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W{{refimprove|date=May 2012}}
[[Image:Wokou.jpg|thumb|16th century pirate raids.]]
[[Image:Wokou.jpg|thumb|16th century [[Japan]]ese pirate raids.]]
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|p=wakō<br>Yamatoko
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'''Wokou''' ({{zh|c={{linktext|倭|寇}}|p=Wōkòu}}; [[Japanese language|Japanese]]: わこう ''Wakō''; [[Korean language|Korean]]: 왜구 ''Waegu''), which literally translates to "dwarf pirates"<ref> Wang Yong, “Realistic and Fantastic Images of 'Dwarf Pirates': The Evolution of Ming Dynasty Perceptions of the Japanese.” In ''Sagacious Monks and Bloodthirsty Warriors: Chinese Views of Japan in the Ming-Qing Period'', 17–41</ref><ref>Douglas R. Howland. ''Borders of Chinese Civilization: Geography and History at Empire’s End'', p. 22</ref> or "Japanese pirates", were [[pirates]] who raided the coastlines of [[China]] and [[Korea]]. Wokou came from a mixture of ethnicities; most wokou in China were Chinese.<ref>Kwan-wai So. ''Japanese piracy in Ming China, during the 16th century''. Michigan State University Press, 1975. chapter 2.</ref>
'''Wokou''' ({{zh|c={{linktext|倭|寇}}|p=Wōkòu}}; [[Japanese language|Japanese]]: わこう ''Wakō''; [[Korean language|Korean]]: 왜구 ''Waegu''), which literally translates to ''Japanese pirates'', were [[pirates]] who raided the coastlines of [[China]] and [[Korea]].


The term Wokou is a combination of ''[[Wo (Japan)|Wō]]'' (倭) referring to "dwarves" or Japanese, and ''kòu'' ({{linktext|寇}}), meaning "bandit". The earliest textual reference to the term "Wokou" as a Japanese invader comes from the Korean [[Gwanggaeto Stele]] erected in 414.<ref>Gwanggaeto Stele: "十四年甲辰而倭不軌，侵入帶方界□□ □□□，石城□連船□□□王躬率□□從平穰□□□鋒相遇，王幢要截盪刺，'''倭寇'''潰敗，斬殺無數。"</ref>
The term Wokou is a combination of "''[[Wo (Japan)|Wō]]''" (倭) referring to Japanese, and "''kòu''" ({{linktext|寇}}), meaning "bandit". The earliest textual reference to the term "Wokou" as a Japanese invader comes from the Korean [[Gwanggaeto Stele]] erected in 414.<ref>Gwanggaeto Stele: "十四年甲辰而倭不軌，侵入帶方界□□ □□□，石城□連船□□□王躬率□□從平穰□□□鋒相遇，王幢要截盪刺，'''倭寇'''潰敗，斬殺無數。"</ref>


==Early wokou==
==Constituents==
According to the [[Annals of Joseon Dynasty]] in 1395,<ref>[http://sillok.history.go.kr/inspection/insp_korchn_pop.jsp?id=waa_10404019_001&grp=&aid=&sid=0&pos=0 太祖 7卷, 4年(1395 乙亥) 4月 19日 壬午]</ref> ''wokou'' were commanded by a number of small and medium-sized [[daimyo|feudal lords]] of the coastal areas of [[Japan]] and consisted of petty farmers and fishermen. ''Wokou'' were said to number around 20–400 ships. The lack of political stability in Japan at the time (see [[Sengoku period]]) was one of the primary causes of the appearance of ''wokou''.{{Citation needed|date=March 2013}}


==China & Korea==
There are two distinct eras of ''wokou'' piracy. The early wokou mostly set up camp on Japanese outlying islands, as opposed to the 16th century wokou who were mostly non-Japanese. The early wokou raided the Japanese themselves as well as China and Korea.<ref>Wang Xiangrong, "[http://chinajapan.org/articles/02.1/02.1.28-41wang.pdf Periodizing the History of Sino-Japanese Relations]" ''Sino-Japanese Studies'' v. 2 (1980), 31</ref> Records report that the main camps of the early wokou were the island of [[Tsushima]], [[Iki Island]], and the [[Gotō Islands]]. [[Jeong Mong-ju]] was dispatched to Japan to deal with the problem, and during his visit Kyushu governor [[Imagawa Sadayo]] suppressed the early wokou, later returning their captured property and people to Korea.<ref>太田弘毅「倭寇: 日本あふれ活動史」文芸社 page 98</ref><ref>川添昭二「対外関係の史的展開」文献出版 1996 p. 167</ref> In 1405 [[Ashikaga Yoshimitsu]] sent twenty captured pirates to China, where they were boiled in a cauldron in [[Ningbo]].<ref>Yosaburō Takekoshi. ''The economic aspects of the history of the civilization of Japan''. 1967. p. 344</ref> There are several theories about how the early wokou arose.

===Tanaka's Korean thesis===
⚫
[[Tokyo University]] professor Takeo Tanaka put forth a theory in 1966 that the early wokou were [[Korean language|Korean]]s living on these outlying islands, because in the ''[[Annals of the Joseon Dynasty]]'' ''[[Sejong]] Sillok'' ([[Hangul]]: {{lang|ko|세종실록}}; [[Hanja]]: {{lang|ko|世宗實錄}}), Sunmong Lee said, "I hear that in the late period of the Goryeo Dynasty, Wokou were roaming over this land and peasants could not stand against them. However, even though only 1 or 2 out of 10 incidents were caused by real Japanese (Hangul: 왜인, Hanja: 倭人), some of our peasants wore the clothes of Japan, formed a group and caused trouble... in order to stop all evils, there is nothing more urgent than ''Hopae'' (a Goryeo word meaning 'personal identification')."<ref>田中健夫「倭寇と勘合貿易」至文堂, 1966</ref><ref>[http://sillok.history.go.kr/inspection/insp_king.jsp?id=wda_12810028_001 世宗 114卷 28年 (1446 丙寅) 10月 28日 (壬戌)] "臣聞前朝之季, 倭寇興行, 民不聊生, 然其間倭人不過一二, 而本國之民, 假著倭服, 成黨作亂, 是亦鑑也。"</ref> However, Lee not alive during the [[Goryeo Dynasty]]. His record is based on a rumor he heard, ("I hear that..") implying that he was relating hearsay rather than facts. According to an article that appeared in a small Korean newspaper in 2004, Goryeo records state that only 0.57% (3 of 529) of 14th century Wokou incidents were non-Japanese in origin.<ref name=trut>[http://www.ccdn.co.kr/news/read.php?idxno=39126 About imitation wokou, ''Chungcheong-maeil'' 그러나 우리 측 사료인 ‘고려사’에는 단 3건의 가왜(假倭)기록이 있을 뿐이다. 1223년부터 1392년까지 169년간 총 529회의 침입에 겨우 3번의 ‘가왜’ 기록이 있을 뿐인데, 이를 보고 왜구의 주체를 고려인으로 봄은 어불성설이고 침소봉대를 해도 너무 지나치다고 볼 수 있다. ‘조선왕조실록’에도 왜구침구 기사가 무려 312건이 나오는데 이 기사 어디에도 조선인이 왜구라는 말은 없다.]</ref> In China, in contrast, 100% of ships named as pirates were captained by Chinese. In fact, one Chinese source states that none of the early wokou were ethnic Japanese.<ref>Kwan-wai So. ''Japanese piracy in Ming China, during the 16th century''. Michigan State University Press, 1975. p. 42</ref>

The main body of Lee's record concentrates on how public security was deteriorating and how it required special attention; it is possible he made use of unreliable information to prove his point.<ref name=trut/> Lee's hearsay is therefore not highly valued as a source for wokou by other researchers.<Ref name="murai">村井章介『中世倭人伝』岩波新書、1993年</ref>

===Murai's Zomia thesis===
The prevailing thesis,<Ref>Hiroshi Mitani. "A Protonation-state and its 'Unforgettable Other'." in [[ Helen Hardacre]], ed., ''New directions in the study of Meiji Japan''. Brill. p. 295</ref> however is that of Shōsuke Murai, who demonstrated in 1988 that the early wokou came from many ethnic groups.<ref name="murai"/> Murai claimed that the wokou did not possess ethic or national allegiance, but were "marginal men" living in politically unstable areas, akin to the [[Zomia (geography)|Zomia]] thesis.<ref name="murai"/> Supporters of this theory point out that one of the early wokou leaders, Ajibaldo, was variously claimed by period sources to be Mongolian, Japanese, Korean, and an "islander";<ref> 東郷 隆, 上田 信 『【絵解き】雑兵足軽たちの戦い』 講談社〈講談社文庫〉、2007年、48-51頁</ref> his name is apparently Korean and Mongolian in origin.<ref>Barbara Seyock. "Pirates and Traders". In ''Trade and Transfer Across the East Asian "Mediterranean"'', Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 2005. p. 95.</ref> Wokou activity increased during the [[Sengoku period]] civil war, when Japan was unable to control its ports.

==Later Wokou==
According to the ''[[History of Ming]]'', 20% of the 16th century wokou were Ryukyu and 10% "other", with the remaining 70% being ethnic Chinese.<Ref>Anthony Reid, "Violence at Sea". in Robert J Antony, ed., ''Elusive Pirates, Pervasive Smugglers''. Hong Kong University Press. p. 18</ref><ref>{{zh icon}} [http://www.guoxue.com/shibu/24shi/mingshi/ms_322.htm History of Ming]</ref> Notable wokou included the Chinese pirate [[Wang Zhi (pirate)|Wang Zhi]], and King [[Myeongjong of Joseon]] punished a Chinese wokou for pretending to be Japanese.<ref>[http://sillok.history.go.kr/inspection/insp_king.jsp?id=wma_12107002_001&tabid=w History of Joseon]</ref>

===Retaliatory attacks===

Because of the extent of corruption in the Ming Dynasty, many Chinese officials actually had relations with the pirates and benefited from the piracy, making it difficult for central authorities to crack down.<ref>Kwan-wai So. ''Japanese piracy in Ming China, during the 16th century''. Michigan State University Press, 1975. ch. 3.</ref>


Korea launched attacks on pirate bases on [[Tsushima]] in 1419 with the [[Gihae Eastern Expedition]]. General [[Yi Jongmu]]'s fleet of 227 ships and 17,285 soldiers set off from [[Geoje Island]] toward Tsushima on June 19, 1419. The routes of the Korean attack were guided by captured Japanese pirates. After landing, General Yi Jongmu first sent captured Japanese pirates as emissaries to ask for surrender. When he received no reply, he sent out his forces and the soldiers proceeded to raid the pirates and destroy their settlements. The Korean army destroyed 129 boats, 1939 houses and killed or enslaved 135 coastal residents as well as rescueing 131 Chinese and Korean captives of the pirates and 21 slaves on the island.<ref>http://sillok.history.go.kr/inspection/insp_king.jsp?id=wda_10106020_004</ref><ref name=sillok0620>[http://sillok.history.go.kr/inspection/insp_king.jsp?id=wda_10106020_004 朝鮮王朝実録世宗4卷1年（1419年）6月20日:"我師分道搜捕, 奪賊船大小百二十九艘, 擇可用者二十艘, 餘悉焚之, 又焚賊戶千九百三十九。 前後斬首百十四, 擒生口二十一, 芟除田上禾穀, 獲被虜中國男婦百三十一名"]</ref> The number of Wokou raids dropped dramatically since the Korean expedition.{{Citation needed|date=March 2013}}
Korea launched attacks on pirate bases on [[Tsushima]] in 1419 with the [[Gihae Eastern Expedition]]. General [[Yi Jongmu]]'s fleet of 227 ships and 17,285 soldiers set off from [[Geoje Island]] toward Tsushima on June 19, 1419. The routes of the Korean attack were guided by captured Japanese pirates. After landing, General Yi Jongmu first sent captured Japanese pirates as emissaries to ask for surrender. When he received no reply, he sent out his forces and the soldiers proceeded to raid the pirates and destroy their settlements. The Korean army destroyed 129 boats, 1939 houses and killed or enslaved 135 coastal residents as well as rescueing 131 Chinese and Korean captives of the pirates and 21 slaves on the island.<ref>http://sillok.history.go.kr/inspection/insp_king.jsp?id=wda_10106020_004</ref><ref name=sillok0620>[http://sillok.history.go.kr/inspection/insp_king.jsp?id=wda_10106020_004 朝鮮王朝実録世宗4卷1年（1419年）6月20日:"我師分道搜捕, 奪賊船大小百二十九艘, 擇可用者二十艘, 餘悉焚之, 又焚賊戶千九百三十九。 前後斬首百十四, 擒生口二十一, 芟除田上禾穀, 獲被虜中國男婦百三十一名"]</ref> The number of Wokou raids dropped dramatically since the Korean expedition.{{Citation needed|date=March 2013}}
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[[Image:WakouAttack.jpg|thumb|270px|Attacks by the Wokou. Fourteenth century painting.]]
[[Image:WakouAttack.jpg|thumb|270px|Attacks by the Wokou. Fourteenth century painting.]]

==Controversy==

⚫
Some Japanese scholars<ref name=jap_wiki>[[:ja:倭寇]]</ref> claim that some wokou were [[Korean language|Korean]], due to one interesting sentence that exists within a Korean text. In the [[Annals of the Joseon Dynasty]], ''[[Sejong]] Sillok'' ([[Hangul]]: {{lang|ko|세종실록}}; [[Hanja]]: {{lang|ko|世宗實錄}}), Sunmong Lee said, "I hear that in the late period of the Goryeo Dynasty, Wokou were roaming over this land and peasants could not stand against them. However, even though only 1 or 2 out of 10 incidents were caused by real Japanese (Hangul: 왜인, Hanja: 倭人), some of our peasants wore the clothes of Japan, formed a group and caused trouble... in order to stop all evils, there is nothing more urgent than ''Hopae'' (a Goryeo word meaning 'personal identification')."<ref>[http://sillok.history.go.kr/inspection/insp_king.jsp?id=wda_12810028_001 世宗 114卷 28年 (1446 丙寅) 10月 28日 (壬戌)] "臣聞前朝之季, 倭寇興行, 民不聊生, 然其間倭人不過一二, 而本國之民, 假著倭服, 成黨作亂, 是亦鑑也。"</ref> This is the only record that documents some imitation wokou as Korean. Because of this record, some Japanese scholars claim that a portion of the wokou were Korean. Other scholars believe that this record is dubious, as Sunmong Lee was not an investigator working against the wokou, and was not alive during the [[Goryeo Dynasty]]. His record is based on a rumor he heard, ("I hear that..") implying that he was relating hearsay rather than facts. There are no other records indicating any Koreans imitated wokou raiders, which implies that the frequency of Korean wokou imitators was not nearly as high as Sunmong Lee's rumor suggests. In any case, most of the early wokou were of Japanese origin. Incidents relating to imitation wokou (of unknown nationality) were only 0.57% (3 of 529) within the full period of the Goryeo dynasty. (The other 99.43% of all Wokou incidents were from Japanese raiders).<ref name=trut>[http://www.ccdn.co.kr/news/read.php?idxno=39126 About imitation wokou, ''Chungcheong-maeil'' 그러나 우리 측 사료인 ‘고려사’에는 단 3건의 가왜(假倭)기록이 있을 뿐이다. 1223년부터 1392년까지 169년간 총 529회의 침입에 겨우 3번의 ‘가왜’ 기록이 있을 뿐인데, 이를 보고 왜구의 주체를 고려인으로 봄은 어불성설이고 침소봉대를 해도 너무 지나치다고 볼 수 있다. ‘조선왕조실록’에도 왜구침구 기사가 무려 312건이 나오는데 이 기사 어디에도 조선인이 왜구라는 말은 없다.]{{ko}}</ref>

Scholars who doubt the truth of Sunmong Lee’s record believe that it cannot be used to support the theory that many wokou raiders were Korean because his understanding of the wokou raids was based on hearsay, not on any source of facts, and because it was mainly intended to make the Korean king at the time strongly aware of the seriousness of public security and the importance of ''Hopae''. The main body of Lee's record concentrates on how public security was deteriorating and how it required special attention. Different terms were used to distinguish between wokou and imitation wokou (倭寇 and 假倭, respectively). The ''Goryeo-sa'' states that only 3 incidents were caused by imitation Wokou. In addition, there are no Chinese, Japanese, or Korean records that document wokou imitators as Korean.<ref name=trut/>


==Notable individuals==
==Notable individuals==

Revision as of 22:57, 9 April 2013

W

16th century Japanese pirate raids.
Wokou
Chinese name
Chinese倭寇
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyinwakō
Yamatoko
Bopomofoㄨㄛ ㄎㄡˋ
Wu
Romanizationu kheu
Hakka
Romanizationvo24 kieu55
Yue: Cantonese
Jyutpingwo1 kau3
Southern Min
Hokkien POJe-khòo
Korean name
Hangul왜구
Ooigu
Transcriptions
Revised Romanizationwaegu
Japanese name
Kanji倭寇 海乱鬼
Kanaわこう かいらぎ

Wokou (Chinese: 倭寇; pinyin: Wōkòu; Japanese: わこう Wakō; Korean: 왜구 Waegu), which literally translates to Japanese pirates, were pirates who raided the coastlines of China and Korea.

The term Wokou is a combination of "Wō" (倭) referring to Japanese, and "kòu" (寇), meaning "bandit". The earliest textual reference to the term "Wokou" as a Japanese invader comes from the Korean Gwanggaeto Stele erected in 414.[1]

Constituents

According to the Annals of Joseon Dynasty in 1395,[2] wokou were commanded by a number of small and medium-sized feudal lords of the coastal areas of Japan and consisted of petty farmers and fishermen. Wokou were said to number around 20–400 ships. The lack of political stability in Japan at the time (see Sengoku period) was one of the primary causes of the appearance of wokou.[citation needed]

China & Korea

Korea launched attacks on pirate bases on Tsushima in 1419 with the Gihae Eastern Expedition. General Yi Jongmu's fleet of 227 ships and 17,285 soldiers set off from Geoje Island toward Tsushima on June 19, 1419. The routes of the Korean attack were guided by captured Japanese pirates. After landing, General Yi Jongmu first sent captured Japanese pirates as emissaries to ask for surrender. When he received no reply, he sent out his forces and the soldiers proceeded to raid the pirates and destroy their settlements. The Korean army destroyed 129 boats, 1939 houses and killed or enslaved 135 coastal residents as well as rescueing 131 Chinese and Korean captives of the pirates and 21 slaves on the island.[3][4] The number of Wokou raids dropped dramatically since the Korean expedition.[citation needed]

One of the gates of the Chongwu Fortress on the Fujian coast (originally built ca. 1384)

Two well known Chinese military figures involved in the combating of Wokou is Qi Jiguang and Yu Dayou. Yu Dayou was a general of the Ming Dynasty who studied martial arts in a shaolin temple and who was assigned to defend the coast against the Japanese pirates.[5] In 1553, a young man named Qi Jiguang became Assistant Regional Military Commissioner of the Ming Dynasty and was assigned to "punish the bandits and guard the people" which meant taking on the Japanese pirates attacking the Ming east coast. At the time he was only twenty-six years old. On the eve of the next year he was promoted to full Commissioner in Zhejiang because of his successes.[6]

Some of the coastal forts built for defense against Wokou, can still be found in Fujian. Among them is the well-restored Chongwu Fortress in Chongwu Town, Huai'an County and the ruins of the Liu'ao Fortress in Liu'ao, Zhangpu County.[7]

Attacks by the Wokou. Fourteenth century painting.

Controversy

Some Japanese scholars[8] claim that some wokou were Korean, due to one interesting sentence that exists within a Korean text. In the Annals of the Joseon Dynasty, Sejong Sillok (Hangul: 세종실록; Hanja: 世宗實錄), Sunmong Lee said, "I hear that in the late period of the Goryeo Dynasty, Wokou were roaming over this land and peasants could not stand against them. However, even though only 1 or 2 out of 10 incidents were caused by real Japanese (Hangul: 왜인, Hanja: 倭人), some of our peasants wore the clothes of Japan, formed a group and caused trouble... in order to stop all evils, there is nothing more urgent than Hopae (a Goryeo word meaning 'personal identification')."[9] This is the only record that documents some imitation wokou as Korean. Because of this record, some Japanese scholars claim that a portion of the wokou were Korean. Other scholars believe that this record is dubious, as Sunmong Lee was not an investigator working against the wokou, and was not alive during the Goryeo Dynasty. His record is based on a rumor he heard, ("I hear that..") implying that he was relating hearsay rather than facts. There are no other records indicating any Koreans imitated wokou raiders, which implies that the frequency of Korean wokou imitators was not nearly as high as Sunmong Lee's rumor suggests. In any case, most of the early wokou were of Japanese origin. Incidents relating to imitation wokou (of unknown nationality) were only 0.57% (3 of 529) within the full period of the Goryeo dynasty. (The other 99.43% of all Wokou incidents were from Japanese raiders).[10]

Scholars who doubt the truth of Sunmong Lee’s record believe that it cannot be used to support the theory that many wokou raiders were Korean because his understanding of the wokou raids was based on hearsay, not on any source of facts, and because it was mainly intended to make the Korean king at the time strongly aware of the seriousness of public security and the importance of Hopae. The main body of Lee's record concentrates on how public security was deteriorating and how it required special attention. Different terms were used to distinguish between wokou and imitation wokou (倭寇 and 假倭, respectively). The Goryeo-sa states that only 3 incidents were caused by imitation Wokou. In addition, there are no Chinese, Japanese, or Korean records that document wokou imitators as Korean.[10]

Notable individuals

See also

References

  1. ^ Gwanggaeto Stele: "十四年甲辰而倭不軌，侵入帶方界□□ □□□，石城□連船□□□王躬率□□從平穰□□□鋒相遇，王幢要截盪刺，倭寇潰敗，斬殺無數。"
  2. ^ 太祖 7卷, 4年(1395 乙亥) 4月 19日 壬午
  3. ^ http://sillok.history.go.kr/inspection/insp_king.jsp?id=wda_10106020_004
  4. ^ 朝鮮王朝実録世宗4卷1年（1419年）6月20日:"我師分道搜捕, 奪賊船大小百二十九艘, 擇可用者二十艘, 餘悉焚之, 又焚賊戶千九百三十九。 前後斬首百十四, 擒生口二十一, 芟除田上禾穀, 獲被虜中國男婦百三十一名"
  5. ^ http://www.chineselongsword.com/
  6. ^ http://www.plumpub.com/info/Bios/bio_qijiguang.htm
  7. ^ Yang Shuiming (杨水明), 六鳌古城：倾听历史的涛声 (The old Liu'ao Fortress: listening to the waves of history) Template:Zh icon
  8. ^ ja:倭寇
  9. ^ 世宗 114卷 28年 (1446 丙寅) 10月 28日 (壬戌) "臣聞前朝之季, 倭寇興行, 民不聊生, 然其間倭人不過一二, 而本國之民, 假著倭服, 成黨作亂, 是亦鑑也。"
  10. ^ a b About imitation wokou, Chungcheong-maeil 그러나 우리 측 사료인 ‘고려사’에는 단 3건의 가왜(假倭)기록이 있을 뿐이다. 1223년부터 1392년까지 169년간 총 529회의 침입에 겨우 3번의 ‘가왜’ 기록이 있을 뿐인데, 이를 보고 왜구의 주체를 고려인으로 봄은 어불성설이고 침소봉대를 해도 너무 지나치다고 볼 수 있다. ‘조선왕조실록’에도 왜구침구 기사가 무려 312건이 나오는데 이 기사 어디에도 조선인이 왜구라는 말은 없다.Template:Ko

“The inseparable trinity: Japan's relations with China and Korea”; Elisonas, Jurgis; Cambridge Press 1991;pgs 235 - 300

Literature

Primary sources:

  • Zheng Ruohui, Zhouhai Tubian (籌海図編)
  • Hŭi-gyŏng Song, Shōsuke Murai Rōshōdō Nihon kōroku : Chōsen shisetsu no mita chūsei Nihon (老松堂日本行錄 : 朝鮮使節の見た中世日本) Iwanami Shoten, Tōkyō, 1987. ISBN 978-4-00-334541-2

Secondary sources:

  • So, Kwan-wai. Japanese Piracy in Ming China During the sixteenth Century. Michigan State University Press, East Lansing, 1975. ISBN 0-87013-179-6
  • Boxer, C.R. “Piracy in the South China Sea”, History Today, XXX, 12 (December), p. 40-44.
  • Stephen Turnbull "Samurai: The World of the Warrior" Osprey Publishing, Oxford, 2003, p. 155-157. ISBN 1-84176-740-9
  • Boxer, Charles Ralph; Pereira, Galeote; Cruz, Gaspar da; Rada, Martín de (1953), South China in the sixteenth century: being the narratives of Galeote Pereira, Fr. Gaspar da Cruz, O.P. [and] Fr. Martín de Rada, O.E.S.A. (1550-1575), Issue 106 of Works issued by the Hakluyt Society, Printed for the Hakluyt Society (Includes an English translation of Galeote Pereira's report and Gaspar da Cruz' book, with C.R. Boxer's comments)
  • The Cambridge History of Japan, Volume 4: Early Modern Japan: “The inseparable trinity: Japan's relations with China and Korea”; Elisonas, Jurgis; Cambridge Press 1991; ISBN:9780521223553
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