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The first figures on population of cross-bred cattle, from the livestock census in 1982, indicated that they made up 4.6% of the country's cattle. Half of them were in [[Uttar Pradesh]] and [[Kerala]], with Kerala having replaced 46% of its indigenous cattle with cross-breds.{{sfn|Venkatasubramanian|Singh|Rao|2003|p=36}}
The first figures on population of cross-bred cattle, from the livestock census in 1982, indicated that they made up 4.6% of the country's cattle. Half of them were in [[Uttar Pradesh]] and [[Kerala]], with Kerala having replaced 46% of its indigenous cattle with cross-breds.{{sfn|Venkatasubramanian|Singh|Rao|2003|p=36}}


In 1965, the panel on animal husbandry recommended the use of [[Jersey cattle|Jersey]], and limited use of [[Brown Swiss]] and [[Holstein Friesian cattle]] for cross-breeding. After experiments, new breeds were developed such as the Jersind (at [[Allahabad Agricultural Institute]]), Karan Swiss, Karan Fries (at [[National Dairy Research Institute]]) and [[Sunandini]] (in Kerala).{{sfn|Venkatasubramanian|Singh|Rao|2003|pp=38-39}}
In 1965, the panel on animal husbandry recommended the use of [[Jersey cattle]], and limited use of [[Brown Swiss]] and [[Holstein Friesian cattle]] for cross-breeding. After experiments, new breeds were developed such as the Jersind (at [[Allahabad Agricultural Institute]]), Karan Swiss, Karan Fries (at [[National Dairy Research Institute]]) and [[Sunandini]] (in Kerala).{{sfn|Venkatasubramanian|Singh|Rao|2003|pp=38-39}}


A review in 1984 concluded that cross-bred cows were more suitable for high milk production than indigenous cattle or buffaloes. They were also found to be more efficient in converting feed into milk. Subsequent studies in later years came to similar conclusions and noted the impact of cross-breeding on increased production and rural development.{{sfn|Venkatasubramanian|Singh|Rao|2003|p=39}} Cross-breeding also resulted in increased rates of conception, shorter [[dry cow|dry periods]], and substantially longer lactation lengths.{{sfn|Venkatasubramanian|Singh|Rao|2003|pp=40-42}}
A review in 1984 concluded that cross-bred cows were more suitable for high milk production than indigenous cattle or buffaloes. They were also found to be more efficient in converting feed into milk. Subsequent studies in later years came to similar conclusions and noted the impact of cross-breeding on increased production and rural development.{{sfn|Venkatasubramanian|Singh|Rao|2003|p=39}} Cross-breeding also resulted in increased rates of conception, shorter [[dry cow|dry periods]], and substantially longer lactation lengths.{{sfn|Venkatasubramanian|Singh|Rao|2003|pp=40-42}}

In October 2000, the Government of India instituted a ten-year program called the 'National Project for Cattle and Buffalo Breeding' (NPCBB). The objectives of this project were to improve the genetics and availability of buffaloes and indigenous cattle through the implementation of a breed improvement program, ensure all viable cattle became part of organized breeding, and to organise delivery of artificial insemination equipment to the locale of farmers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dahd.nic.in/related-links/national-project-cattle-and-buffalo-breeding |title=National project cattle and buffalo breeding |publisher=DADH |access-date=2020-09-12}}</ref>


===Processing===
===Processing===

Revision as of 08:07, 14 September 2020

Sculpture of a cow and calf, Uttar Pradesh, 7th century CE. Collection of the Los Angeles County Museum of Art.

Dairy plays a significant part in numerous aspects of Indian society, including cuisine, religion, culture, and the economy.

Dairy production in what is now India has historical roots that reach back 8,000 years to the domestication of cattle. Dairy products, especially milk, were consumed on the subcontinent at least from the Vedic period. Indian cuisine, in particular North Indian cuisine, features numerous dairy derivatives to this day. Dairy products including milk play a part in Hindu religious practice and legend, as well as in Ayurveda, a traditional form of alternative medicine.

In the mid- to late 20th century, Operation Flood transformed the Indian dairy industry into the world's largest. Previously, milk production in India occurred mainly on household farms. The majority of milk produced in India today comes from buffaloes; cow milk is a close second, and goat milk a distant third.

The economic impact of the dairy industry in India is substantial. Some dairy imports are subject to tariffs, and the domestic industry is regulated by government agencies including the Ministry of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries; National Dairy Development Board; and Food Safety and Standards Authority of India.

History

Early period

The dairy industry in what is now India reaches back roughly 8,000 years to the first domestication of zebu cattle.[1] The Indus Valley Civilisation domesticated and used cattle for milk production.[2]

The Vedas refer to milk in a number of passages. In the Vedic period (c. 1500–500 BCE), milk was one of the primary elements of the typical diet.[3] People consumed milk and milk products including clarified butter. Cows are referred to as aghnya (not to be killed).[4] Both the Vedas and the Pali canon, which are rich in descriptions of contemporary culture, contain numerous references to offerings of milk products and their processing.[5] The Vedas describe curdling of milk by mixing a portion of soured milk into it. They also mention curdling of milk by the addition of plant substances such as the bark of the palash tree and the fruit of jujube, which may have contained rennet-like enzymes. These are some of the earliest documented references to enzymatic cheese production.[6][7]

Milk, curds, and ghee were important elements of food in the Indian subcontinent over the reigns of rulers from different religious backgrounds. A number of foreign travellers noted the presence of dairy products in the Indian diet.[8]

Modern period

A rail car carrying milk, labelled Operation Flood, at Renigunta Junction in Renigunta.

Dairy in India was once a largely traditional subsistence-oriented occupation practised with the objective of producing milk for home consumption. In 1916, a dairy animal census was conducted for the first time by British colonial officials. A report authored in 1937 indicated a sub-optimal rate of milk consumption in the country. It estimated a per capita intake of 7 ounces (200 g) per day (inclusive of all dairy products), which was the lowest among all large dairy countries. Low productivity of dairy animals and widespread poverty were the challenges in increasing dairy production and consumption. Consumption varied by geographic and economic conditions, but was on the whole quite low.[9]

In the 1920s, modern milk processing and marketing technologies were introduced in India. The National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) was founded in 1965. It launched Operation Flood in 1969–70.[10] Operation Flood, an economic development programme operated by the government of India from 1970 to 1996, transformed the Indian dairy industry into a global leader. The programme proceeded in three phases. Phase I (1970–1981) focussed on developing dairy production in areas surrounding New Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, and Chennai.[11] Phase II (beginning 1986), a larger phase of the project, expanded investment to 147 urban centres across the country.[12] Phase III, which continued to the mid-1990s, expanded investment still further, to a number of smaller towns.[13] In addition to investments by the government of India, several phases of Operation Flood were funded in part by the World Bank and European Economic Community.[14]

India has been the world's largest milk producer since 1997, when it surpassed the United States.[15][16]

Culture

Cuisine

See also: List of Indian dairy products
Indian dairy products and preparation[17]
Method Products
Lactic acid fermentation Dahi, shrikhand, lassi
Fermented milk coagulation Chhena, paneer, whey
Heat condensation Kheer, khoa, rabri, malai
Heat condensation and freezing Kulfi

Dairy has been an integral part of Indian cuisine from ancient times to the present. In the Vedic period, milk was one of the primary elements of the typical diet. There is clear evidence that milk was widely consumed as a beverage by the beginning of the Common Era.[18]

North Indian cuisines are particularly well known to heavily rely on dairy products.[19] A distinctive feature of Punjabi cuisine is the use of paneer, a type of cheese. The Punjabi dal makhani is a rich stew of black lentils, kidney beans, butter and cream.[20] The main paneer dishes are mattar paneer, palak paneer, shahi paneer, paneer kofta, paneer bhurgy, etc. Paneer is also used for making paneer pakora (a fried snack) and paneer paratha (a layered chapati stuffed with paneer).[21]

Ghee, a form of clarified butter, is commonly used in Indian cuisines. It used with rice preparations like biryani and as a spread on unleavened breads (roti). It has a strong flavour and is also used as cooking oil for dishes.[22][23]

Cream is also usually used in dishes in North Indian cuisines to make the gravy rich and creamy.[24]

Another common use of milk is in tea (chai). By and large, most tea consumed in India is sugared milk tea.[25] Drinking tea became ingrained in Indian culture over the 20th century,[26] with a per-capita consumption of 0.78 kg as of 2018.[27]

Religion

See also: Cattle in religion and mythology § In Indian religions
Water buffalo near Kodassery, 2015.

The cow has a sacred status in Hinduism, which is the majority religion in India. However, as of 2017–18, nearly half the milk produced in India came from buffaloes,[28][29][30][31][32] which are also consumed as meat (carabeef). In contrast to the cow, the water buffalo is seen as unclean and inauspicious. In Hindu mythology, evil is often represented by the water buffalo. The Hindu god of Death, Yama rides on a water buffalo. In the 1940s, Mahatma Gandhi lamented the preference for buffalo milk in the Indian society, noting the nutritional superiority of cow milk.[33]

According to the Indologist Wendy Doniger, during the early Common Era, the ideal Hindu devotee's practice changed from sacrifice and consumption of cows to milking of cows. Milk, curd and ghee were three of the five sacred cow products for Hindus.[34]

Milk is one of the offerings made by devotees in a number of Hindu festivals, such as Maha Shivaratri[35][36] and Nag Panchami.[37] During Pongal, rice is boiled in milk until it overflows out of the clay pot, and then offered to the gods, to the cows, and finally to the family members.[38][39] During Holi, milk is used for preparing Thandai, a slightly intoxicating drink.[40] In Kerala, the state government procured 85 lakh litres of milk for the festival of Onam in 2015.[41]

There was some conflict in early Buddhism, with its emphasis on ahiṃsā (non-violence), as to whether drinking milk was ethical as it deprived calves of their nourishment, but this view was ultimately abandoned.[34]

Jainism, even with its more extreme views on ahiṃsā and vegetarianism, does not prohibit consumption of dairy products. While the Jain doctrine prohibits intentional infliction of suffering or distress to any multi-sensed being, most Jains do consume dairy products. This has been source of tension in the religion. Some Jains argue that dairy (along with other animal products like wool) can be produced without causing hiṃsā (harm). However, this ignores the reality of industralised dairy production which typically causes great distress to the animals. The sentiment in the Jain community is growing in the direction of veganism.[42]

Traditional medicine

Milk plays a part in Ayurveda, a form of alternative medicine practiced in India.[43] Ayurveda recommends daily consumption of milk because of its good digestive and sedative properties.[44]

Production

See also: Animal husbandry in India

Proportion of milk by species (2017–18)[28]

  Indigenous buffalo (35%)
  Non-descript buffalo (14%)
  Goat (4%)
  Non-descript cows (10%)
  Indigenous cows (10%)
  Cross-bred cows (26%)
  Exotic cows (1%)

India has the highest level of milk production and consumption among all countries.[45][46] The annual production was 186,000 tonnes as of 2018.[47]

As of 2020, approximately 4.2 percent of India's gross domestic product was due to dairy production.[48] In 2019, the Indian dairy sector was reported to be growing at 4.9 percent yearly.[49] In 2018–19, the Government of India reported that 187.7 million tonnes of milk had been produced, and that the per capita availability of milk in India was 394 grams per day.[50]

India has a population of over 300 million bovines as per the 2019 livestock census – including 192.49 million cattle and 109.85 million buffaloes.[51] Nearly half of the milk produced in India comes from water buffaloes, as opposed to cows;[28][30] previously, water buffalo produced the majority of milk in India.[52] As of 2019, buffaloes produced 91.82 million tonnes.[29] Goat milk is the third-most produced variety of milk,[43] with a contribution of 4% as of 2017–18.[28] The predominant genotype in Indian native breeds of cows and buffaloes is described as A2A2, meaning they produce A2 milk.[53]

There are 16 breeds of buffaloes recognised in India. However, about 56% of the buffaloes are non-descript. The Murrah is the best breed for dairy.[54]

The population of indigenous breeds of cattle have steadily been decreasing, while that of the more productive exotic and cross-bred breeds have been increasing.[51] Indigenous cows produce about 3.73 kg of milk per day, compared to 7.61 kg per day for cross-bred cows and 11.48 kg per day for exotic cows.[28] However, the milk of indigenous cows have higher nutritional value and experts have thereby posited that declining number of indigenous cows can have long-term health and environmental effects.[51]

Today, India is largely self-sufficient in milk production.[55][56] Until the country's independence in 1947, dairy production and trade were almost entirely in the household sector. Isolated attempts were made in the 1930s and 1940s towards forming co-operatives to organise production activities, though this came to be successful only after independence.[57] Milk production in India increased approximately threefold between 1968 and 2001, when it reached 80 million metric tonnes per year.[58] As of 2004–05, milk production was estimated to be of 90.7 million metric tonnes.[59] As of 2010, the dairy industry accounted for 20 percent of India's gross agricultural output.[56]

In Maharashtra alone, there are approximately 4 million dairy farmers,[60] although as of 2014 Gujarat had the highest dairy output of the states and union territories of India.[61] The livestock sector in India is characterised by large numbers but little productivity across species. As of 1992, the number of cattle, the most popular species, was 204 million.[62] Dairy production in India is primarily sourced from small-scale dairy farmers; most of India's 75 million rural dairy farms consist of 10 cattle or less and are family-owned and operated.[63]

Cross-breeding programmes

Cross-breeding of cattle started in India in 1875. However, it did not receive much attention from policy-makers until 1961.[64] Since 1965, cross-breeding of indigenous breeds with exotic ones has been extensively carried out with the intent to improve milk production.[65] However, such programmes have generated a lot of controversy.[66]

The first figures on population of cross-bred cattle, from the livestock census in 1982, indicated that they made up 4.6% of the country's cattle. Half of them were in Uttar Pradesh and Kerala, with Kerala having replaced 46% of its indigenous cattle with cross-breds.[66]

In 1965, the panel on animal husbandry recommended the use of Jersey cattle, and limited use of Brown Swiss and Holstein Friesian cattle for cross-breeding. After experiments, new breeds were developed such as the Jersind (at Allahabad Agricultural Institute), Karan Swiss, Karan Fries (at National Dairy Research Institute) and Sunandini (in Kerala).[67]

A review in 1984 concluded that cross-bred cows were more suitable for high milk production than indigenous cattle or buffaloes. They were also found to be more efficient in converting feed into milk. Subsequent studies in later years came to similar conclusions and noted the impact of cross-breeding on increased production and rural development.[68] Cross-breeding also resulted in increased rates of conception, shorter dry periods, and substantially longer lactation lengths.[69]

Processing

Amul facility in Gujarat.

According to estimates, about 25% of the total milk produced undergoes commercial processing, of which about 70% is sold as packaged milk while the remaining 30% is used for preparation of dairy products. Packaged milk is typically pasteurised milk, and is usually a mixture of cow milk and buffalo milk since most dairies do not have separate collection systems for them. It is sold in variants on the basis of the fat content:[70]

Variant % fat % solid-not-fat (SNF)
Full cream milk 6% 9%
Standardised milk 4.5% 8.5%
Toned milk 3.0% 8.5%
Double toned milk 1.5% 9%
Skimmed milk 0.5% 8.7%

According to a 2014 estimate by Euromonitor, the value of retail sales of packaged dairy products was US$10.2 billion.[71]

Fermentation-based processes are used to produce products such as dahi, shrikhand, mishti doi, lassi and chaas. About 7–9% of the total milk production is used for making dahi intended for direct consumption.[72] Dahi is largely made at homes,[73] though it is also industrially produced. Shrikhand is sweetened and dewatered dahi, very popular in western and parts of southern India.[74] Mishti doi is another variant of sweetened dahi popular in eastern parts of the country. While it commonly uses cane sugar as the sweetener, some variants may use palm jaggery. Shrikhand and mishti doi are usually consumed as desserts or snacks. Lassi is a sweetened buttermilk, popular in north India. Lassi is industrially produced through ultra-high-temperature processing.[75]

Additive coagulation processes yield paneer and chhena. Paneer is prepared by adding an acidic coagulant to heated milk and then pressing and draining the mixture under mechanical pressure.[76] Paneer historically used to produced in homes using high-fat buffalo milk, and is one of the most used dairy products.[77] Industrial production of paneer was 4,496 tonnes as of 2003–04, with an estimated 5% of all milk being turned into paneer.[78] Chhena is another traditional dairy product, also prepared by adding an organic acid coagulant to hot milk. It is similar to paneer but softer and hence formless. It is not consumed directly, but used as a base or filler material for preparation of a variety of Indian sweets such as rasgulla, rasmalai and sandesh. The country's production of chhena was estimated to be 200,000 tonnes annually in 2009.[21]

Consumption

Vendors in Amritsar transporting milk in gagar, 2019.

Milk consumption levels are not uniformly distributed across India, with the people of north-west India being significant consumers, and the north-east populace being comparatively less so. States with higher consumption of meat and eggs are noted to have lesser consumption of milk, as dairy products are one of the few sources of protein for vegetarians.[79][80] Milk has an income elasticity of demand greater than unity – the consumption increases with the rising income levels of the population.[81]

The per-capita consumption of milk over 30 days was reported to be 4.333 litres for rural households and 5.422 litres for urban households as of 2011–12,[82] with the corresponding monthly expenditure being Rs 116.33 for rural and Rs 186.47 respectively.[80]

As of 2018, the fluid milk consumption was projected at 67.7 million tonnes, and was noted to be growing by 6–7 million tonnes annually. Ghee is the most consumed among the value-added dairy products. The demand for non-fat dried milk (NFDM) and butter were projected to be 600,000 tonnes and 5.6 million tonnes respectively.[83] Demand for pasteurised milk produced in the formal (organised) sector has been increasing, probably due to its perceived safety over the milk produced in the unorganised sector.[84]

Regulation

Cattle and dairy production

Illustration from Cow-Keeping in India, a 1900 work on cattle management.

The key regulatory body for dairy production is the Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying (DAH&D), which is under the Ministry of Animal Husbandry, Dairying and Fisheries.[85] Prior to 1991, dairy was managed within a division of the Ministry for Agriculture; a separate department was established in order to combine dairy-related functions from the Agriculture and Food Processing Ministries. DAH&D manages livestock and deals with matters concerning the development of the dairy industry. It is also the managing authority for the National Dairy Development Board (NDDB), a research institute established by Verghese Kurien to finance and develop the Indian dairy industry.[49] The NDDB also administers the National Dairy Plan on behalf of the government of India.[86] Within DAH&D, the Cattle Division focuses on dairy development.[87] Since 2014, the birthday of Verghese Kurien, 26 November, is commemorated as National Milk Day in the country.[88]

Certification of cattle health is conducted by the Veterinary Council of India, which is funded by the DAH&D. The Veterinary Council of India establishes regulations for inspection of dairy cattle, and for measures to control the spread of disease and strengthening livestock.[89] Livestock in the dairy industry are also regulated by the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1960, under which guidelines are issued regarding milking, artificial insemination, and transport of cattle. These guidelines are monitored and enforced by the DAH&D.[90] The slaughter of dairy cattle, and cows in particular, is prohibited in many states in India, and in 2017, the Union Government issued the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (Regulation of Livestock Market) Rules 2017 which prohibited the sale of lactating cattle for slaughter.[91]

Under the Essential Commodities Act 1955, the Government of India can issue orders to control the regulation, supply and sale of products in India. The Milk and Milk Products Order (MMPO) issued under this act in 1992 is still in force, and requires any person handling more than 10,000 liters of milk to register with the Central and State Governments.[92]

Adulteration and food safety

The regulatory authority for dairy products intended for consumption is the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI), which operates under the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare in the Government of India. The FSSAI requires commercial dairy and dairy co-operatives, as well as milk processing units to register and license themselves under the 2011 Food Safety and Standards (Licensing and Registration of Food Businesses) Regulations.[93] In addition, standards of purity and testing for milk products have been laid down in the Food Safety and Standards (Food Products Standards and Food Additives) Regulations.[94]

The issue of adulteration in dairy products in India has attracted concern from regulators. A 2018 survey by the FSSAI found 0.18% of samples unsafe for human consumption due to adulteration. The adulterants detected included Aflatoxin M1, hydrogen peroxide, detergent, urea and neutralisers.[95] Approximately 68.7 per cent of milk and milk products sold in India does not meet FSSAI standards.[96] Rampant adulteration of dairy products has been observed during the festive season when the demand increases.[97] In May 2020, a report by the Consumer Guidance Society of India (CGSI) in found that 79% of the milk in Maharashtra is adulterated.[98]

In July 2020, the FSSAI indicated that it would be revising standards for milk intended for consumption, with the intention of tackling the issue of adulteration of milk and milk products.[99]

Trade

Imports

Cow in Udaipur, 2019.

India currently imposes duties on imported milk products, including processed milk powder and dairy derivatives such as butter, cheese, whey, and yoghurt. Of these, whey and cheese form India's largest imports, most of which are used in further processing and food production. The issue of relaxing import duties on dairy products has been a point of negotiation for India in the context of the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership.[81][100]

In 2011, the FSSAI banned the import of all cheese into the country that used animal rennet – which is extracted from the stomach of newborn calves, killing the animal in the process. Import of animal rennet itself has been banned since 1984.[101]

In 2020, an industry proposal to allow the import of skimmed milk powder into India without any import duties was met with protests and resistance from Indian dairy producers, including Amul, on the grounds that it would harm domestic milk production.[102]

Due to religious reasons, imports of most dairy products into India require certification that the animals involved in the production have not been fed on feed containing extracts of ruminant origin. As a consequence, most U.S dairy products are prohibited from import. The Indian and U.S governments have had trade discussions over U.S access to the Indian dairy market.[103][45]

Since 2008, the Indian government has placed bans on the import of milk, and products containing it, from China. These were in response to the reported presence of melamine in the milk; a toxic substance.[104][105]

Exports

During 2019–20, India exported 51,421.85 metric tonnes of dairy products, at a total value of ₹1,341.03 crore (US$186.71 million). Major destinations for this export are the United Arab Emirates, Bhutan, Turkey, Egypt and the United States.[106] Due to a high level of domestic consumption paired with global prices of an un-competitive nature, India's exports of dairy products are minimal.[107]

See also

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Sources

External links

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