Pedro II of Brazil
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| Pedro II | |
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| Pedro II, at age 61, 1887. | |
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| Reign | 7 April 1831 - 15 November 1889 (58 years, 222 days) |
| Coronation | 18 July 1841 |
| Predecessor | Pedro I |
| Heir | Prince Afonso (1845-1847) Prince Pedro (1848-1850) Princess Isabel (1847-1848, 1850-1891) |
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| Pretendence | 15 November 1889 - 5 December 1891 (2 years, 20 days) |
| Successor | Isabel, Princess Imperial |
| Spouse | Teresa of the Two Sicilies |
| Issue | |
| Afonso, Prince Imperial Isabel, Princess Imperial Leopoldina, Princess of Saxe-Coburg-Kohary Pedro, Prince Imperial |
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| Father | Pedro I of Brazil |
| Mother | Maria Leopoldina of Austria |
| Born | December 2, 1825 Palace of São Cristóvão, Rio de Janeiro |
| Died | December 5, 1891 (aged 66) Paris, France |
| Signature |  |
Pedro II (Portuguese pronunciation: [ˈpedɾu seˈɡũdu]; 2 December, 1825 – 5 December, 1891), nicknamed "the Magnanimous"[1][2] was the second and last Emperor of Brazil, having reigned for 58 years.[3] His name in full was Pedro de Alcântara João Carlos Leopoldo Salvador Bibiano Francisco Xavier de Paula Leocádio Miguel Gabriel Rafael Gonzaga. When anglicised, his name would be Peter II, full name Peter of Alcantara John Charles Leopold Salvador Vivian Francis Xavier of Paula Leocadio Michael Gabriel Raphael Gonzaga.
He was born on December 2, 1825, in Rio de Janeiro, the seventh child of Emperor Pedro I of Brazil and Archduchess Maria Leopoldina of Austria. As a member of the Brazilian Royalty, he held the honorific title "Dom"[4] (In English:[5][6] Don)[7]. Emperor Pedro II is usually considered the greatest Brazilian.[8][9][1]
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[edit] Early years
[edit] Prince Imperial
Pedro de Alcântara João Carlos Leopoldo Salvador Bibiano Francisco Xavier de Paula Leocádio Miguel Gabriel Rafael Gonzaga[1][10][11][12] was born after a childbirth that lasted for more than five hours at 2:30 a.m. on 2 December 1825.[13][14][15] His name, as well as his father´s, was a homage to saint Peter of Alcantara.[16][17] At the same day he was presented by Brigadier General Francisco de Lima e Silva, the Empress´ veador (gentleman usher) to members of the Brazilian Government in the Palace of São Cristóvão.[11][13][18] He was only 47 centimeters tall[19] and was considered a fragile and sickly child, having inherited the epilepsy of the Spanish Bourbon.[20][21] He was baptized a few days later, in 9 December[11][19][22] and had his elder sister Maria as his godmother[10] and his own father as godfather.[23]
Pedro I invited Dona Mariana de Verna Magalhães Coutinho (later Countess of Belmonte in 1844) for the position of aia (supervisor) of his son.[24][25] Mariana de Verna was a Portuguese widow, considered a cultured, honored and kind woman.[21][24][26] Pedro II called her “Dadama” as he did not pronounce correctly the word “dame” as a child.[24] However, he would continue calling her that way even as an adult, but by affection as he treated her as his surrogate mother.[10][13][21][24][27]
As the son of Emperor Pedro I, he was a member of the Brazilian branch of the House of Braganza which was, in turn, an illegitimate branch of the Capetian dynasty. He was, therefore, grandson of João VI and nephew of Miguel I.[23][28] His mother was the Archduchess Maria Leopoldina, daughter of Francis II, last Holy Roman Emperor. Through his mother he was a nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte and first cousin of Emperors Napoleon II of France, Franz Joseph I of Austria and Maximilian I of Mexico.[22][28][29][30]
Having been born after the recognition of Brazilian independence (25 November 1825),[31] he was considered a foreigner under Portuguese law.[32] Therefore his elder sister became Queen of Portugal as Maria II after the abdication of Pedro I (also Pedro IV of Portugal) in 28 May 1826.[33][34] However, he was the only legitimate male child of Pedro I to survive childhood and became the heir of the Brazilian crown of his father as Prince Imperial and officially recognized as such in 6 August 1826.[10][24] Empress Leopoldina died in 11 December 1826, days after the stillbirth of a male child[35][36], when Pedro was one year old.[21][30][34] Pedro would not have any memory of his own mother but only what he would be later told about.[21][37]
His father was married two and half years later to Amélie of Leuchtenberg. Prince Pedro spent little time with his stepmother who would definitively leave the country two years later. But it seems that they had had an affectionate relationship[36][38][39] and both would keep contact with each other until her death in 1878.[40] Pedro I abdicated the imperial crown 7 April 1831, after a long conflict with the federalist liberals and opted to go to Portugal to reclaim the crown of his daughter which had been usurped by his brother Miguel I.[41][42] The Prince Imperial Pedro became, thus, "Dom Pedro II, Constitutional Emperor and Perpetual Defender of Brazil".[15][43][44]
[edit] The Regency
[edit] Accession
When the five year old Pedro awoke on 7 April 1831, beside him on the bed lay his father´s imperial crown.[45] Pedro I and his wife[46] had already left Brazilian soil and boarded the British frigate Warspite. Pedro II wrote a letter of farewell to his father aided by Mariana de Verna.[45] On receipt of this, a tearful Pedro I composed a reply, calling the little boy "My beloved son, and my Emperor."[45][47]. His father and step-mother remained on board the Warspite another five days before leaving for Europe, but they did not see the young emperor during that period … or ever again.[48] For the remainder of his life, Pedro I would become distressed with his children's absence and fretted about their futures. Pedro II missed his father and stepmother (who had assumed his mother's role), and this may account for his later lack of any emotional display in public.[46] Three of his sisters stayed behind in Brazil with Pedro II: Januária, Paula and Francisca.
Pedro II was acclaimed as the new Brazilian Emperor on 9 April.[44] Bewildered by his parents' abandonment and frightened by the large crowds and thundering artillery salutes, he wept inconsolably as he was taken, with Mariana de Verna at his side, by carriage up to the City Palace.[45][47] The frightened Emperor Pedro II was displayed along with his sisters at one of the windows of the palace. He stood atop a chair so that he could be seen by and observe the acclamation of the assembled thousands.[45][49] The Brazilians were touched by this "figure of the small orphan who would rule them one day."[50] The entire ordeal, followed by the roar of saluting cannon, was so traumatic for the little emperor that it may account for his noted aversion to pomp as an adult.[51]
His elevation as emperor ushered in a period of crisis, the most troublesome in Brazil's history.[52] As Pedro II could not exert his constitutional prerogatives as Emperor (Executive and Moderating Power) until he reached majority, a regency was created. The first regency consisted of a triumvirate, and one of its members was the same Brigadier General Francisco de Lima e Silva who had presented the infant Pedro to the Government more than five years previously.[41] Disputes between political factions resulted in an unstable, almost anarchical, regency. The Liberals which had ousted Pedro I soon split into two factions: moderate liberals (constitutional monarchists who would later split into the Liberal Party and Conservative Party)[53] and republicans (a small minority, but radical and highly rebellious).[54] There were also the restorationists who had been previously known as Bonifacians.[54]
Several rebellions erupted during the regency.[55] The first were the Rebellion of Santa Rita (1831),[56] the Revolt of the Year of the Smoke (1833)[57] and the Cabanada (or War of the Cabanos, 1832-34)[58][59], which sought the return of Pedro I and which had the support of common people, former slaves, and even slaves.[60][61] The death of Pedro I on 24 September 1834[62] ended their hopes.[53][63] The promulgation of the Additional Act in 1834, an constitutional amendment that gave higher administrative and political provincial decentralization, exacerbated conflicts between political parties, as whichever dominated the provinces would also gain control over the electoral and political system. Those parties which lost elections rebelled and tried to assume power by force.[64] Rebellious factions, however, continued to uphold the throne of Pedro II as a way of giving the appearance of legitimacy to their actions (that is, they were not in revolt against the monarchy per se). The Cabanagem (1835-40),[58] the Sabinada (1837-38)[58] and the Balaiada (1838-41),[58][65] all followed this course, even though some declared the secession of the provinces as independent republics (but only so long as Pedro II was a minor).[66] The exception was the Farroupilha (or War of Tatters, 1835-45), which began as another dispute between political factions in the province of Rio Grande do Sul[64] but quickly evolved into a separatist rebellion financed by the Argentine dictator Don Manuel Rosas.[67] But even in this case, the majority of the province's population, including the largest and most prosperous cities, remained loyal to the Empire.[68]
[edit] Education
Upon leaving the country, Emperor Pedro I selected three people to take charge of his children. The first was his friend José Bonifácio, whom he nominated as guardian,[44][69] a position which was later confirmed by the General Assembly.[44][45] The second was Mariana de Verna, who had occupied the position of aia (supervisor) from the birth of Pedro II.[70] The third person was Rafael, an afro-Brazilian veteran of the Argentina-Brazil War[70][71]. Rafael was an employee in the Palace of São Cristóvão whom Pedro I deeply trusted and asked to look after his son—a charge which he carried out during the rest of his life.[10][71]
José Bonifácio was dismissed from his position in December 1833.[51] His relationship with the liberal-dominated regency became unsustainable[51] due to his leadership of the restorationist faction which desired to recall Pedro I[51][72] and install him as regent until Pedro II attained majority.[73][74] The General Assembly nominated Manuel Inácio de Andrade, Marquis of Itanhaém as his replacement.[62][75][76]
Itanhaém was chosen for the post because he was considered submissive and easily manipulated.[77] The new guardian proved to be a man of mediocre intelligence,[75] though honest.[77] He was wise enough to provide the young Emperor with an extraordinary education. The guardian had a "great influence on the democratic character and thought of Pedro II."[78] The professors who were already teaching Pedro II and his sisters under José Bonifácio were retained by the new guardian.[79] The exception was Friar Pedro de Santa Mariana who was nominated to occupy the place formerly held by Friar Antonio de Arrábida (who had tutored Pedro I as a child).[80][81] General supervision of Pedro II´s education fell to Friar Pedro Mariana, and he took personal charge of his Latin, religion and mathematics studies. He was one of the few people outside his family for whom Pedro II held great affection.[82] Among the precepts which Itanhaém and Friar Pedro Mariana sought to instill in Pedro II were that all human beings should be considered as his equals, that he should seek to be impartial and just, that public servants and ministers of state should be carefully watched, that he should not have favourites, and that his concern should always be for the public welfare.[81] Both had as an objective "to make a human, honest, constitutional, pacifist, tolerant, wise and just monarch. That is, a perfect ruler, dedicated integrally to his obligations, above political passions and private interests."[83]
The education of Pedro II began while he was still heir to throne, and he learned to read and write in Portuguese at age five. His first tutors were Mariana de Verna and Friar Antonio de Arrábida.[84] When he became Emperor he already had several professors. Amongst these were Félix Taunay (father of Alfredo d'Escragnolle Taunay) and Luís Alves de Lima e Silva (son of the regent Francisco de Lima e Silva), who taught French and Fencing respectively, and towards both of whom he developed life-long friendship and admiration.[85][86] Pedro II passed the entire day studying[83] with only two hours reserved for amusements.[50] He would wake up at 6.30 a.m. and begin studies at seven, continuing until 10 p.m., after which he would go to bed.[87] The disciplines were diverse, including everything from languages, history, philosophy, astronomy, physics, geography and music, to hunting, riding and fencing.[50] Great care was taken to guide him away from his father's example in matters related to education, character and personality.[62][88] He would learn throughout his life to speak and write not only his native Portuguese, but also Latin, French, German, English, Italian, Spanish, Greek, Arabic, Hebrew, Sanskrit, Chinese, Occitan, Tupi and Guarani.[89][90][91] His passion for reading allowed him to assimilate any information.[92] Pedro II, was not a genius,[34] although he was intelligent and possessed a facility for accumulating knowledge.[93] As a constitutional monarch, his education was followed closely by the General Assembly, which demanded from Itanhaém progress reports concerning his studies.[78] During this time, Pedro II was kept unaware of events occurring outside the palace, including political matters.[75]
The Emperor experienced an unhappy and solitary childhood.[10][94] He was considered precocious, docile and obedient,[92][95] but frequently cried and often nothing seemed to please him.[94] He "was not raised in luxury and everything was very simple."[96] As they could not accompany him at other times[83], he only had permission to meet with his sisters after lunch,[95] and even then for only one hour.[62] He had few friends of his age, and the only one he retained into adulthood was Luís Pedreira do Couto Ferraz, future Viscount of Bom Retiro.[70][87][95] However, he was treated tenderly by Mariana de Verna and also by Rafael, who played with him by carrying him on his shoulders[70] and who also allowed Pedro II to hide in his room to escape from studies.[10] For the greater part of his time, he was surrounded by servants who only had permission to speak to him when questioned.[62] The environment in which Pedro II was raised turned him into a shy and needy person[78][97] who saw in "books another world where he could isolate and protect himself."[81][98] Behind the "pomp of the monarchy, of the self-sufficient appearance, there may have lived an unhappy man."[97]
[edit] Coronation
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[edit] Consolidation
[edit] Marriage and Family
Pedro II was married on 17 September 1842 to his cousin Princess Teresa of the Two Sicilies (1822–1889), the youngest daughter of his grand-uncle King Francis I of the Two Sicilies (1777–1830) and his grand-aunt Maria Isabella of Spain. Pedro II and Teresa Cristina had four children:
| Name | Portrait | Lifespan | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| By Teresa Cristina of the Two Sicilies (14 March 1822 – 28 December 1889; married in 17 September 1842) | ||||
| Dom Afonso Pedro de Alcântara Cristiano Leopoldo Filipe Eugênio Miguel Gabriel Rafael Gonzaga |  |
23 February 1845 – 11 June 1847 |
was the Prince Imperial of Brazil from 1845 to his death in 1847. He died in childhood. | |
| Dona Isabel Cristina Leopoldina Augusta Micaela Gabriela Rafaela Gonzaga |  |
29 July 1846 – 14 November 1921 |
was the Princess Imperial of Brazil and Comtesse d´Eu due to her marriage to Gaston, comte d'Eu. She had 3 sons from this marriage. She also acted as Regent of the Empire while her father was traveling abroad. | |
| Dona Leopoldina Teresa Francisca Carolina Micaela Gabriela Rafaela Gonzaga |  |
13 July 1847 – 7 February 1871 |
married Prince Ludwig August of Saxe-Coburg-Kohary and had 4 sons from this marriage. | |
| Dom Pedro Afonso Cristiano Leopoldo Eugênio Fernando Vicente Gabriel Rafael Gonzaga |  |
19 July 1848 – 9 January 1850 |
was the Prince Imperial of Brazil from 1848 to his death in 1850. He died in childhood. | |
| Imperial Family of Pedro II of Brazil |
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 Empress Teresa Cristina and her chiildren |
_-_Fam%C3%ADlia_Imperial_do_Brasil,_1860.jpg) Pedro II with his wife and daughters |
 Pedro II with his wife and daughters |
 The Imperial Family in 1875. |
 Pedro II with his daughter and heir. |
 The Imperial Family on an outing in 1887 |
 The Imperial Family departing on vacation to Europe in 1887. |
 The Imperial Family in exile, 1889. |
[edit] Aureliano tutorship
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[edit] Growth
[edit] The Platine War
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[edit] The Conciliation
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[edit] Quasi-war with Great Britain
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[edit] The War of the Triple Alliance
[edit] The number one volunteer
In December 1864 the dictator of Paraguay, Francisco Solano López, ordered the capture of the Brazilian civilian steamship Marquês de Olinda, including its passengers and crew members. Immediately afterward, the Paraguayan army invaded the Brazilian province of Mato Grosso (currently the state of Mato Grosso do Sul) without a declaration of war. Four months later, Paraguayan troops invaded Argentina as a prelude to an attack upon the Brazilian province of Rio Grande do Sul.[99][100][101] News of the Paraguayan invasions was received with surprise both by the Brazilian government and the general population.[101] Brazil had previously discounted the war-making potential of neighboring Paraguay.[101] Pedro II, along with the Brazilian people, was infuriated[102] at attacks, which were seen as unjustified, and believed that it was necessary to punish the Paraguayan dictator.[101] This feeling was strengthened by the Emperor's aversion to the caudillos-dictators who were common elsewhere in Latin America.[101]
Nevertheless, Pedro II tried to pacify the nation in a speech from the throne on 6 May 1865 where he addressed concerns such as public health, the economy, and the marriage of his daughters, and during which he calmly made only brief mentions of the ongoing conflict with Great Britain and the Paraguayan invasion.[103] He was particularly opposed to the involvement of the Empire in the problems of the platine region, as he affirmed in his diary in 1862: "After the war against Rosas, I was always a partisan of the abstention of Brazil in the businesses of the Plata, without harm to the national honor and the Brazilian interests." However, he strongly supported the cabinet in its decision to counterattack.[104]
The invasion of Rio Grande do Sul became known in the capital on 30 June 1865.[105] Aware of the anarchy in the province and the incapacity and incompetence of the military chiefs in resisting the Paraguayan army, Pedro II decided to go to the front in person.[106] He wrote to the Countess of Barral: "Rio Grande do Sul has been invaded, my place is there".[107][108] As Head of State, he intended to assume command of the Brazilian army.[109] Both the Cabinet and the General Assembly refused to accede to the Emperor´s wish.[106][110] The senators and general deputies, using their constitutional prerogatives, refused to grant permission for the travel.[111][112] If something happened to the Emperor, the throne would be inherited by his 18-year old daughter Isabel. The risks to the stability of the country were considered too high at that critical moment.[106] After he also received objections from the Council of State, Pedro II made the memorable pronouncement: "If they can prevent me from going as an Emperor, they can not prevent me from abdicating and going as a Fatherland Volunteer".[106][113][114][115] Thus those Brazilians who signed up to go to war under Decree 3,371 of 7 January 1865[116] became known[110] throughout the nation as the "Fatherland Volunteers." The monarch himself was popularly called the "Number one volunteer."[117][118]
Pedro II left for the south on 7 July 1865[105][119] (other authors affirm that he left on 10 July)[107][120] and was greeted by crowds, along with the national hymn and patriotic celebrations. Accompanying him were his son-in-law the Duke of Saxe, his Aide-de-camp General Francisco Xavier Calmon Cabral da Silva (later the 2nd Baron of Itapagipe), the Vice Admiral William Parker, the Minister of War Ângelo Ferraz, his Aide-de-Camp the Marquis of Caxias, Admiral Joaquim Raimundo de Lamare, General Beaurepaire Rohan, and an escort of 300 soldiers.[107][111][121][122] When embarking, he said: "I am the perpetual defender of Brazil, and when my fellow citizens sacrifice their lives in holocaust upon the altar of the fatherland in defense of such saintly cause, I will not be the one who refuses to follow them."[106]
[edit] Siege of Uruguaiana
Pedro II disembarked in Rio Grande do Sul on 16 July and proceeded from there by land[123][124] with his escort of 300 men.[125] The trip was made by horse and wagon, and at night the emperor slept in a campaign tent.[125] On 1 August at Caçapava he was joined by his other son-in-law, Gaston d´Orléans, the Count of Eu, who had arrived from Europe where he had been spending his honeymoon.[105][107][126] From Caçapava he traveled to São Gabriel,[127] and on 5 September passed through the Campo do Rosário (Field of the Rosary), where 37 years earlier Brazilian troops were defeated by Argentine and Uruguayan forces.[125][128] General Francisco Xavier Calmon, who had participated in the battle and was traveling with the Emperor, related his memories of the event.[128] In São Gabriel the Emperor said farewell to João Propício Mena Barreto, Baron of São Gabriel, former commander-in-chief of the Brazilian Army during the Uruguayan War, who was dying of tuberculosis.[129] He also visited the hospitals and talked with the wounded.[129] Pedro II also had his first contact with the Paraguayans when he talked with three prisoners of war. He spoke in guarani and offered them an opportunity to return to Paraguay. The Paraguayans refused, alleging that they would be put to death by Lopez for having been taken prisoner.[125] These Paraguayan soldiers, who had hated the monarch without ever having met him, began to admire him greatly and called him Murubichab ("Great Chief" in guarani).[129] The Emperor, for his part, felt pity for the Paraguayan people and was convinced that Lopez’s dictatorship was barbarous and must be overthrown at any cost.[130]
After quickly passing Alegrete Pedro II arrived in Uruguaiana on 11 September, where he joined Admiral Joaquim Marques Lisboa (then Baron of Tamandaré), General João Frederico Caldwell, General Manuel Luis Osório (later Marquis of Erval) and Manuel Marques de Sousa (then Baron of Porto Alegre and also commander of the besieging forces).[129][131][132] Uruguaiana had been taken by the Paraguayans under Lieutenant Colonel Antonio de la Cruz Estigarribia with a force of 10,000 men on 5 August 1865.[105] By the time of the Emperor's arrival, Estigarribia's force was reduced to only 5,500 men, while the besieging army composed of Brazilians, Argentines and Uruguayans was 17,000-strong.[133][134] Pedro II also met the Argentine president Bartolomé Mitre and Uruguayan president Venancio Flores, who were commanding the troops of their respective countries.[130][135]
A quarrel developed in the allied camp: Mitre demanded the command of the allied army in accordance with the Treaty of the Triple Alliance. The Brazilian military leaders refused to accept this, since the same treaty affirmed that on Brazilian soil the command would be held by a Brazilian.[136] Pedro II amicably persuaded all to accept his proposal: the allied forces would be divided in three columns, each under the command of a chief of their own nationality, while he would act as a Moderating Power to mediate conflicts between the three commanders, thus becoming de facto and de jure commander of the allied army.[137] The Emperor rode within rifle shot of Uruguaiana to demonstrate his courage, but the Paraguayans did not attack him.[137][138]
The strategies proposed by the commanders conflicted: Osório suggested that they should destroy the village using artillery, since all its (Brazilian) inhabitants had run away before it had fallen to the Paraguayans. Tamandaré and Flores, on the other hand, pushed for an initial bombardment followed by an advance of the allied troops. Pedro II wished to prevent the bloodshed of a battle and called on Estigarribia to surrender.[139] Estigarribia did so[140] on the condition that he would surrender only to the Brazilian Emperor, as he did not trust his fellow republicans from Argentina and Uruguay.[133] The Paraguayan troops paraded in front of the allies[133][140] and the sword of Estigarribia was solemnly delivered by the minister Ferraz to Pedro II.[137] By "his example and his actions he had contributed decisively to the expulsion of the Paraguayan invaders from Brazilian soil."[141] The Paraguayans were malnourished and practically naked.[137] Pedro II did not feel proud of the victory and wrote to the Countess of Barral: "Yesterday we entered into Uruguaiana. The enemy was unworthy even of being defeated. What a rabble!"[137] There was a general belief that the war was near its end and that it was only a matter of time until López surrendered. Because of this, Pedro II decided to return to Rio de Janeiro.[133][142][143] Before leaving Uruguaiana, he received the British ambassador Edward Thornton, who publicly apologized on behalf of Queen Victoria and the British Government for the crisis between the empires.[139][140] The emperor considered that this diplomatic victory over the most powerful nation of the world was sufficient and renewed friendly relations between the nations.[140] He returned to Rio de Janeiro and was received with great joy and celebration everywhere.[144]
[edit] Sacrifice
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[edit] Victory
The war's cost came to R$614,000,000, which was paid as follows: R$265,000,000 from taxes, R$171,000,000 from bond sales, R$102,000,000 in new money issued, R$27,000,000 from internal loans and R$49,000,000 from foreign loans. Thus, only 7.9% of the total war debt was composed of external loans.[145] However, the country was so rich, that the government paid off the war debt in only ten years.[146][147] The conflict "brought about a considerable expansion in Brazil's economy, stimulating new forms of production".[148] After more than five years of war, the emperor seemed to have aged twenty years: his blond hair and beard had become completely grey and at age 44 his face seemed to be of a sexagenarian.[149][150][151][152][153] However, Pedro II whose popularity was shaken by the long conflict, immediately recouped it with the final victory.[154][155][156][157] He also turned down the General Assembly's suggestion to create an equestrian statue of him to commemorate the victory and chose instead to use the money to build elementary schools.[158][159][160]
[edit] Apogee
[edit] Racial thoughts and abolitionism
The end of the War of the Triple Alliance ushered in what is considered the "golden age" and apogee of the Brazilian Empire.[161] In a "general way, the 1870's were prosperous for the nation and its monarch. It was a period of social and political progress where the distribution of national wealth began to benefit a greater part of the population."[162] Brazil's international reputation skyrocketed and, with the exception of the United States, was unequalled by any other American nation.[163] Indeed, the "start of the 1870s brought prosperous times for Brazil. Its economy was booming, and schemes for internal development—railroads, shipping lines, and immigrant colonies—proliferated. With slavery destined for extinction and other reforms projected, the prospects for 'moral and material advances' seemed vast."[164]
Few Brazilians opposed slavery around 1870, and even fewer were openly against it. But among its opponents was Pedro II. He "repudiated the enslaved manpower and he considered it a national shame."[166] The emperor never acquired slaves.[167] The only ones he owned (forty and something) came from an inheritance he received when declared of age in 1840—at which point he immediately set them all free.[168] Around this time he began looking for ways to abolish slavery, even if gradually.[169][170] He affirmed in a letter: "Nobody desires the abolition more strongly than I do."[171] In a private conversation with Louis Agassiz he said: "Slavery is a terrible curse on any nation, and it must, and will, disappear among us [Brazilians]."[172] He was supported by few, among them his sister Dona Francisca and his wife, Teresa Cristina.[173] But "the emperor, who declared several times his intention to assume direction of the abolitionist movement, as expected, took too long to overcome the political obstacles."[174]
Pedro II was not a racist[175] and manifested "great tolerance towards all his subjects, without exception, no matter their color or faith."[176] He also exhibited tolerance towards both Jews (when asked why there were no laws against them in the country, he answered: "I will not attack the Jews, as the God of my religion came from their people")[177] and Muslims (affirming that a sincere reconciliation between the West and the East was necessary).[178] The emperor never adopted ideas, common during the era, espousing racial inequality.[179][180] According to historian Roderick J. Barman:[181]
"During one of his visits to a night school in Rio, the Liceu de Artes e Ofícios, the emperor learned that a freed slave was enrolled, learning how to read, write and do arithmetic. 'When he entered the classroom, he went up to him, clapping him on the shoulder, as a demonstration of his immense satisfaction in seeing the way in which a man of the people was striving to learn how to be useful to the country and his family.' Pedro II’s commendable freedom from racial prejudice meant that he did not perceive skin color as a bar to civilization or citizenship."
The abolition of slavery was a delicate subject in Brazil. Slaves were used by everyone, from the richest to the poorest. They worked as house servants, farmers, miners, prostitutes, and gardeners.[182] Slavery was so widespread in the country that many former slaves owned slaves, and cases of slaves who had their own slaves were common.[183][184] So strongly entrenched was this institution, that none of the rebellions which occurred during the regency in the 1830's advocated ending it. Even the Malê Revolt had as a goal only the release of enslaved Muslims.[185] To oppose slavery was seen as being counter to the national interest. Even so, the emperor did not give up. Pedro II despised slave dealers and refused to grant titles of nobility to any of them, including powerful and influential figures at court.[186][187] He threatened to abdicate if the General Assembly (parliament) did not declare the traffic illegal, which was done in 1850.[188] This was his first open move against slavery.[189]
As one source supplying new slaves had been eliminated, at the beginning of 1860's Pedro II turned his attention to eliminating the remaining source: the enslavement of children born to slaves.[190][191] On his initiative, legislation was drafted by the Marquis of São Vicente.[192] The War of the Triple Alliance, however, delayed discussion of the proposal by the General Assembly.[193][194] Pedro II openly asked for the gradual eradication of slavery in the Speech from the Throne of 1867.[195] He was heavily criticized (including by the republicans),[196] and his move condemned as "national suicide."[197][198][199] The accusation was aired "that abolition was his personal desire and not that of the nation."[200] Eventually, the nomination of the abolitionist[201] and conservative Viscount of Rio Branco as President of the Council of Ministers made possible the passage of the bill, which was enacted as the Law of Free Birth on 28 September 1871, under which all children born of slave women after that date would be considered free.[202][203]
[edit] First trip to Europe
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[edit] Religious thoughts
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[edit] Travel to the United States
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[edit] Second trip to Europe
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[edit] Decline
[edit] Heirless
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[edit] Republicanism
Republicanism as an enduring political movement appeared in Brazil during December 1870 in Rio de Janeiro with the publishing of a manifesto signed by 57 people and with the creation of the Republican Club.[204][205][206] It represented an "insignificant minority of scholars."[207] There was no repudiation of or desire for eliminating slavery in the manifesto.[204] In 1873, the Republican Party of São Paulo was created, and it affirmed that slavery would have to be resolved by the monarchist (Conservative and Liberal) parties. The reason for this was because many of the republicans from São Paulo were themselves slave-owning farmers.[208] The objective of most republicans was to wait until the death of Pedro II and by a plebiscite or other peaceful means, prevent Princess Isabel from ascending the throne.[205][209][210] Republicanism did not envisage any "social readjustment" (such as improving the quality of life for former-slaves), and they "were not revolutionaries in the deep meaning of the word."[211] The republican movement "had a slow and irregular evolution, concentrated in the provinces south of Bahia"—more precisely in the provinces of São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Minas Gerais and Rio Grande do Sul.[208] It was "an extremely small group"[212] with a "precarious organization in the provinces"[213] and no cohesion or connection among themselves.[212] The only republican faction to achieve political clout was the Republican Party of São Paulo, which managed to elect two deputies to the Chamber of Deputies in 1884,[205] though none were elected to the Empire's last legislature in 1889.[213] In the 1880's "it attracted sympathy in lesser numbers than [slavery] abolitionism, and at a slower pace."[214] Its numbers only increased after 1888, adding new adherents consisting of farmers who had been slave owners and who perceived themselves victims of an unjust abolition of slavery that had not included any type of indemnity to them.[214][215][216] Even so, in 1889 the "avowed republicans were probably a small minority"[217] as the "republican ideals, in reality, had never managed to seduce the people. Its dissemination was restricted to the intellectual and military fields."[218]
As "the republicans themselves recognized, the party did not have size, organization and popular support enough to overthrow the monarchy."[209] Republicanism "did not manage, at any moment of its development, to spur the national soul. It never had the stature to provoke a strong enthusiasm or enlist all forces that were divorcing from the throne."[219] Even with radical propaganda and little interference from the authorities, the Republican Party in existence from the beginning of the 1870's was a small one.[217] It praised republics such as the United States, France and Argentina, while conveniently ignoring progressive monarchies such as the United Kingdom and the Scandinavian countries.[220] In 1889, its members were "spokesmen in public squares and writers of periodicals. They were far from having the power to develop a propaganda that could shake the foundations of the throne."[221] In the "political process of the second empire [reign of Pedro II], the republican party had such a dull and secondary role that it might even have been forgotten; it was unable to influence rationales advocating the regime's dissolution."[222] It was the crisis between the military and the Government, "of very diverse origin and evolution" from the republicanism, which was to prove the main factor in the fall of the monarchy.[221]
Pedro II showed no interest in the republican manifesto of 1870.[208] The Marquis of São Vicente, then President of the Council of Ministers, suggested to the Emperor that republicans be forbidden to enter into public service, a practice then common in monarchies. Pedro II answered, "Mr. São Vicente, just let the country govern itself and and allow any who are reasonable."[223] The President reprimanded the monarch, "Your Majesty does not have a right to think in that way. The Monarchy is a constitutional doctrine which Your Majesty swore to maintain; it is not incarnate in the person of Your Majesty." But the Emperor did not care and simply answered: "Well, if the Brazilians do not want me as their Emperor, I shall become a teacher instead!"[224][225]
The Emperor not only always refused to forbid republicans from becoming public servants, but also hired the republican military officer Benjamin Constant as a professor of mathematics to his grandsons.[226] He allowed open republican activities, including newspapers, assemblies, meetings and political parties,[225] and exempted republican deputies elected to the Chamber of Deputies from swearing allegiance to the crown.[227] The freedom of the Press, "one of the foundations of the regime, kept allowing fierce criticisms and vile caricatures opposing the regime and its public personalities."[228] Pedro II was intransigent in his defense of the unrestricted freedom of speech[228] which had existed in Brazil since independence in 1822.[229] He was accused of being excessively tolerant towards the republicans,[226] but "he did not pay attention to several warnings stating that his behavior undermined the political foundation of the monarchy."[226] In 1889, Pedro II said to José Antonio Saraiva that he would not mind if Brazil became a republic.[230][231] The "Emperor's indifference towards the fate of the regime was also one of the main factors in the fall of the Monarchy."[225]
[edit] Military indiscipline
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[edit] Third trip to Europe
The emperor’s health had considerably worsened by 1887 and fever attacks had become common.[232] His personal doctors suggested a trip to Europe for medical treatment.[233][234][235][236] When embarking, he was greeted by a crowd which cried out, "Long live His Majesty the Emperor of Brazil!"[237] He left on 30 June 1887 along with his wife and his grandson Pedro Augusto.[238][239] Once more his daughter Isabel became regent in his place.[240] He remained for a short time in Portugal and traveled on to Paris, where he stayed in the Grand Hotel as usual.[241] There he received Louis Pasteur, Ambroise Thomas, Pierre Émile Levasseur , François Coppée, Alexandre Dumas, fils, Arsène Houssaye, Guerra Junqueiro, and two of Victor Hugo's grandsons, among others.[242] In a conversation with Houssaye the emperor again lamented what he considered a "crown of thorns" he had to bear.[243] Pedro II also saw his old friend Michel Eugène Chevreul, who was by then 102 years old.[244]
The monarch was examined by the French doctors Charles-Édouard Brown-Séquard, Jean-Martin Charcot and Michel Peter who recommended a visit to the spas at Baden-Baden.[245][246] He remained there for two months and met with old acquaintances, including Wilhelm I of Germany and Leopold II of Belgium.[247] He also visited the tomb of his daughter Leopoldina in Coburg.[248] He returned to Paris on 8 October 1887 and met his sisters Januária and Francisca.[249] From there he traveled to Italy where he was invited by the King of Italy to a dinner along with Victoria of the United Kingdom and Natalija Obrenović, Queen of Serbia.[250] In Florence he unveiled the painting Independence or Death by the Brazilian painter Pedro Américo in the presence of the British Queen, the Serbian queen and Charles I, King of Württemberg.[251] In Milan he met with Cesare Cantù.[252] There his health worsened on 3 May 1888, and he passed two weeks between life and death, even being anointed.[253][254][255] The doctor Charcot came from Paris to assist and administered caffeine by intervenous injection, resulting in an improvement in the emperor's health.[256][257] On 22 May he received news that slavery had been abolished in Brazil.[258] Lying in bed with a weak voice and tears in his eyes, he said, "Great people! Great people!"[259][260][261][262]
Pedro II returned to Brazil and disembarked in Rio de Janeiro on 22 August 1888.[263][264] The "whole country welcomed him with an enthusiasm never seen before. From the capital, from the provinces, from everywhere, arrived proofs of affection and veneration. The emotion from those who saw him disembark, frail, thin, with bent body, weak legs, was one most profound."[265] The cadets from the Military College climbed Sugarloaf Mountain and placed a gigantic banner on which was written "Hail."[266][267][268] Such popular enthusiasm directed toward the emperor was not matched even by the celebrations of his majority in 1840, in the Christie Affair of 1864, upon his departure to Rio Grande do Sul in 1865, or even after the victory in the War of the Triple Alliance in 1870.[269][270] "To judge from the general manifestations of affection that the Emperor and the Empress had received on the occasion of their arrival from Europe, in this winter of 1888, no political institution seemed to be so strong as the monarchy in in Brazil."[271] Even former slaves displayed loyalty towards the monarchy and vehemently opposed the republicans, whom they called "the Paulistas."[272] The "monarchy seemed to be at the height of its popularity."[273] Pedro II had reached the pinnacle of his prestige among Brazilians.[274][275]
The end of slavery resulted in explicit support of republicanism by the rich and powerful coffee farmers, who held political, economic and social power in the country.[276][277] Although there was no desire in Brazil among the majority of the population to change the form of government,[278] republicans began pressuring the Army and its main leader, Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca, to overthow the monarchy.[279]
[edit] Fall
On 9 November 1889, a large number of officers gathered in the Military Club and decided to stage a coup d’etat aimed at the overthrow of the monarchy.[280] Two days later in the house of Rui Barbosa a plan to execute the coup was drawn up by officers who included Benjamin Constant and Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca, plus two civilians: Quintino Bocaiúva and Aristides Lobo. It was the only significant meeting in which civilian republicans participated, as Deodoro wished to exclude them from what he considered to be a strictly military matter.[281] Deodoro still hesitated:[282] "I wanted to follow the Emperor's coffin, who is old and whom I deeply respect."[283] But he eventually yielded to pressure: "He [Benjamin Constant] wants it thus, let us make the Republic. Benjamin and I will take care of the military action; Mr. Quintino and his friends will organize everything else."[284] At 11 p.m. on 14 November,[285] Deodoro took command of 600 men, the majority of whom either had no idea of what was occurring or believed that they were organizing a defence against the National Guard or the Black Guard.[286] A few republicans yelled "Hail to the Republic" but Deodoro ordered them to be silent.[287]
Upon learning of the revolt, the President of the Council of Ministers Afonso Celso, Viscount of Ouro Preto, and the other Cabinet ministers went to Army Headquarters, located at the Field of Santana in the heart of the capital.[288][289][290] The supposedly loyal troops there outnumbered and were better equipped than the rebel force.[291] The adjutant-general [Commander] of the Army, Marshal Floriano Peixoto guaranteed his men's loyalty to Ouro Preto, but he was secretly in alliance with the rebels.[292] Floriano and the Minister of the War Rufino Enéias, Viscount of Maracajú (a cousin of Deodoro) ignored repeated orders from Ouro Preto to attack the rebels who were approaching the headquarters.[293][294] He tried to convince them, recalling the acts of bravery by the Brazilian military in the War of the Triple Alliance. But Floriano replied to him that, "in front of us there were enemies, and here we are all Brazilians", which finally brought him to a realization of how far the mutiny had spread among the officer corps.[295][296] The ostensibly loyal troops opened the headquarters gates to Deodoro[297] who cried out: "Long live His Majesty the Emperor!"[298][299] Deodoro met with Ouro Preto, who agreed to personally deliver to the emperor a list containing names of those whom Deodoro intended to serve in a new cabinet.[300] To the disillusionment of civilian and military republicans, Deodoro did not proclaim a Republic, and it seemed that he would only topple the cabinet.[301] He was unsure whether he wanted to act against Pedro II, and the rebels themselves did not believe the coup would succeed.[302] The few people who witnessed what occurred did not realize that it was a rebellion, and according to the republican Aristides Lobo, the populace was "stunned".[303][304] "Rarely has a revolution been so minor."[305]
On the morning of 15 November, Pedro II was in Petrópolis when he received the first telegram from Ouro Preto informing him of the rebellion. However, he did not assign much import to the news.[306][307] At 11 a.m. as he left a mass in honor of the 45th anniversary of his sister Maria II's death, the monarch received a second telegram and decided to return to Rio de Janeiro.[308][309][310][311] His wife expressed concern, but he told her, "On what ma’am? When I arrive there it will be over!"[312] He travelled by train, reading periodicals and scientific magazines. Not imagining the gravity of the situation, he arrived at the city palace at 3 p.m.[313][314] André Rebouças suggested that he go to the countryside to organize resistance.[315][316] The Marquis of Tamandaré asked for his permission to lead the Armada and suppress the rebellion.[317] He dismissed all the ideas put forward and said, "This is nothing. I know my countrymen."[318] The emperor asked the Conservative senator Manuel Francisco Correia what he thought of the situation. Correia answered that he believed that it was the end of the monarchy. Pedro II showed no emotion, as if unconcerned about the possibility.[319]
Ouro Preto arrived at the palace at 4 p.m and suggested that Pedro II nominate senator Gaspar da Silveira Martins, who would arrive in the city two days later, as the new President.[320][321][322] Deodoro avoided meeting personally with Pedro II,[323] but once he heard that the emperor had chosen a personnal enemy of his for the office, he finally decided on the inauguration of the Republic.[324][325][326][327] The recently elected Chamber of Deputies was only to be called into session on 20 November, and the Senate was in recess.[328] For this reason, Princess Isabel insisted that her father convoke the Council of State to deal with the situation. But she was given the reply, "Later on."[329][330] The princess, on her own initiative, called the council members.[331][332] The Council assembled at 11 p.m, and after two hours recommended that the emperor appoint Antônio Saraiva instead of Silveira Martins.[333][334][335] After accepting the office, this politician sent an emissary to negotiate with Deodoro. But Deodoro responded that is was too late to change his mind.[336][337] Upon hearing the reply, Pedro II commented, "If it is so, it will be my retirement. I have worked too hard and I am tired. I will go rest then."[338]
[edit] Departure to exile
On November 16, a Saturday, the imperial family remained in the palace, surrounded by a cavalry regiment.[339][340] Pedro II kept reading scientific magazines and looked calm all day.[341] At 3 p.m Major Frederico Solón Sampaio Ribeiro appeared to inform the Imperial Family of that the Republic had been proclaimed and that they would have to leave the country in 24 hours to live in exile.[342][343] The “republicans had not courage to meet the Emperor face to face, whom they secretly admired”[344] and therefore preferred to send low-rank officers to communicate with him.[345] Solón, when complimenting the emperor, called him first Your Excellency, then Your Highness and lastly Your Majesty.[346][347][348] Although clearly deposed, the emperor still had the respect of the people around him, as shown in the dialogue between him and Solón.[349][350][351] The notice of banishment made the women cry, while the men tried to remain calm, with the exception of Pedro II, who remained indifferent to everything.[352][353][354][355] The monarch decided to travel in the afternoon of the following day and sent a written message to the Provisory Government informing that he agreed to leave the country.[356][357][358][359][360]
The republican Government feared that in November 17, Monday, demonstrations in favor of the emperor could occur.[361][362][363][364] The lieutenant colonel João Nepomuceno de Medeiros Mallet was sent at dawn to inform the imperial family that it had to leave immediately.[365] There was a certain commotion among those present until Pedro II himself appeared in the room. Mallet respectfully told him that the Government asked them to embark at that moment. The emperor refused to leave at that moment[366][367][368][369][370][371] claiming that he was not a slave that was trying to run away in the middle of the night.[372][373] Mallet tried to persuade him, alleging that republican students would launch violent demonstrations against him. The emperor seemed skeptical: “Who gives importance to students?”[374] At that moment, shots were heard outside. Mallet left the palace to find out what had happened. Fifteen imperial sailors had tried to disembark to give support to the emperor but were defeated and imprisoned by the republican troops. Mallet returned to the building and deceived Pedro II by saying that militant republicans had tried to attack him and his family.[375] Astonished, the emperor agreed to leave.[376][377][378]
When Pedro II left the palace, the soldiers that were mounting guard outside instinctively presented their weapons to him while he responded by raising his hat.[379] Some close friends voluntarily went into exile with the imperial family, including André Rebouças and Franklin Dória, Baron of Loreto.[380][381] Very few witnessed the departure.[382] They were taken to the steamship Parnaíba and after that to the ship Alagoas, from where they traveled a day later to Europe.[383][384][385] Before definitively leaving, Pedro II sent a short message to his faithful friend the Marquis of Tamandaré, who had remained at his side until the departure: “What it is done, it is done. It remains to all of you to establish the order and to consolidate your institutions”.[386] After learning of the departure, Benjamin Constant spoke: “It is fulfilled, the most painful of our duties.”[387] Later, Rui Barbosa, remembering the occasion, spoke to Major Carlos Nunes de Aguiar who was at his side, witnessing the departure from afar: “You were right to cry when the emperor left”.[388] It was “the end of the monarchy but not of myth called d. Pedro”.[389]
The government headed by Deodoro “was little more than a military dictatorship. The army dominated affairs both at Rio de Janeiro and in the states. Freedom of the press disappeared and elections were controlled by those in power”.[390] The republican regime that followed the overthrow of the monarchy revealed itself to be highly unstable. In “a little more than a century of existence, the Brazilian Republic faced twelve states of emergency, seventeen institutional acts, the National Congress shut down six times, nineteen military revolutions, two presidential resignations, three presidents prevented from assuming office, four presidents deposed, seven different Constitutions, four dictatorships, and nine authoritarian governments”.[391]
[edit] Exile
[edit] Later years
The monarchist reaction after the fall of the empire “was not small and even less its repression”.[392] The “new regime suppressed with swift brutality and total disdain for civil liberties all attempts to launch a monarchist party or to publish monarchist newspapers.”[393] Soon after several popular riots in protest against the coup occurred as also battles between monarchist Army troops against republican militias.[394] Those were followed by a civil war where monarchist military and politicians tried to restore the empire in the Federalist Revolution and the Second Navy Rebellion.[395][396] The last monarchist rebellion occurred in 1904 in what was called the Vaccine Revolt.[397][398]
[edit] Death
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In 23 November 1891 Pedro II appeared at the Academy of Sciences for the last time to participate in an election.[399][400] In the following morning he coldly wrote down in his diary the news that the dictator Deodoro da Fonseca had resigned: “10:30. Deodoro has quit.”[401] Soon after that he made a long stroll in an open chariot along the Seine even though the temperature was extremely low. He felt sick after returning to Bedford hotel at night.[399][402] The illness evolved into pneumonia in the following days.[399][403] There was no celebration on his anniversary on December 2, with the exception of a simple mass where he stood in bed and had only the company of his daughter, his son-in-law and his grandchildren.[403][404][405] However, he received later the visit from several French and Brazilians who lived in Paris and had gone there to compliment him. [403]
His health suddenly got worse in the morning on day 3.[406] Other relatives and friends went to visit him after the news of the seriousness of the situation. On December 4 he received the last sacrament from Abbot Pierre-Jacques-Almeyre Le Rébours, vicar of Madeleine.[407][408] Pedro II entered in agony in the night of the same day and died at 0:35 a.m. of day 5.[404][405][409] His last words were: “May God grant me these last wishes - peace and prosperity for Brazil…”.[406] He was so weakened that he did not suffer any kind of pain.[408] Pedro II was surrounded by his daughter Isabel, the Count of Eu, his grandchildren Pedro, Luís, Antonio, Pedro Augusto and Augusto, his sisters Januária and Francisca and their respectively husbands, the Count of Aquila and the Prince of Joinville.[410]
According to the death certificate the causa mortis was an acute pneumonia on the left lung.[405][411][412] Pedro II died without abdicating and Isabel inherited the claim to the throne of the Brazilian Empire.[405] She solemnly kissed her father´s hands and after that all the ones that were present, including dozens of Brazilian that were already there at that time, kissed her hand, recognizing her as the Empress de jure of Brazil.[409][412] The Baron of Rio Branco, that was also present, later wrote: “The Brazilians, thirty and something, went in line and, one by one, threw blessed water on the corpse and kissed his hand. I did the same. They were saying farewell to the great dead.”[410] Senator Gaspar da Silveira Martins arrived soon after the Emperor´s death and when he saw the body of his old friend, cried convulsively.[413]
Isabel declined an autopsy which allowed the body to be embalmed at 9 a.m. on 5 December after it was injected six liters of hydrochloride of zinc and aluminum into his common carotid artery.[414] A death mask was also made.[413] Pedro II was dressed with the court dress uniform of Marshal of the Army representing his position as commander-in-chief of the Brazilian armed forces.[411][414] It was placed in his chest the band of the Order of the Southern Cross, the insignias of the Order of the Golden Fleece and of the Order of the Rose and in his hands a crucifix made of silver sent by Pope Leo XIII. Two Brazilian flags were placed over his legs to cover them.[405][414][415] While the body was being prepared, the Count of Eu found in the room a sealed package next to a message written by the Emperor himself: “It is land from my country, I want it to be placed in my coffin in case I die away from my fatherland”.[405][416][417] The package that contained land from all Brazilian provinces was placed inside the coffin.[416][418] Three coffins were used; one made of lead lined with white satin inside where they deposited the body and two others that coated the first one: a varnished oak and another one of oak covered by black velvet.[418]
[edit] Funeral
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Just a few hours after the death of Pedro II, thousands of people appeared in the Bedford hotel, amongst them, the President of the Council of Ministers, Charles de Freycinet and the ministers of War and Navy.[413][415] In one day, more than 2,000 telegrams were sent to the hotel with messages of condolences.[411][418] French president Sadi Carnot was travelling in the south of the country and sent all the members of the Military Household on his behalf to pay homage to the deceased monarch.[419] Princess Isabel wanted to make a discrete and private ceremony for the burial of Pedro II.[420] However, she finally accepted the request of the French Government to allow a Head of State´s funeral. To prevent political disruption,[421] the government decided that the burial would be officially carried out because the Emperor was a grand cross of the Légion d'honneur,[411][422] but with the pomp due to a monarch.[405] All requests from the Brazilian republican government to reject an official funeral or to fly the imperial flag in public were simply ignored by the French government.[421]
The coffin that contained the body of Pedro II left the Bedford hotel for the Madeleine Church on the night of 8 December.[423] Eight French military carried the coffin, covered with the imperial flag[423][424] while being seen by more than 5,000 people.[423] The carriage used for the rite was the same one used for the funerals of cardinal Morlot, the Duke of Morny and Adolphe Thiers.[411][424]
In the following day, thousands of personalities appeared in the ceremony that was done in Madeleine. Beyond the family of Pedro II, they were: Amadeo, former king of Spain, Francis II, former king of the Two Sicilies, Isabella II, former queen of Spain, Philippe, Count of Paris, and several other members of the European royalty.[425][426] Also present were General Joseph Brugère, representing the President Sadi Carnot, the presidents of the Senate and the House of Representatives[411] as well as its members, diplomats and other representatives of the French government.[427] Almost all members of the French Academy, Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, French Academy of Sciences, Académie des Beaux-Arts and Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques participated.[411][424] Among the ones present, were: Eça de Queiroz,[411] Alexandre Dumas, fils, Gabriel Auguste Daubrée, Jules Arsène Arnaud Claretie, Marcellin Berthelot, Jean Louis Armand de Quatrefages de Bréau, Edmond Jurien de la Gravière, Julius Oppert, Camille Doucet and others.[424][425] Representatives of other governments, such as from the American continent and Europe were there, beyond others from distant countries such as Ottoman Turkey, China, Japan and Persia,[427] with the exception of Brazil.[411]
After that the coffin was taken in procession until the train station, from where it would leave to Portugal. Even with the incessant rain and the extremely low temperature,[428] between 200,000[411] and 300,000[429] people attended the event. The French military troops who were part of procession were composed of 80,000 men.[430] Two carriages carried almost 200 crowns of flowers. In it, messages paying homage to the Emperor such as: “To Dom Pedro, Victoria R.I.",[429] “To the great Emperor for whom Caxias, Osório, Andrade Neves and many other heroes fought for, Fatherland Volunteers from Rio de Janeiro.”,[429][431] “A group of Brazilian students in Paris.”,[429] “Happy times when the thought, the word and the pen were free, when Brazil freed oppressed people…” (Sent by the Baron of Ladário, Marquis of Tamandaré, Viscount of Sinimbu, Rodolfo Dantas, Joaquim Nabuco and Taunay),[429] “To the great Brazilian worthy of honors from the Fatherland and Humanity. Ubique Patria Memor.”[429] (sent by the Baron of Rio Branco),[417] “From the people of Rio Grande do Sul to the liberal and patriotic king.”[429] and “A Brazilian black on behalf of his race”.[429] The “state funeral granted by the French republic proclaimed the former’s [Pedro II] personal virtues and popularity and, by implication, distinguished the imperial regime from other monarchies”.[432]
The travel continued until the Church of São Vicente de Fora, next to Lisbon, where the body of Pedro II was deposited in the Braganza Pantheon in 12 December, between his stepmother Amélia and his wife, Teresa Cristina.[433][434] In all places that the coffin passed through, from France to Spain and finally, Portugal, homage was paid. As always, with the exception of the Brazilian republican Government.[433]
[edit] Death's repercussion
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The members of the Brazilian republican government, “fearful of the great repercussion caused by the death of the emperor”, denied the possibility of any official manifestation.[435] However, the Brazilian people were not indifferent to the death of Pedro II, the “repercussion in Brazil was also immense, despite the efforts of the government to prevent it. There were manifestations of sorrow all over the country: the commerce was closed, flag were displayed at half-staff, black bands in clothes, death knells, religious ceremonies”.[433][436] An article written by João Mendes de Almeida in 7 December 1891 says that: “The news of the death of His Majesty Emperor Dom Pedro II has revealed the feelings of the Brazilian nation towards the Imperial dynasty. The consternation has been general”.[437] Solemn “masses were done all over the country, which were followed by funereal pronouncements that praised Dom Pedro II and the monarchy”,[436] thus the “Republic stood silent given the strength and impact of the manifestations”.[435]
The police was sent to hinder public manifestations of sorrow, “provoking serious incidents” while “the people sympathized with the manifestants”.[438] A popular meeting with the objective of paying homage to the deceased emperor was done in 9 December and was organized by the Marquis of Tamandaré, Viscount of Ouro Preto, Viscount of Sinimbu, Baron of Ladário, Carlos de Laet, Alfredo d' Escragnolle Taunay, Rodolfo Dantas, Afonso Celso and Joaquim Nabuco.[439] Even the old political adversaries of Pedro II praised him, “criticizing his policies” but pointing out “his patriotism, honesty, abnegation, spirit of justice, devotion to work, tolerance, simplicity”.[440] Quintino Bocaiúva, one of the main republican leaders, spoke: “The entire world, can be said, has given the homage Mr. Dom Pedro de Alcântara has earned by his virtues as a great citizen”.[433] Some “members of republican clubs protested against what they called an exaggerated sentimentalism of the homages, seeing in it monarchist maneuvers. They were lonely voices”.[433]
The reaction abroad also revealed sympathy towards the monarch. The New York Times published on 5 December praised Pedro II, considering him “the most enlightened monarch of the century” and also affirming that “he made Brazil as free as a monarchy could be”.[441] The Herald wrote: “In another time, and in happier circumstances, he would be worshiped and honored by his subjects and would be known in history as 'Dom Pedro the Good'".[442] The Tribune affirmed that his “reign was serene, peaceable and prosperous”.[442] The Times published a long article: “Until November 1889, its was believed that the deceased Emperor and his wife were unanimously beloved in Brazil due to his intellectual and moral qualities and by his affectionate interest for the well-being of his subjects [...] When in Rio de Janeiro he was constantly seen in public; and two times per week he met his subjects, as well as foreign travelers, captivating all with his courtesy”.[442]
The Weekly Register wrote: “He looked more like a poet or a scholar than an emperor, but had he had been given the chance to materialize his several projects, without a doubt he would have made Brazil one of the richest countries in the New World”.[443] The French periodic Le Jour affirmed that “he was effectively the first sovereign that, after our disaster of 1871, dared to visit us. Our defeat did not move him away from us. France will know how to be grateful”.[420] The Globe also wrote that he “was educated, he was patriotic; he was gentile and indulgent; he had all the private virtues, as well as the public ones, and died in exile”.[444]
[edit] Legacy
[edit] Post mortem
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The monarchy “fell when it reached its higher point of popularity” among most Brazilians.[445] Indifferent to the new republican heroes, such as Tiradentes, the Brazilians kept themselves attached to the figure of the popular Emperor as they considered him “a hero of the people, a son of the land”.[446] Therefore, due to the “appearance, temperament, circumstances, nobody was better than D. Pedro II to incarnate the symbolic type of father of the people”.[447] This image was even stronger among the afro-descendant population that believed that the monarchy “strangely continued to represent, even metaphorically, freedom”.[448] The afro-Brazilians demonstrated their feeling of loyalty towards the monarch in subtle ways, such as through tattoos of the imperial crown in their bodies.[449]
In the cities all over the country popular music that reflected the general feeling were sung: “Pedro the Second left/to the kingdom of Lisbon./The monarchy is over/and now Brazil is adrift.”,[450] as well as “The mother of Deodoro said: This son was once mine/Now he is cursed/by me and by God”.[450] Among the “great - and few - names of our history [of Brazil] that has a space in the popular imaginary, it is certainly the figure of Dom Pedro II”. His “image is of a wise, benevolent, austere and honest ruler”.[451] It was “as if a new mystique had fallen over the population that connected the fate of the Republic and its economical and political issues with the departure of d. Pedro II”.[452] He was seen as a popular hero, and gradually “he would be reintroduced as an official hero”.[450]
Surprisingly, among the republicans appeared a strong feeling of guilt “that became more and more evident with the death of d. Pedro”.[453] In Brazil, “the news of Pedro II’s death aroused a genuine sense of regret among those who, without sympathy for a restoration, acknowledged both the merits and the achievements of their deceased ruler”. [454] In the “memory, the monarchy was still alive, as well as a certain feeling of remorse”.[446] The republicans “reconsidered the long banishment and pondered on the severity of such action”.[455] They believed that Pedro II deserved a better ending. Many “men responsible for the [creation of the] Republic started to see in the Imperial epoch a happier time, a golden age, forever gone”.[456] The “monarchy became viewed with greater tolerance and its achievements acknowledged”.[457] It appeared "a feeling that there was once a time when Brazil was more respectable, more honest, and more powerful”.[451]
There was a “strange insistence” by “several republican politicians”, and also by the ones “of higher projection”, in "praising D. Pedro II and the monarchy”.[458] They did not desire the restoration but believed that the Brazilian Republic could learn from the fallen regime. Thus, Pedro II “became, paradoxically, a model of republican ideals”.[459] For “the republicans, d. Pedro appeared as the best one of them; for the monarchists the compliment was, clearly, another one”.[459]
After the death of the monarch, the appeals for the return of his body to the country became common throughout the years. The republican periodical A Cidade do Rio (The City of Rio) affirmed that “Brazil is so large that it cannot deny some scarce feet of land to him” and demanded: “Bring him back”.[439] The Gazeta da Tarde (Afternoon Gazette) said that Pedro II deserved an official funeral in the country.[439] In 1895 Afonso Celso wrote in the Comércio de São Paulo (Commerce of São Paulo): “the body of D. Pedro cannot continue to lie in foreign territory”.[460] In 1906 the poet Olavo Bilac also said: “The fatherland reclaims your body and it shall have it”.[460] The Jornal do Comércio (Commerce Newspaper), on the other hand, believed that “one day, when all passions have lost its strength, your body shall rest in here”.[439]
[edit] The end of the banishment
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A project of law in the Chamber of Deputies that would authorize the transfer of the Pedro II and his wife´s bodies, and that counted with the support of old republicans, was put aside given the requirement of Princess Isabel that would only allow it if the banishment of her family was gone too.[460] The inauguration of a statue of the Emperor in Petrópolis in 5 February 1911 had more than 1,500 people, including members of the federal government.[461] Several statues of the monarch were inaugurated throughout all over the country in the following years.[462] Immediately afterwards a manifesto written by former Presidents of the Council of Ministers, Lafayette, Ouro Preto and João Alfredo declared that “given the love that Brazilians have for their sovereigns, we agree with the return of the venerable remains back from São Vicente de Fora”.[461]
A new project of Law that would revoke the banishment was discussed in the Chamber in 1913.[463] The deputy and republican Irineu Machado alleged that there were “futile excuses” that denied “justice to the memory of the emperor”.[463] Another member, Martim Francisco de Andrada III affirmed that “D. Pedro II left poor, leaving the country rich; it was not just that the ones that are rich and leave the country poor be against it.”[463] The deputy Pedro Moacir believed that the return of the remains would represent “the perpetual gratitude of the posterity towards the most clement, the most tolerant of all monarchs of his time”.[464] The deputy Maurício de Lacerda said that “now the traces of his political legacy – the morality - are disappearing”.[465] In the Senate, however, the project was not accepted due to intervention of the caudillo and radical republican Pinheiro Machado.[465] In 1914, however, it was senator Rui Barbosa, the last of the republicans who participated in the 1889 coup (and also the one who ordered the banishment) that made the most famous speech in homage of Pedro II:
"The lack of justice, Mr. Senators, is the great evil of our land, the evil of evilness, the origin of all our misfortunes, the source of all our discredit, is the supreme misery of this poor nation. […] After seeing so much nullities triumph, after seeing so much dishonor to prosper, after seeing so much the power in the hand of evil people to grow, the man becomes disheartened about virtue, he laughs to himself at honor and becomes ashamed of being honest. This has been the work of the Republic in the last years. In the other regime [in the Monarchy] the man who had a certain smirch in his life was lost forever, as the political career would be closed to him. There was vigilant sentinel [Dom Pedro II], whose severity everyone feared and that, bright and very high, protected the surroundings, as a lighthouse that never fades away, in benefit of honor, justice and morality".
But two years later, in 1916, president Venceslau Brás authorized the return of the bodies and the end of the banishment, but opted to wait for the end of World War I to approve officially the act.[465] His successor, Epitácio Pessoa, signed the law (with a gold quill offered for the Brazilian Press Association) in 3 September 1920 that that ended the banishment and allowed the transfer of the bodies.[465] Rui Barbosa spoke that the ones “that made the federative republic do not have claims against the ashes of the old emperor, whose virtues were much higher than his faults”.[466] And concluded: “Therefore, in the republican gallery there is a proper place, and a great one, for D. Pedro II”.[466]
[edit] The Emperor returns home
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In 1920 the dreadnought São Paulo brought to Brazil the imperial coffins.[466] The Portuguese republican government granted to Pedro II an exhumation with honors of Head of State and he received the same treatment when arrived at Brazil. The Count of Eu also came with his only surviving son, Pedro de Alcântara.[466] His wife, Princess Isabel, was old and ill and could not come. She died one year later without ever seeing her homeland again.[455] President Artur Bernardes declared national holiday and all over the country the return of the Emperor was celebrated.[459]
To the main solemnity in Rio de Janeiro came from São Paulo councilor Antonio Prado, the last minister of the Empire still alive.[467] Thousands of people attended the event. The “elderly people cried. Many kneeled. All clapped. There was no distinction between republicans and monarchists. They were all Brazilians”.[467] It marked the reconciliation of the Republican Brazil with its monarchical past.[468] However, “the official return of the figure of d. Pedro as national hero would come truly in 1922 due to the great national commemoration of the centenary of the Brazilian independence” when the Emperor was highly celebrated.[455]
Three years later, the Brazilians spontaneously commemorated the centenary of Pedro II. There was a clear “disproportion between the enthusiasm generated by the festivities around the birth of d. Pedro and the little interest over the anniversary of the Republic, that was, then, 36 years old”.[469] President Artur Bernardes recognized the popularity of the monarch and affirmed that he would not refuse “the justice that the Emperor deserves. He loved Brazil and while he had the strength and energy he served the country together with the best men of that time”.[470] Pedro II became, once again, the “Father of the Fatherland”.[471]
His body was kept temporarily in the Cathedral of Rio de Janeiro until the end of the construction of the Cathedral of Petrópolis.[467] The definitive burial would only occur in 5 December 1939 when the dictator Getúlio Vargas used the opportunity in proper benefit to grant himself popularity (such as Mussolini with Anita Garibaldi´s funeral in 1932)[472] and inaugurated the mortuary chapel in the Cathedral of Petrópolis where the mortal remains of the Emperor and his wife were placed.[473]
Pedro II´s “principal achievements – the fostering of a political culture and the inculcation of an ideal of citizenship – not only survived his overthrown as emperor in 1889 but also endured as the norms and directives of public life during three succeeding regimes – the Old Republic (1889-1930), the Vargas Era (1930-45), the Liberal Republic (1945-64). Even the military regime which seized power in 1964 was deeply influenced by the vision of Brazil as a nation-state established by Pedro II. Only in the 1980s would this vision begin to be supplanted”.[474] At the beginning of the twenty first century his “name is widely employed to evoke both traditional values and the nation’s heritage. His image confers respectability, dignity, and integrity on whatever event or institution employs it”.[475]
[edit] Genealogy
[edit] Ancestry
The ancestry of Emperor Pedro II:[476]
[edit] See also
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Pedro II of Brazil |
- Empire of Brazil
- Politics of the Empire of Brazil
- Economy of the Empire of Brazil
- Military of the Empire of Brazil
[edit] Bibliography
[edit] References
| Styles of Pedro II, Emperor of Brazil |
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| Reference style | His Imperial Majesty |
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| Spoken style | Your Imperial Majesty |
| Alternative style | Sire |
- Barman, Roderick J. Citizen Emperor: Pedro II and the Making of Brazil, 1825–1891. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999. (English)
- Benevides, José Marijeso de Alencar. D. Pedro II, patrono da astronomia brasileira. Fortaleza: Imprensa oficial do Ceará, 1979. (Portuguese)
- Besouchet, Lídia. Pedro II e o Século XIX. 2. ed. Rio de Janeiro: Nova Fronteira, 1993. ISBN 85-209-0494-7 (Portuguese)
- Bueno, Eduardo. Brasil: uma História. 1. ed. São Paulo: Ática, 2003. (Portuguese)
- Calmon, Pedro. História de D. Pedro II. 5 v. Rio de Janeiro: J. Olympio, 1975. (Portuguese)
- Carvalho, José Murilo de. Os Bestializados: o Rio de Janeiro e a República que não foi. 2. ed. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 1987. (Portuguese)
- Carvalho, José Murilo de. D. Pedro II: ser ou não ser. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2007. (Portuguese)
- Dohlnikoff, Miriam. Pacto imperial: origens do federalismo no Brasil do século XIX. São Paulo: Globo, 2005. (Portuguese)
- Doratioto, Francisco. Maldita Guerra: Nova história da Guerra do Paraguai. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 2002. (Portuguese)
- Ermakoff, George. Rio de Janeiro - 1840-1900 - Uma crônica fotográfica. Rio de Janeiro: G. Ermakoff Casa Editorial, 2006. (Portuguese)
- Gonçalves, Andréa Lisly. Revista de História da Biblioteca Nacional. Year 4. Issue 45. Rio de Janeiro: SABIN, 2009. (Portuguese)
- Holanda, Sérgio Buarque de. História Geral da Civilização Brasileira (II, v. 3). DIFEL/Difusão Editorial S.A., 1976. (Portuguese)
- Janotti, Aldo. O Marquês de Paraná: inícios de uma carreira política num momento crítico da história da nacionalidade. Belo Horizonte: Itatiaia, 1990. (Portuguese)
- Lustosa, Isabel. D. Pedro I: um herói sem nenhum caráter. São Paulo: Companhia das letras, 2006. (Portuguese)
- Lyra, Heitor. História de Dom Pedro II (1825 – 1891): Ascenção (1825 – 1870). v.1. Belo Horizonte: Itatiaia, 1977. (Portuguese)
- Lyra, Heitor. História de Dom Pedro II (1825 – 1891): Fastígio (1870 – 1880). v.2. Belo Horizonte: Itatiaia, 1977. (Portuguese)
- Lyra, Heitor. História de Dom Pedro II (1825 – 1891): Declínio (1880 – 1891). v.3. Belo Horizonte: Itatiaia, 1977. (Portuguese)
- M. de Carvalho, José J. Revista de História da Biblioteca Nacional. Year 4. Issue 39. Rio de Janeiro: SABIN, 2008. (Portuguese)
- Markun, Paulo. Anita Garibaldi: uma heroína brasileira. 4. ed. São paulo: Senac, 2000. (Portuguese)
- Martins, Luís. O patriarca e o bacharel. 2.ed. São Paulo: Alameda, 2008. (Portuguese)
- Mônaco Janotti, Maria de Lourdes. Os Subversivos da República. São Paulo: Brasiliense, 1986. (Portuguese)
- Munro, Dana Gardner. The Latin American Republics; A History. New York: D. Appleton, 1942. (English)
- Olivieri, Antonio Carlos. Dom Pedro II, Imperador do Brasil. São Paulo: Callis, 1999. (Portuguese)
- Piccolo, Helga. Revista de História da Biblioteca Nacional. Year 3. Issue 37. Rio de Janeiro: SABIN, 2008. (Portuguese)
- Rodrigues, José Carlos. Constituição política do Império do Brasil. Rio de Janeiro: [s.n], 1863. (Portuguese)
- Salles, Ricardo. Nostalgia Imperial. Rio de Janeiro: Topbooks, 1996. (Portuguese)
- Schwarcz, Lilia Moritz. As barbas do Imperador: D. Pedro II, um monarca nos trópicos. 2. Ed. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 1998. (Portuguese)
- Sodré, Nelson Werneck. Panorama do Segundo Império, 2. ed. Rio de Janeiro: GRAPHIA, 2004. (Portuguese)
- Souza, Adriana Barreto de. Duque de Caxias: o homem por trás do monumento. Rio de Janeiro: Civilização Brasileira, 2008. (Portuguese)
- Vainfas, Ronaldo. Dicionário do Brasil Imperial. Rio de Janeiro: Objetiva, 2002. (Portuguese)
- Vasquez, Pedro Karp. O Brasil na fotografia oitocentista. São Paulo: Metalivros, 2003. (Portuguese)
- Vianna, Hélio. História do Brasil: período colonial, monarquia e república. 15. ed. São Paulo: Melhoramentos, 1994. (Portuguese)
[edit] Further reading
- Brown, Rose. American Emperor: Dom Pedro II of Brazil. 1945.
- Crow, John A. The Epic of Latin American: Fourth Edition University of California Press, 1992.
- da Costa, Emilia Viotti. The Brazilian Empire: Myths and Histories. 2000; 1985.
- Harding, Bertita. Amazon Throne. London: Harrap, 1942.
- Schwarcz, Lilia Moritz. The Emperor's Beard: Dom Pedro II and His Tropical Monarchy in Brazil. Trans. John Gledson. 2003.
- Skidmore, Thomas. Brazil: Five Centuries of Change. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
- Skidmore, Thomas. Modern Latin America. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005
[edit] Footnotes
- ^ a b c Bueno, p.196
- ^ Barman (1999), p.85 "Such acts of charity, which continued throughout his reign, explain why he was often termed in praise "the Magnanimous" [O Magnânimo]."
- ^ Vianna, p.467 "O Segundo Reinado, ou seja, o período em que foi nosso imperador D. Pedro II, durou cinquenta e oito anos, da abdicação do pai, D. Pedro I, em 1831, até a proclamação da república em 1889."
- ^ Ferreira, Aurélio Buarque de Holanda. Minidicionário da Língua Poretuguesa. 1. ed. Rio de Janeiro: Nova Fronteira, 1977, p.169 "dom² sm. Título honorífico que antecede os nomes próprios dos homens de certas categorias sociais."
- ^ Cook, James Fastone Sunderland. Dicionário compacto: ingles – português – ingles. São Paulo: Rideel, 1994, p. 478 “Dom sm. [...] title of honor; Don”
- ^ Houaiss, Antônio. Dicionário Inglês – Português. Rio de Janeiro: Record, 1982, p.225 “don s. (com maiúsc.) dom (título de origem espanhola)”
- ^ Guralnik, David B. Webster’s New World Dictionary of the American language. New York: Warner Books, 1993, p.183 “don (dän) n. [Sp < L. dominus, master] 1. [D-] Sir;
- ^ Vianna, p.467
- ^ Benevides, p.61
- ^ a b c d e f g Vainfas, p.198
- ^ a b c Calmon, p.4
- ^ Schwarcz, p.45
- ^ a b c Besouchet, p.39
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.11-12
- ^ a b Olivieri, p.5
- ^ Calmon, p.3
- ^ Schwarcz, p.46
- ^ Lyra (v.1), p.12
- ^ a b Carvalho (2007), p.12
- ^ Calmon, p.8
- ^ a b c d e Carvalho (2007), p.13
- ^ a b Barman (1999), p.1
- ^ a b Besouchet, p.40
- ^ a b c d e Calmon, p.5
- ^ Lyra (v.1), p.9
- ^ Lyra (v.1), p.10
- ^ Barman (1999), p.29 "As he slept peacefully, undisturbed by the turmoil of the night, this five-year-old child became the new emperor of Brazil."
- ^ a b Schwarcz, p.47
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.14
- ^ a b Besouchet, p.41
- ^ Lustosa, p.209
- ^ Calmon, p.81
- ^ Lustosa, p.221
- ^ a b c Olivieri, p.6
- ^ Calmon, p.15
- ^ a b Carvalho (2007), p.16
- ^ Calmon, p.16
- ^ Besouchet, p.46
- ^ Barman (1999), p.26
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.20
- ^ a b Carvalho (2007), p.21
- ^ Lyra (v.1), p.15
- ^ Art. 100 of the Brazilian Constitution of 1824 says: "His titles are - Constitutional Emperor and Perpetual Defender of Brazil -, and is styled - Imperial Majesty" in Rodrigues, p.71
- ^ a b c d Lyra (v.1), p.17
- ^ a b c d e f Carvalho (2007), p.22
- ^ a b Calmon, p.56
- ^ a b Lyra (v.1), p.18
- ^ Lyra (v.1), p.19
- ^ Schwarcz, p.52
- ^ a b c Olivieri, p.8
- ^ a b c d Carvalho (2007), p.24
- ^ Lyra (v.1), p.21
- ^ a b Carvalho (2007), p.36
- ^ a b Dohlnikoff, p.26-7
- ^ Schwarcz, p.53
- ^ M. de Carvalho, p.39
- ^ M. de Carvalho, p.40
- ^ a b c d Carvalho (2007), p.43
- ^ Gonçalves, p.81
- ^ M. de Carvalho, p.38
- ^ Gonçalves, p.80
- ^ a b c d e Schwarcz, p.57
- ^ Besouchet, p.61
- ^ a b Dohlnikoff, p.206
- ^ Souza, p.326
- ^ Janotti, p.171 "No Pará, [...] declarou-se que a província não reconheceria o Governo da Regência durante a menoridade do Imperador (1835); começava a Cabanagem, para durar até 1840." and p.172 "explodia em novembro de 1837 a Sabinada que, declarava-se em Estado Republicano Independente [...], limitava o tempo da separação até o advento da maioridade de D. Pedro II."
- ^ Holanda, p.116
- ^ Piccolo, p.43, 44
- ^ Schwarcz, p.50
- ^ a b c d Carvalho (2007), p.31
- ^ a b Calmon, p.57
- ^ Lyra (v.1), p.31
- ^ Calmon, p.74
- ^ Barman (1999), p.42
- ^ a b c Carvalho (2007), p.25
- ^ Lyra (v.1), p.33
- ^ a b Lyra (v.1), p.40
- ^ a b c Olivieri, p.9
- ^ Lyra (v.1), p.45
- ^ Lyra (v.1), p.42
- ^ a b c Carvalho (2007), p.29
- ^ Lyra (v.1), p.44-45
- ^ a b c Carvalho (2007), p.27
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.26
- ^ Lyra (v.1), p.39 e 46
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.32
- ^ a b Vainfas, p.199
- ^ Besouchet, p.56
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.226
- ^ Olivieri, p.7
- ^ Schwarcz, p.428
- ^ a b Lyra (v.1), p.50
- ^ Lyra (v.1), p.46
- ^ a b Carvalho (2007), p.30
- ^ a b c Besouchet, p.50
- ^ Lyra (v.1), p.60
- ^ a b Carvalho (2007), p.33
- ^ Barman (1999), p.39 "The only means available to him for holding that world at bay lay within himself. Learning, and above all books, opened for the child another and more friendly existence."
- ^ Schwarcz, p.299
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.109
- ^ a b c d e Lyra (v.1), p.227
- ^ Pedrosa, p.196
- ^ Pedrosa, p.198
- ^ Lyra (v.1), p.226
- ^ a b c d Salles (2003), p.52
- ^ a b c d e Lyra (v.1), p.228
- ^ a b c d Calmon (1975), p.735
- ^ Barman (1999), p.202
- ^ Calmon (1975), p.727
- ^ a b Calmon (1975), p.734
- ^ a b Olivieri, p.32
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.110
- ^ Calmon (1975), p.734 "...ainda me resta um recurso constitucional, abdicar e ir para o Rio Grande como voluntário da pátria"
- ^ Olivieri, p.32 "Se os políticos podem me impedir que siga como imperador, vou abdicar e seguir como voluntário da Pátria."
- ^ Barman (1999), p.202 "The emperor's desire to go in person to the front naturally encountered considerable resistance. [...] Pedro II won his ministers' consent by a simple stratagem: if denied his wish, he would abdicate the throne and, enlisting as a Voluntário da Pátria, go to the war front as an ordinary citizen."
- ^ Pedrosa, p.237
- ^ Schwarcz, p.300
- ^ Vainfas, p.200
- ^ Lyra (v.1), p.229
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.111
- ^ Lyra (v.1), p.229 e 231
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.111-112
- ^ Calmon (1975), p.736
- ^ Salles (2003), p.52 – The author affirms that Pedro II disembarked in Porto Alegre 19 July and departed on 23 July to Uruguaiana.
- ^ a b c d Carvalho (2007), p.112
- ^ Lyra (v.1), p.231
- ^ Calmon (1975), p.738
- ^ a b Calmon (1975), p.739
- ^ a b c d Calmon (1975), p.742
- ^ a b Carvalho (2007), p.113
- ^ Salles (2003), p.53
- ^ Lyra (v.1), p.235-6
- ^ a b c d Carvalho (2007), p.114
- ^ Calmon (1975), p.745
- ^ Lyra (v.1), p.235
- ^ Calmon (1975), p.743
- ^ a b c d e Calmon (1975), p.744
- ^ Pedrosa, p.199
- ^ a b Calmon (1975), p.748
- ^ a b c d Lyra (v.1), p.237
- ^ Barman (1999), p.205
- ^ Lyra (v.1), p.239
- ^ Calmon (1975), p.725
- ^ Calmon (1975), p.750
- ^ Doratioto (2002), p.462
- ^ Calmon (2002), p.201 “O Brasil, graças à sua capacidade econômica, recompôs em dez anos as finanças abaladas, pois despendera mais de 600 mil contos.”
- ^ Munro, p.277 “The confidence that his government inspired both at home and in financial circles abroad made possible a rapid recovery.”
- ^ Barman (1999), p.243
- ^ Lyra (v.2), p.161
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.124
- ^ Calmon (1975), p.854
- ^ Schwarcz, p.316-317
- ^ Olivieri, p.46
- ^ Munro, p.276 “At its close, in 1870, Brazil was exhausted both morally and economically, but the Emperor´s prestige, if somewhat shaken by reverses in the earlier part of the war, was restored by the final victory. The confidence that his government inspired both at home and in financial circles abroad made possible a rapid recovery.
- ^ Calmon (1975), p.854
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.121
- ^ Schwarcz, p.315-316 “Não obstante, se a nova medida e a vitória final na guerra faziam de d. Pedro um monarca cada vez mais popular, é preciso reconhecer que os cinco anos de combate foram penosos para ele.”
- ^ Calmon (1975), p.855
- ^ Doratioto (2002), p.455
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.122
- ^ Lyra (v.2), p.9
- ^ Olivieri, p.37
- ^ Lyra (v.2), p.9
- ^ Barman (1999), p.240
- ^ Schwarcz, p.285
- ^ Olivieri, p.44
- ^ Barman, p.194
- ^ Benevides, p.60
- ^ Lyra (v.2), p.161
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.131
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.29
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.132
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.132
- ^ Schwarcz, p.315
- ^ Barman, p.77
- ^ Lowenstamm, p.25
- ^ Lowenstamm, p.27
- ^ Besouchet, p.
- ^ Lowenstamm, p.27
- ^ Schwarcz, p.372
- ^ Barman, p.252
- ^ Olivieri, p.43
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.130
- ^ Barman, p.194
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.130
- ^ Lyra (v.1), p.166
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.132
- ^ Lyra (v.1), p.166
- ^ Olivieri, p.44
- ^ Lyra (v.2), p.162
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.132
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.132
- ^ Schwarcz, p.315
- ^ Lyra (v.2), p.162
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.134
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.136
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.133
- ^ Lyra (v.2), p.164
- ^ Schwarcz, p.315
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.136
- ^ Lyra (v.2), p.162
- ^ Lyra (v.2), p.170
- ^ Barman, p.238
- ^ a b Carvalho (2007), p.127
- ^ a b c Bueno, p.238
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.120
- ^ Sodré, p.324
- ^ a b c Carvalho (2007), p.128
- ^ a b Carvalho (2007), p.208
- ^ Besouchet, p.518
- ^ Besouchet, p.516
- ^ a b Lyra (v.3), p.121
- ^ a b Carvalho (2007), p.206
- ^ a b Olivieri, p.50
- ^ Schwarcz, p.457
- ^ Besouchet, p.505
- ^ a b Munro, p.279
- ^ Ermakoff, p.189
- ^ Sodré, p.321
- ^ Besouchet, p.503
- ^ a b Lyra (v.3), p.122
- ^ Sodré, p.326
- ^ "Sr. São Vicente, o país que se governe como entender e dê razão a quem tiver."
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.129
- ^ a b c Lyra (v.3), p.126
- ^ a b c Carvalho (2007), p.209
- ^ Besouchet, p.519
- ^ a b Besouchet, p.508
- ^ Besouchet, p.515
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.204
- ^ Besouchet, p.504
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.53-54
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.56
- ^ Schwarcz, p.431
- ^ Calmon (1975), p.1349
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.199
- ^ Calmon (1975), p.1351
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.56
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.199
- ^ Schwarcz, p.432
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.56
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.56-57
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.57
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.57
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.57
- ^ Schwarcz, p.435
- ^ Lyra (v.3), pp.57-58
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.58
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.58
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.60
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.61
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.61
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.61-62
- ^ Calmon (1975), p.1421
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.199
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.62
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.200
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.62
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.62
- ^ Schwarcz, p.442
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.199-200
- ^ Calmon (1975), p.1426
- ^ Calmon (1975), p.1438
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.200
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.64
- ^ Calmon (1975), p.1439
- ^ Schwarcz, p.443
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.200
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.67
- ^ Calmon (1975), p.1439
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.67
- ^ Schwarcz, p.447
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.200
- ^ Schwarcz, p.444
- ^ Vainfas, p.201
- ^ Schwarcz, p.438
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.190
- ^ Ermakoff, p.189 "Não havia, portanto, clamor pela mudança do regime de governo, exceto alguns gritos de "Viva a República", entoados por pequenos grupos de militantes à espreita da passagem da carruagem imperial."
- ^ Schwarcz, p.450
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.91
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.215
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.215
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.94
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.94
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.93
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.216
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.216
- ^ Barman (1999), p.358
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.216
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.93
- ^ Barman (1999), p.358
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.216
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.93
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.216
- ^ Barman (1999), p.358
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.95
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.217
- ^ Barman (1999), p.358
- ^ Schwarcz, p.458
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.217
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.217
- ^ Schwarcz, p.459
- ^ Schwarcz, p.459
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.96
- ^ Besouchet, p.538
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.98
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.217
- ^ Barman (1999), p.359
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.217
- ^ Schwarcz, p.459
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.98
- ^ Schwarcz, p.460
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.101
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.217
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.99
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.217
- ^ Calmon (1975), p.1603-1604
- ^ Schwarcz, p.460
- ^ Barman (1999), p.361
- ^ Barman (1999), p.360
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.102
- ^ Schwarcz, p.459
- ^ Schwarcz, p.459
- ^ Barman (1999), p.360
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.104
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.218
- ^ Calmon (1975), p.1611
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.217
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.104-105
- ^ Barman (1999), p.360
- ^ Barman (1999), p.360
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.105
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.105
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.106
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.218
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.106
- ^ Barman (1999), p.361
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.218
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.218
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.111
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.111
- ^ Schwarcz, p.459
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.218-219
- ^ Besouchet, p.540
- ^ Schwarcz, p.459
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.110
- ^ Schwarcz, p.459
- ^ Calmon (1975), p.1616
- ^ Solón: “I come at the behalf of the Provisory Government, to respectfully deliver to Your Majesty this message. Does Your Majesty have a reply to give?” The emperor: “Not at the moment.” Solón: “Can I leave, then?” The emperor: “Yes.”
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.110
- ^ Calmon (1975), p.1617
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.110
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.218
- ^ Schwarcz, p.460
- ^ Calmon (1975), p.1617
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.218
- ^ Schwarcz, p.461-462
- ^ Calmon (1975), p.1611
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.111
- ^ Barman (1999), p.361
- ^ Olivieri p.53
- ^ Schwarcz, p.461
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.219
- ^ Calmon (1975), p.1622
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.112-113
- ^ The emperor: “What is this? So I will have to embark at his hour of the night?” Mallet respectfully told him that the Government asked them to leave at that very moment. The emperor: “What Government?” Mallet: “The Government of the Republic.” The emperor: “Is Deodoro involved on this?” Mallet: “Yes, Sire. He is the Head of the Government.” Pedro II: “You are all off your heads!”
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.113
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.219
- ^ Schwarcz, p.461
- ^ Besouchet, p.545
- ^ Calmon (1975), p.1625-1626
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.114 “Não sou nenhum fugido, não sou nenhum fugido!”
- ^ Calmon (1975), p.1626 “Não sou negro fugido. Não embarco nesta hora!”
- ^ Calmon (1975), p.1626
- ^ Calmon (1975), p.1626
- ^ Barman (1999), p.362
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.114
- ^ Calmon (1975), p.1626
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.114
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.220
- ^ Schwarcz, p.463
- ^ Schwarcz, p.465
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.220
- ^ Barman (1999), p.363
- ^ Lyra (v.3), p.117
- ^ Besouchet, p.547
- ^ Besouchet, p.548
- ^ Calmon (1975), p.1633
- ^ Schwarcz, p.463
- ^ Munro, p.280
- ^ Vasquez, p.91
- ^ Salles, p.194
- ^ Barman (1999), p.400
- ^ Mônaco Janotti, p.117
- ^ Martins, p.116
- ^ Salles, p.195
- ^ Mônaco Janotti, p.255
- ^ Salles, p.195
- ^ a b c Carvalho (2007), p.238
- ^ Besouchet, p.26
- ^ Besouchet, p.28
- ^ Besouchet, p.27
- ^ a b c Besouchet, p.29
- ^ a b Carvalho (2007), p.238-9
- ^ a b c d e f g Schwarcz, p.489
- ^ a b Besouchet, p.30
- ^ Calmon, p.1891
- ^ a b Besouchet, p.601
- ^ a b Calmon, p.1892
- ^ a b Lyra (v.3), p.165
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Carvalho (2007), p.239
- ^ a b Besouchet, p.602
- ^ a b c Besouchet, p.605
- ^ a b c Besouchet, p.603
- ^ a b Calmon, p.1893
- ^ a b Calmon, p.1897
- ^ a b Besouchet, p.604
- ^ a b c Besouchet, p.606
- ^ Besouchet, p.607
- ^ a b Besouchet, p.609
- ^ a b Besouchet, p.613
- ^ Calmon, p.1896
- ^ a b c Besouchet, p.615
- ^ a b c d Calmon, p.1899
- ^ a b Calmon, p.1898
- ^ Besouchet, p.617
- ^ a b Besouchet, p.618
- ^ Besouchet, p.614
- ^ a b c d e f g h Calmon, p.1900
- ^ Besouchet, p.620
- ^ Besouchet, p.619
- ^ Barman (1999), p.401
- ^ a b c d e Carvalho (2007), p.240
- ^ Calmon, p.1900-2
- ^ a b Schwarcz, p.493
- ^ a b Mônaco Janotti, p.50
- ^ Schwarcz, p.495
- ^ Besouchet, p.610
- ^ a b c d Calmon, p.1907
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.241
- ^ Carvalho (2007), p.240-1
- ^ a b c Schwarcz, p.491
- ^ Schwarcz, p.491-2
- ^ Schwarcz, p.492
- ^ Carvalho (1987), p.29
- ^ a b Schwarcz, p.497
- ^ Martins, p.66
- ^ Schwarcz, p.469
- ^ Schwarcz, p.498-9
- ^ a b c Schwarcz, p.498
- ^ a b Salles (1996), p.15
- ^ Schwarcz, p.496
- ^ Schwarcz, p.495-6
- ^ Barman (1999), p.402
- ^ a b c Schwarcz, p.503
- ^ Martins, p.122-3
- ^ Barman (1999), p.403
- ^ Martins, p.123
- ^ a b c Schwarcz, p.508
- ^ a b c Calmon, p.1910
- ^ a b Calmon, p.1911
- ^ Schwarcz, p.1911
- ^ a b c Calmon, p.1912
- ^ Calmon, p.1912-3
- ^ a b c d Calmon, p.1913
- ^ a b c d Calmon, p.1914
- ^ a b c Calmon, p.1915
- ^ Barman (1999), p.405
- ^ Schwarcz, p.507
- ^ Schwarcz, p.506
- ^ Schwarcz, p.511
- ^ Markun, p.356
- ^ Schwarcz, p.513
- ^ Barman (1999), p.XVI
- ^ Barman (1999), p.409
- ^ Barman (1999), p.8
[edit] External links
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Pedro II of Brazil
Cadet branch of the House of Aviz
Born: December 2 1825 Died: December 5 1891 |
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| Regnal titles | ||
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| Preceded by Pedro I |
Emperor of Brazil April 7, 1831 – November 15, 1889 |
Monarchy abolished |
| Titles in pretence | ||
| Republic declared |
— TITULAR — Emperor of Brazil November 15, 1889 – December 5, 1891 |
Succeeded by Princess Isabel |
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