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'''Political correctness''' (adjectivally '''politically correct''', both forms commonly abbreviated to '''PC''') is a term used to describe language, ideas, policies, or behaviour seen as seeking to minimize offence to racial, cultural, or other identity groups. Conversely, the term '''politically incorrect''' is used to refer to language or ideas that may cause offense or that are unconstrained by orthodoxy.
'''Political correctness''' (adjectivally '''politically correct''', both forms commonly abbreviated to '''PC''') is a term used to describe language, ideas, policies, or behaviour seen as seeking to minimize offence to racial, cultural, or other identity groups. Conversely, the term '''politically incorrect''' is used to refer to language or ideas that may cause offense or that are unconstrained by orthodoxy.

{{POV}}


The term itself and its usage are hotly contested. The term "political correctness" is used almost exclusively in a [[pejorative]] sense.<ref name="Schultz-1993a">Schultz, Debra L. (1993). To Reclaim a Legacy of Diversity: Analyzing the “Political Correctness” Debates in Higher Education. New York: National Council for Research on Women.</ref><ref name="Perry-1992a">Ruth Perry, (1992), "A short history of the term 'politically correct' " in ''Beyond PC: Toward a Politics of Understanding '' by Aufderheide, Patricia 1992</ref>
The term itself and its usage are hotly contested. The term "political correctness" is used almost exclusively in a [[pejorative]] sense.<ref name="Schultz-1993a">Schultz, Debra L. (1993). To Reclaim a Legacy of Diversity: Analyzing the “Political Correctness” Debates in Higher Education. New York: National Council for Research on Women.</ref><ref name="Perry-1992a">Ruth Perry, (1992), "A short history of the term 'politically correct' " in ''Beyond PC: Toward a Politics of Understanding '' by Aufderheide, Patricia 1992</ref>

Revision as of 18:22, 8 December 2007

Political correctness (adjectivally politically correct, both forms commonly abbreviated to PC) is a term used to describe language, ideas, policies, or behaviour seen as seeking to minimize offence to racial, cultural, or other identity groups. Conversely, the term politically incorrect is used to refer to language or ideas that may cause offense or that are unconstrained by orthodoxy.

The term itself and its usage are hotly contested. The term "political correctness" is used almost exclusively in a pejorative sense.[1][2]

Some commentators have argued that the term "political correctness" is a straw man invented by conservative ideologues in the 1990s to discredit progressive social change, especially with respect to issues of race and gender.[1][3]Ruth Perry traces the term back to Mao's little red book. According to Perry, the term was later adopted by the radical left in the 1960s. In the 1990s, because of the term's association with radical politics and communist censorship, it was used by the political right in the United States in attempt to discredit the political left, including liberals and Democrats.[2]

The term can also be used to describe any form of political orthodoxy whether the orthodoxy is from the left or the right.

History

The often quoted earliest cited usage of the term (in the form "not politically correct") comes from the U.S. Supreme Court decision Chisholm v. Georgia (1793), where it clearly means that the statement it refers to is not literally correct, owing to the political status of the United States as it was understood at that time.[4]

The term "political correctness" is derived from Marxist-Leninist vocabulary, and was used to describe the appropriate "party line" [5], commonly referred to as the "correct line" [6]Those people who opposed (or were seen as opposing) the "correct line" were often punished.[7]. A similar term has been used in communist countries, such as China.[2]

It was then adopted in several related meanings by some in the U.S. political Left. One example cited by Ruth Perry [2] is in 1970, in Toni Cade Bambara's essay The Black Woman where she writes, "a man cannot be politically correct and a chauvinist too". This example illustrates the later usage of the term to focus on gender and identity issues rather than on political orthodoxy in general.

Within a few years, however, the term "political correctness" had been re-appropriated within the U.S. political left as a satirical form of criticism of ideas seen as too doctrinaire and rigid. According to Debra Shultz, "Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, the New Left, feminists, and progressives...used their term 'politically correct' ironically, as a guard against their own orthodoxy in social change efforts."[8][1][2] It was in this sense that the popular usage of the phrase in English derived.Cite error: A <ref> tag is missing the closing </ref> (see the help page). and was employed by such narrators as Bobby London in his underground comic Merton of the Movement. The alternative term "ideologically sound" followed a similar trajectory to this point, appearing in satirical works such as Bart Dickon comic strips.

In an example typical of use within the left, Ellen Willis records that "in the early '80s, when feminists used the term 'political correctness' it was used to refer sarcastically to the anti-pornography movement's efforts to define a 'feminist sexuality'".[9]

In the 1990s, the term became part of a conservative challenge to curriculum and teaching methods on college campuses in the United States (D'Souza 1991; Berman 1992; Schultz 1993; Messer Davidow 1993, 1994; Scatamburlo 1998). In a commencement address at the University of Michigan in 1991, U.S. President George H. W. Bush spoke out against a "movement" who would "declare certain topics off-limits, certain expressions off-limits, even certain gestures off-limits."[10]

The phrase "politically correct" has become popular in other countries as well, including several Scandinavian countries (politiskt korrekt=pk), Portugal, Spain and Latin America (políticamente correcto), New Zealand[11], France (politiquement correct), Germany (politisch korrekt), The Netherlands (politiek correct), Italy (politicamente corretto) and Russia (политкорректность, политкорректный).[citation needed]. Although the dominant use is pejorative, a few authors use the term 'political correctness' to describe inclusive language or civility, and thus praise language that they see as "politically correct".[12]

As linguistic concept

According to Andrews[13], the practice of using "inclusive" or "neutral" language is based on the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis, which states that a language's grammatical categories shape its speakers' ideas and actions.[14] The objective is to make people aware of unconscious biases, thus allowing them to make more informed choices about their language and their usage of expressions different people might find offensive. While few support the hypothesis in its strong form, many linguists accept a more moderate version,[citation needed] namely that the ways in which we see the world may be influenced by the kind of language we use. In its strong form, criticised by Andrews the hypothesis states that, for example, sexist language promotes sexist thought[citation needed].

What critics call "political correctness" is in some cases attempts to use non-offensive language The goal of changing language and terminology consists of several points, including:

  1. Certain people have their rights, opportunities, or freedoms restricted due to their categorization as members of a group with a derogatory stereotype.
  2. This categorization is largely implicit and unconscious, and is facilitated by the easy availability of labeling terminology.
  3. By making the labeling terminology problematic, people are made to think consciously about how they describe someone.
  4. Once labeling is a conscious activity, individual merits of a person, rather than their perceived membership in a group, become more apparent.

According to Andrews

The position [is] that language represents thought and may even control thought. If a speaker is no longer allowed to refer to a female as girl and, instead, must use the word woman, then that speaker is more likely to view the female as an equal to her linguistic counterpart, man.... The hearer[] is equally impacted as a participant of a narrated event. Furthermore, if younger speakers and hearers are taught to use only the word woman, one would expect success in the perception and legislation of equality among the sexes.[13]

Andrews describes the following as "characteristic examples of suggested language" which she regards as being associated with the phenomena of cultural sensitivity and political correctness (she "makes no attempt to differentiate these terms"):

  • woman, not girl
  • African-American, not colored or black
  • server or waitperson, not waiter or waitress
  • flight attendant, not steward or stewardess
  • fire fighter, not fireman
  • chair, not chairman or chairwoman
  • Representative, not Congressman or Congresswoman
  • Asian, not Oriental
  • Ukraine', not The Ukraine[13]

She gives some anecdotal examples of disputes over these terms, but cites no cases where they have been supported on the explicit ground that they are politically correct

The situation is complicated by the fact that members of identity groups sometimes embrace terms that others seek to change. For example, deaf culture has always considered the label "Deaf" as an affirming statement of group membership and not insulting or disparaging in any way. The term now often substituted for the term "deaf", hearing-impaired, was developed to include people with hearing loss due to aging, accidents, and other causes. While more accurate for those uses, the term "hearing-impaired" is considered highly derogatory by many deaf people. The term "Hard of Hearing," however, is considered an acceptable descriptive term for a limited- to non-hearing person.[citation needed]

A further issue is that terms selected by an identity group as more acceptable descriptors will then pass into common use, including use by people whose attitudes are those formerly associated with words which the new terms were designed to supersede. The new terms thus become devalued, and a further set of expressions must be coined. This can give rise to lengthy progressions such as "negro", "colored", "black", "African-American". (See Euphemism treadmill.)

Criticism

General

Critics argue that political correctness implies censorship and endangers free speech by limiting what is in the public discourse, especially in universities and political forums. University of Pennsylvania professor Alan Charles Kors and lawyer Harvey A. Silverglate, connect political correctness to the ideas of Marxist Herbert Marcuse, in particular his claim that liberal ideas of free speech were in fact repressive. They see this "Marcusean logic" as being at the basis of the hundreds of college speech codes formulated on American university campuses.[15]

Others contend that politically correct terms are awkward, euphemistic substitutes for the original stark language. They also draw comparisons to George Orwell's invented language Newspeak.[16]

Several political figures claim that political correctness is a serious movement aiming to change the nature of Western society. Thus, Peter Hitchens has written in his book The Abolition of Britain, "What Americans describe with the casual phrase .... political correctness is the most intolerant system of thought to dominate the British Isles since the Reformation". Lind and Buchanan have characterized PC as a technique originated by the Frankfurt School. According to Lind and Buchanan, the work of the Frankfurt School aimed at undermining Western values by influencing popular culture through Cultural Marxism.[17][18] Buchanan, says, in his book The Death of the West: "Political Correctness is Cultural Marxism, a regime to punish dissent and to stigmatise social heresy as the Inquisition punished religious heresy." [citation needed]

Camille Paglia, a self-described "libertarian Democrat," argues that political correctness gives more power to the Left's enemies and alienates the masses against feminism.[19]

Some critics of political correctness claim that it marginalizes certain words, phrases, actions or attitudes through the instrumentation of public disesteem.[20][21]

Some conservative critics of political correctness, argue that it is a form of coercion rooted in the assumption that in a political context, power refers to the dominion of some men over others, or the human control of human life; by this argument, ultimately, it means force or compulsion.[22] This argument holds that correctness in this context is subjective, and corresponds to the sponsored view of the government, minority, or special interest group that these conservative critics oppose. They claim that by silencing contradiction, their opponents entrench their views as orthodox, and eventually cause it to be accepted as true, as freedom of thought requires the ability to choose between more than one viewpoint.[23][24] Some conservatives refer to political correctness as "The Scourge of Our Times."[25]

Critics of political correctness have been accused of showing the same sensitivity to choice of words they claim to be opposing, and of perceiving a political agenda where none exists[26]. For example, a number of news outlets claimed that a school altered the nursery rhyme "Baa Baa Black Sheep" to read "Baa Baa Rainbow Sheep".[27]. In fact, the nursery, run by Parents and Children Together (Pact), simply had the kids "turn the song into an action rhyme. ... They sing happy, sad, bouncing, hopping, pink, blue, black and white sheep etc [28]. The spurious claim about the nursery rhyme was widely circulated and later amplified into a suggestion that similar bans applied to the terms "black coffee" and "blackboard" [29]. According to Private Eye magazine, similar stories, all without factual basis, have run in the British press since first appearing in the Sun in 1986[30]

Political correctness and science

Opponents of mainstream scientific views on evolution, global warming, passive smoking, AIDS and other issues have claimed that political correctness is responsible for the failure of their views to get a fair hearing. Thus Ted Steele, an associate university professor of biology, says, in his book, Lamarck's Signature: "We now stand on the threshold of what could be an exciting new era of genetic research. ... However, the 'politically correct' thought agendas of the neo-Darwinists of the 1990's are ideologically opposed to the idea of 'Lamarckian feedback' just as the church was opposed to the idea of evolution based on natural selection in the 1850's!"[citation needed].

Tom Bethell's Politically Incorrect Guide to Science is the most comprehensive presentation of the viewpoint that mainstream science is dominated by politically correct thinking. Bethell rejects mainstream views on evolution and global warming and supports AIDS reappraisal.

Most argue that the majority of non-mainstream scientists or pseudo-scientists claim bias within the scientific community as an explanation for why their theories remain unaccepted.

As engineered term

Some commentators argue that the term "political correctness" was engineered by American conservatives around 1980 as a way to reframe political arguments in the United States. According to Hutton:

"Political correctness is one of the brilliant tools that the American Right developed in the mid-1980s as part of its demolition of American liberalism....What the sharpest thinkers on the American Right saw quickly was that by declaring war on the cultural manifestations of liberalism - by levelling the charge of political correctness against its exponents - they could discredit the whole political project."[31]

Such commentators say that there never was a "Political Correctness movement" in the United States, and that many who use the term are attempting to distract attention from substantive debates over discrimination and unequal treatment based on race, class, and gender (Messer-Davidow 1993, 1994; Schultz 1993; Lauter 1995; Scatamburlo 1998; Glassner 1999). Similarly, Polly Toynbee has argued that "the phrase is an empty rightwing smear designed only to elevate its user".[32]

Right wing political correctness

Allegations of political correctness have been directed against the political right.

During the run-up to the invasion of Iraq, several weeks after their Grammy success the country band the Dixie Chicks performed in concert in London on March 10, 2003, at the Shepherd's Bush Empire theatre. During this concert, the band gave a monologue to introduce their song Travelin' Soldier, during which Natalie Maines, a Texas native, was quoted by The Guardian as saying, "Just so you know, [...] we're ashamed that the President of the United States is from Texas."[8] Though this is the official circulation of the comment, the full text of the statement Natalie Maines made was as follows: “ Just so you know, we’re on the good side with y’all. We do not want this war, this violence, and we’re ashamed that the President of the United States is from Texas. ”

The resulting backlash against the band was described by Don Williams as an example of enforcing politically correct views from the right. Williams wrote "the ugliest form of political correctness occurs whenever there's a war on. Then you'd better watch what you say. Three years ago, a virulent strain of right wing political correctness all but shut down debate about the war in Iraq. Not only was it deemed “impolite” to criticize the war. Firebrands like Ann Coulter and Bill O'Reilly called it treason." [33]

In 2004, then Australian Labor leader Mark Latham described conservative calls for "civility" as "The New Political Correctness" [2].

Similar examples include attempts to rename French fries as Freedom Fries and to boycott French wine in retaliation for France's decision to not support the U.S. invasion of Iraq.

Satirical use

The use of political language modification has a history in comedy and satire. Two of the earlier and famous examples are 1992's Politically Correct Manifesto by Saul Jerushalmy and Rens Zbignieuw X and 1994's Politically Correct Bedtime Stories by James Finn Garner, in which traditional fairy tales are rewritten from an exaggerated PC viewpoint. Other examples include Bill Maher's former television program, which was entitled Politically Incorrect and George Carlin's "Euphemisms" routine. [3] The Politically Correct Scrapbook also further satirises political correctness. Also seen on [4], a christian website, there is a politically correct christmas story. [5] Another example of satirical language is the use of alternative shopper in exchange for robber, or "vagino-Americans" instead of "women".

In response to the "Freedom Fries" incident, it was suggested that the Fama-French model used in corporate finance might be renamed the "Fama-Freedom" model [34]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c Schultz, Debra L. (1993). To Reclaim a Legacy of Diversity: Analyzing the “Political Correctness” Debates in Higher Education. New York: National Council for Research on Women.
  2. ^ a b c d e Ruth Perry, (1992), "A short history of the term 'politically correct' " in Beyond PC: Toward a Politics of Understanding by Aufderheide, Patricia 1992
  3. ^ Messer-Davidow 1993, 1994; Lauter 1995; Scatamburlo 1998; Glassner 1999.
  4. ^ Chisholm v State of GA, 2 US 419 (1793) Findlaw.com - Accessed February 6, 2007. "The states, rather than the People, for whose sakes the States exist, are frequently the objects which attract and arrest our principal attention [...]. Sentiments and expressions of this inaccurate kind prevail in our common, even in our convivial, language. Is a toast asked? 'The United States,' instead of the 'People of the United States,' is the toast given. This is not politically correct."
  5. ^ Ellis, Frank (2004). Political correctness and the theoretical struggle. Auckland: Maxim Institute.
  6. ^ "Marxism and Form". Retrieved 2007-08-26.
  7. ^ John L. H. Keep: A History of the Soviet Union 1945–1991: Last of the Empires, page 31
  8. ^ Schultz citing Perry, 1992, P. 16
  9. ^ Ellen Willis, "Toward a Feminist Revolution", in No More Nice Girls: Countercultural Essays, Wesleyan University Press, 1992, ISBN 0-8195-5250-X, p. 19.
  10. ^ Remarks at the University of Michigan Commencement Ceremony in Ann Arbor, May 4 1991. George Bush Presidential Library.
  11. ^ mapp (Friday, 9 December 2005). "Political Correctness - Next Steps". Retrieved 2007-04-19. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  12. ^ "Teaching Politically Correct Language". {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  13. ^ a b c Cultural Sensitivity and Political Correctness: The Linguistic Problem of Naming, Edna Andrews, American Speech, Vol. 71, No. 4 (Winter, 1996), pp. 389-404.
  14. ^ Development and Validation of an Instrument to Measure Attitudes Toward Sexist/Nonsexist Language Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, March, 2000 by Janet B. Parks, Mary Ann Roberton [1]
  15. ^ Kors AC and Silvergate H, "Codes of silence - who's silencing free speech on campus -- and why" Reason Magazine (online), November 1998 - Accessed February 6, 2007.
  16. ^ Schmidt M. "The Orwellian Language of Big Government" NTUF Policy Paper 152 Accessed February 3, 2007.
  17. ^ William S. Lind states Political Correctness is a form of cultural marxism
  18. ^ Buchanan interview on Fox News
  19. ^ Camille Paglia says it best-- Accessed February 2, 2007. "My message to the media is: Wake up! The silencing of authentic debate among feminists just helps the rise of the far right. When the media get locked in their Northeastern ghetto and become slaves of the feminist establishment and fanatical special interests, the American audience ends up looking to conservative voices for common sense. As a libertarian Democrat, I protest against this self-defeating tyranny of political correctness."
  20. ^ "Beyond political correctness." HPR online (the online site of the Harvard political review), Posted March 6, 2006 - Accessed February 6, 2007.
  21. ^ Young C. "Under the radar - political correctness never died." Reason Online July 2004 - Accessed February 6, 2007. "On campuses across America, the censorship of speech and ideas in the name of sensitivity continues unabated."
  22. ^ Bailyn B. The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution. p. 55-56. Cambridge: The Harvard University Press, 1967,1992. ISBN 0-674-44302-0. "The essence of what they meant by power was perhaps best revealed inadvertently by John Adams as he groped for words in drafting his Dissertation on the Canon and Feudal Law. Twice choosing and then rejecting the word "power," he finally selected as the specification of the thought he had in mind "dominion," and in this association of words the whole generation concurred. "Power" to them meant the dominion of some men over others, the human control of human life: ultimately force, compulsion."
  23. ^ Strauss L. Persecution and the Art of Writing. p. 23. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1952. ISBN 0-226-77711-1. "They have not been convinced by compulsion, for compulsion does not produce conviction. It merely paves the way for conviction by silencing contradiction. What is called freedom of thought in a large number of cases amounts to — and even for all practical purposes consists of — the ability to choose between two or more different views presented by the small minority of people who are public speakers or writers. If this choice is prevented, the only kind of intellectual independence of which many people are capable is destroyed, and that is the only freedom of thought which is of political importance."
  24. ^ Mansfield HC "The cost of free speech." The Weekly Standard. October 3, 2005 - Accessed February 6, 2007. "For lively exchange you need balance, as it is easy for a dominant majority to be unruffled by dissent when it is only from a token few."
  25. ^ Political Correctness: The Scourge of Our Times - Agustin Blazquez with the collaboration of Jaums Sutton
  26. ^ "Obsolete: Baa Baa Rainbow Bollocks". Retrieved 2007-10-06.
  27. ^ Blair, Alexandra (2006-03-07). "Why black sheep are barred and Humpty can't be cracked". The Times. Retrieved 2007-10-05.
  28. ^ "BBC NEWS". Retrieved 2007-10-06. {{cite web}}: Text "Education" ignored (help); Text "Nursery opts for 'rainbow' sheep" ignored (help); Text "UK" ignored (help)
  29. ^ "Teen Ink - Bah, Bah, Rainbow Sheep". Retrieved 2007-10-06.
  30. ^ "Obsolete: Baa Baa Rainbow Bollocks". Retrieved 2007-10-06.
  31. ^ Hutton W, "Words really are important, Mr Blunkett" The Observer, Sunday December 16, 2001 - Accessed February 6, 2007.
  32. ^ Toynbee P, "Religion must be removed from all functions of state", The Guardian, Sunday December 12, 2001 - Accessed February 6, 2007.
  33. ^ "Don Williams Insights - Dixie Chicks Were Right". Retrieved 2007-11-09.
  34. ^ ""Fama-French" Model Renamed "Fama-Freedom" Model - GSB News, Chicago Business". Retrieved 2007-11-09.

Further reading

  • Aufderheide, Patricia. (ed.). 1992. Beyond P.C.: Toward a Politics of Understanding. Saint Paul, Minnesota: Graywolf Press.
  • Berman, Paul. (ed.). 1992. Debating P.C.: The Controversy Over Political Correctness on College Campuses. New York, New York: Dell Publishing.
  • Buchanan, Patrick J.2002. The Death of the West, St Martin's Press.
  • Gottfried, Paul E., After Liberalism: Mass Democracy in the Managerial State, 1999. ISBN 0-691-05983-7
  • Jay, Martin., The Dialectical Imagination: A History of the Frankfurt School and the Institute of Social Research, 1923-1950, University of California Press, New Ed edition (March 5, 1996). ISBN 0-520-20423-9
  • Switzer, Jacqueline Vaughn. Disabled Rights: American Disability Policy and the Fight for Equality. Washington DC: Georgetown University Press, 2003.
  • Wilson, John. 1995. The Myth of Political Correctness: The Conservative Attack on High Education. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press.

Against

  • Dinesh D'Souza, Illiberal Education: The Politics of Race and Sex on Campus New York: Macmillan, Inc./The Free Press, 1991, ISBN 0-684-86384-7
  • Henry Beard and Christopher Cerf, The Official Politically Correct Dictionary and Handbook, Villard Books, 1992, paperback 176 pages, ISBN 0-586-21726-6
  • David E. Bernstein, "You Can't Say That! The Growing Threat to Civil Liberties from Antidiscrimination Laws," Cato Institute 2003, 180 pages ISBN 1-930865-53-8
  • Daniel Brandt, "An Incorrect Political Memoir", Lobster Issue 24: December 1992.
  • William S. Lind, "The Origins of Political Correctness", Accuracy in Academia, 2000.
  • Nat Hentoff, Free Speech for Me - But Not for Thee, HarperCollins, 1992, ISBN 0-06-019006-X
  • Diane Ravitch, The Language Police: How Pressure Groups Restrict What Students Learn, Knopf, 2003, hardcover, 255 page.
  • Nigel Rees, The Politically Correct Phrasebook: what they say you can and cannot say in the 1990s, Bloomsbury, 1993, 192 pages, ISBN 0-7475-1426-7
  • Kors, Alan C. (1998). The Shadow University: The Betrayal of Liberty on America’s Campuses. New York: Free Press. ISBN 0-684-85321-3. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Arthur Schlesinger Jr., The Disuniting of America: Reflections on a Multicultural Society, W.W. Norton, 1998 revised edition, ISBN 0-393-31854-0
  • Howard S. Schwartz, Revolt of the Primitive: An Inquiry into the Roots of Political Correctness, Piscataway, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2003 Revised Paperback Edition ISBN 0-765-80537-5
  • The Campaign Against Political Correctness

Sceptical

  • Ellen Messer-Davidow. 1993. "Manufacturing the Attack on Liberalized Higher Education." Social Text, Fall, pp. 40–80.
  • Ellen Messer-Davidow. 1994. "Who (Ac)Counts and How." MMLA (The Journal of the Midwest Modern Language Association), vol. 27, no. 1, Spring, pp. 26–41.
  • Scatamburlo, Valerie L. 1998. Soldiers of Misfortune: The New Right's Culture War and the Politics of Political Correctness. Counterpoints series, Vol. 25. New York: Peter Lang.
  • Debra L. Schultz. 1993. To Reclaim a Legacy of Diversity: Analyzing the "Political Correctness" Debates in Higher Education. New York: National Council for Research on Women.
  • P. Lauter. 1995. "'Political correctness' and the attack on American colleges." In M. Bérubé & C. Nelson, Higher education under fire: Politics, economics, and the crisis in the humanities. New York, NY: Routledge.
  • Barry Glassner, The Culture of Fear New York: Basic Books, 1999, ISBN 0-465-01489-5 / ISBN 0-465-01490-9
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