]
-Niue became a British colony in 1900, and was brought within the boundaries of New Zealand in 1901, along with the [[Cook Islands]].<ref name="pocket"/> Niueans and several other native Oceanian ethnicities served alongside European New Zealanders during World War I.<ref name="pocket"/> After suffering losses in their [[Māori people|Māori]] Contingent during the 1915 [[Gallipoli campaign]] with Australia, New Zealand MP [[Māui Pōmare]] led a recruiting mission in Niue and the Cook Islands' [[Rarotonga]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-04-25/an-pacific-islanders-urged-to-remember-their-veterans/4650344 |title=Pacific Islanders urged to remember their Anzac tradition - ABC News |publisher=Abc.net.au |date= |accessdate=2022-01-05}}</ref> 148 Niuean men, 4% of the island's population, were soldiers in the New Zealand armed forces from that point on.<ref>Pointer, Margaret. ''Tagi tote e loto haaku - My heart is crying a little: Niue Island involvement in the great war, 1914-1918''. Alofi: Government of Niue; Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, 2000, {{ISBN|982-02-0157-8}}</ref><ref>[http://www.stuff.co.nz/stuff/sundaystartimes/auckland/4555646a22402.html "Niuean war heroes marked"], Susana Talagi, ''Western Leader'', May 22, 2008</ref> World War II, however, would have no impact on the island.
+Niue became a British colony in 1900, and was brought within the boundaries of New Zealand in 1901, along with the [[Cook Islands]].<ref name="pocket"/> Niueans and several other native Oceanian ethnicities served alongside European New Zealanders during World War I.<ref name="pocket"/> After suffering losses in their [[Māori people|Māori]] Contingent during the 1915 [[Gallipoli campaign]] with Australia, New Zealand MP [[Māui Pōmare]] led a recruiting mission in Niue and the Cook Islands' [[Rarotonga]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-04-25/an-pacific-islanders-urged-to-remember-their-veterans/4650344 |title=Pacific Islanders urged to remember their Anzac tradition - ABC News |newspaper=ABC News |publisher=Abc.net.au |date= 24 April 2013|accessdate=2022-01-05}}</ref> 148 Niuean men, 4% of the island's population, were soldiers in the New Zealand armed forces from that point on.<ref>Pointer, Margaret. ''Tagi tote e loto haaku - My heart is crying a little: Niue Island involvement in the great war, 1914-1918''. Alofi: Government of Niue; Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, 2000, {{ISBN|982-02-0157-8}}</ref><ref>[http://www.stuff.co.nz/stuff/sundaystartimes/auckland/4555646a22402.html "Niuean war heroes marked"], Susana Talagi, ''Western Leader'', May 22, 2008</ref> World War II, however, would have no impact on the island.
-Niue started seeking self-governance after World War II, but, financial aid and family remittances helped delay this until 1974, when Niue officially became a self-governing state in free association with New Zealand.<ref name="pocket"/> Currently, it is estimated that around 194 of the population have European ancestry. This accounts for 12% of Niue's overall population.<ref name="autogenerated114">{{cite journal |last1=Tarantola |first1=Arnaud |last2=Horwood |first2=Paul F. |last3=Goarant |first3=Cyrille |last4=Buffière |first4=Bertrand |last5=Bertrand |first5=Solène |last6=Merilles |first6=Onofre Edwin A. |last7=Pedron |first7=Thierry |last8=Klement-Frutos |first8=Elise |last9=Sansonetti |first9=Philippe |last10=Quintana-Murci |first10=Lluis |last11=Richard |first11=Vincent |title=Counting Oceanians of Non-European, Non-Asian Descent (ONENA) in the South Pacific to Make Them Count in Global Health |journal=Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease |date=9 August 2019 |volume=4 |issue=3 |page=114 |doi=10.3390/tropicalmed4030114 |pmc=6789437 }}</ref>
+Niue started seeking self-governance after World War II, but, financial aid and family remittances helped delay this until 1974, when Niue officially became a self-governing state in free association with New Zealand.<ref name="pocket"/> Currently, it is estimated that around 194 of the population have European ancestry. This accounts for 12% of Niue's overall population.<ref name="autogenerated114">{{cite journal |last1=Tarantola |first1=Arnaud |last2=Horwood |first2=Paul F. |last3=Goarant |first3=Cyrille |last4=Buffière |first4=Bertrand |last5=Bertrand |first5=Solène |last6=Merilles |first6=Onofre Edwin A. |last7=Pedron |first7=Thierry |last8=Klement-Frutos |first8=Elise |last9=Sansonetti |first9=Philippe |last10=Quintana-Murci |first10=Lluis |last11=Richard |first11=Vincent |title=Counting Oceanians of Non-European, Non-Asian Descent (ONENA) in the South Pacific to Make Them Count in Global Health |journal=Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease |date=9 August 2019 |volume=4 |issue=3 |page=114 |doi=10.3390/tropicalmed4030114 |pmid=31405081 |pmc=6789437 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
 ===Norfolk Island===
@@ Line 153: / Line 153: @@
 In 2012, the Australian government launched a $320 million program titled ''Pacific Women Shaping Pacific Development'', to improve the political, economic and social opportunities of women in all regions of the Pacific.<ref name="pacificwomen">https://pacificwomen.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/RMI-Brief_Snapshot-of-highlights_Aug-2020.pdf</ref> The program was conceived to last up until 2022.<ref name="pacificwomen"/> Between 2012 and 2016, the Australian government also claims to have educated 8,500 school children in the [[Federated States of Micronesia]] and the [[Marshall Islands]] about [[climate change]] mitigation and disaster risk management.<ref name="FSaid">{{cite web|url=https://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/federated-states-of-micronesia/stepping-up-in-the-federated-states-of-micronesia|title=Stepping-up in the Federated States of Micronesia|website=Australian Government Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade}}</ref>
-Francis X. Hezel, a [[European Americans|European American]] priest who moved to Micronesia in 1963, is well-known in the area for his scholarly and educational work.<ref name="ca"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://micronesianseminar.org/who-we-are-team/francis-x-hezel-sj/|title=Francis X. Hezel, SJ – Micronesian Seminar|website=micronesianseminar.org}}</ref> The Micronesian Seminar, known as MicSem, was founded by Hezel in 1972. It is a private non profit, non governmental organization that engages in public education, with a purpose to assist the people of Micronesia in reflecting on life in their islands under the impact of change in recent years.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://micronesianseminar.org/|title=Micronesian Seminar – MicSem|website=micronesianseminar.org}}</ref> Hezel has also written several books related to Micronesia.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://researchprofiles.anu.edu.au/en/publications/book-review-the-new-shape-of-old-island-cultures-a-half-century-o|title=Book Review: The New Shape of Old Island Cultures: A Half Century of Social Change in Micronesia by Francis X. Hezel, S.J., & Jack A. Tobin, Stories from the Marshall Islands: Bwebwenato Jan Aelon Kein|first=Paul|last=D'Arcy|date=27 December 2003|journal=RQF (unknown)|volume=tba|pages=144–146|via=researchprofiles.anu.edu.au}}</ref><ref name="ca">{{cite web|url=https://pacificaffairs.ubc.ca/book-reviews/making-sense-of-micronesia-the-logic-of-pacific-island-culture-by-francis-x-hezel/|title=Making Sense of Micronesia: The Logic of Pacific Island Culture &#124; By Francis X. Hezel|first=Matthew|last=Tsang|date=2 June 2017|website=Pacific Affairs (UBC Journal)}}</ref>
+Francis X. Hezel, a [[European Americans|European American]] priest who moved to Micronesia in 1963, is well-known in the area for his scholarly and educational work.<ref name="ca"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://micronesianseminar.org/who-we-are-team/francis-x-hezel-sj/|title=Francis X. Hezel, SJ – Micronesian Seminar|website=micronesianseminar.org}}</ref> The Micronesian Seminar, known as MicSem, was founded by Hezel in 1972. It is a private non profit, non governmental organization that engages in public education, with a purpose to assist the people of Micronesia in reflecting on life in their islands under the impact of change in recent years.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://micronesianseminar.org/|title=Micronesian Seminar – MicSem|website=micronesianseminar.org}}</ref> Hezel has also written several books related to Micronesia.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://researchprofiles.anu.edu.au/en/publications/book-review-the-new-shape-of-old-island-cultures-a-half-century-o|title=Book Review: The New Shape of Old Island Cultures: A Half Century of Social Change in Micronesia by Francis X. Hezel, S.J., & Jack A. Tobin, Stories from the Marshall Islands: Bwebwenato Jan Aelon Kein|first=Paul|last=D'Arcy|date=27 December 2003|journal=RQF (Unknown)|volume=tba|pages=144–146|via=researchprofiles.anu.edu.au}}</ref><ref name="ca">{{cite web|url=https://pacificaffairs.ubc.ca/book-reviews/making-sense-of-micronesia-the-logic-of-pacific-island-culture-by-francis-x-hezel/|title=Making Sense of Micronesia: The Logic of Pacific Island Culture &#124; By Francis X. Hezel|first=Matthew|last=Tsang|date=2 June 2017|website=Pacific Affairs (UBC Journal)}}</ref>
 ===Racial mixing===
@@ Line 209: / Line 209: @@
 * {{flag|Wake Island}} – 0% of the population. There are no human inhabitants on the island.<ref name="wherewake"/> It is one of the most isolated islands in the world, and access is restricted by the [[United States]] government. The nearest inhabited island is [[Utirik Atoll]] in the Marshall Islands, 592 miles (953 kilometers) to the southeast.<ref name="wherewake"/>
 * {{flag|Ashmore and Cartier Islands}} – 0% of the population. There are no human inhabitants on the islands.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Ashmore-and-Cartier-Islands|title=Ashmore and Cartier Islands &#124; islands, Indian Ocean &#124; Britannica|website=www.britannica.com}}</ref>
-* {{flag|Macquarie Island}} – 0% of the population. There are no human inhabitants on the island. and it can only be reached via an expedition cruise from the Australian city of [[Hobart]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/oceania/australia/galleries/best-islands-in-australia/macquarie-island/ |title=Macquarie Island &#124; Australia's best & most beautiful islands - Travel |publisher=Telegraph.co.uk |date= |accessdate=29 December 2021}}</ref> While there were no people living on the island when Australian sealer [[Frederick Hasselborough]] discovered it in 1810, it is thought that Polynesians may have possibly inhabited it in the past.<ref name="fr">{{cite web|url=https://horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-doc/pleins_textes/divers19-08/010044590.pdf |title=Island locations and classifications |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=29 December 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/history/stations/macquarie-island/ |title=Macquarie Island station: a brief history – Australian Antarctic Program |publisher=Antarctica.gov.au |date= |accessdate=29 December 2021}}</ref>
+* {{flag|Macquarie Island}} – 0% of the population. There are no human inhabitants on the island. and it can only be reached via an expedition cruise from the Australian city of [[Hobart]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/oceania/australia/galleries/best-islands-in-australia/macquarie-island/ |title=Macquarie Island &#124; Australia's best & most beautiful islands - Travel |publisher=Telegraph.co.uk |date= |accessdate=29 December 2021}}</ref> While there were no people living on the island when Australian sealer [[Frederick Hasselborough]] discovered it in 1810, it is thought that Polynesians may have possibly inhabited it in the past.<ref name="fr">{{cite web|url=https://horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-doc/pleins_textes/divers19-08/010044590.pdf |title=Island locations and classifications |date= |accessdate=29 December 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/history/stations/macquarie-island/ |title=Macquarie Island station: a brief history – Australian Antarctic Program |publisher=Antarctica.gov.au |date= |accessdate=29 December 2021}}</ref>
 * {{flag|Clipperton Island}} – 0% of the population. There have been no human inhabitants on the island since 1945.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.calibremagazine.com/story/to-conserve-and-to-protect/|title=To Conserve And To Protect |work=Calibre |date=2 August 2018}}</ref>

v t e Ethnicity
Concepts	Clan Ethnic group Ethnographic group Ethnolinguistic group Ethnonational group Ethnoreligious group Ethnographic realism Hyphenated ethnicity Indigenous peoples In-group and out-groups Meta-ethnicity Metroethnicity Minority group Influence Monoethnicity Nation Nationality Panethnicity Polyethnicity Population Race Supraethnicity Symbolic ethnicity Tribe
Ethnology	Anthropology Ethnic studies Ethnoarchaeology Ethnobiology Ethnobotany Ethnoecology Ethnomycology Ethnozoology Ethnocinema Ethnogeology Ethnography Autoethnography Clinical Critical Institutional Netnography Online Person-centered Salvage Transidioethnography Video Ethnohistory Ethnolinguistics Ethnology Ethnomathematics Ethnostatistics Ethnomedicine Ethnomethodology Ethnomuseology Ethnomusicology Ethnophilosophy Ethnopoetics Ethnopsychopharmacology Ethnoscience Ethnosemiotics Ethnotaxonomy
Groups by region	World Contemporary ethnic groups Countries by ethnic groups Africa Americas Indigenous Canada Greenland Mexico United States Caribbean Central America South America Asia Central Asia East Asia Northern Asia South Asia Southeast Asia West Asia Australia Aboriginal groups Torres Strait Islanders Europe Oceania Indigenous European
Identity and ethnogenesis	Cross-race effect Cultural assimilation Cultural identity Demonym Development Endonym Ethnarch Ethnic flag Ethnic option Ethnic origin Ethnic religion Ethnicity in censuses Ethnofiction Ethnonym Folk religion Historical Imagined community Kinship Legendary progenitor Linguistic homeland Mores Mythomoteur Nation-building Nation state National language National myth Origin myth Pantribal sodality Statistext Tribal name Tribalism Detribalization Neotribalism White ethnic
Multiethnic society	Consociationalism Cultural appropriation Diaspora politics Dominant minority Ethnic democracy Ethnic enclave Ethnic interest group Ethnic majority Ethnic media Ethnic nationalism Ethnic pornography Ethnic theme park Ethnoburb Ethnocracy Ethnographic film Ethnographic village Ethnopluralism Indigenous rights Middleman minority Minority rights Model minority Model minority myth Multinational state
Ideology and ethnic conflict	Allophilia Ethnic bioweapon Ethnic cleansing Ethnic hatred Ethnic joke Ethnic party Ethnic penalty Ethnic slurs Ethnic stereotype Ethnic violence Ethnic riots Ethnocentrism Ethnocide Ethnofuturism Ethnosymbolism Indigenism Indigenization Nativism Separatist movements Xenocentrism Xenophilia Xenophobia
Related	Minzu (anthropology)