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'''[[Religious violence]] in [[India]]''' includes the targeting of religious institutions, the [[persecution]] of people on the basis of their [[religion]]. A predominantly Hindu country, many different religions are practiced in India ([[Hindu]] 80%, [[Muslim]] 13%, [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]], and [[Sikhism]] taken together account for 3% and [[Christianity]] accounts for 2% of the population) and while people of these faiths often coexist peacefully, the country has also been prone to outbreaks of religious violence in many occasions. Religious fundamentalism is a major cause behind this religious violence; with Hindu nationalism, [[Sikh]] [[Separatism]], [[Fundamentalist Christianity]], and [[Islamic fundamentalism]] acting as major forces. Major conflicts include the [[1984 Anti-Sikh Riots]], the [[Bombay Riots|riots in Mumbai in 1992]], the [[2002 Gujarat violence]], the [[2007 Orissa violence]]. Lesser incidents occur in many towns and villages.
'''[[Religious violence]] in [[India]]''' includes the targeting of religious institutions, the [[persecution]] of people on the basis of their [[religion]]. A predominantly Hindu country, many different religions are practiced in India ([[Hindu]] 80%, [[Muslim]] 13%, [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]], and [[Sikhism]] taken together account for 3% and [[Christianity]] accounts for 2% of the population) and while people of these faiths often coexist peacefully, the country has also been prone to outbreaks of religious violence in many occasions. Religious fundamentalism is a major cause behind this religious violence; with Hindu nationalism, [[Sikh]] [[Separatism]], [[Fundamentalist Christianity]], and [[Islamic fundamentalism]] acting as major forces. Major conflicts include the [[1984 Anti-Sikh Riots]], the [[Bombay Riots|riots in Mumbai in 1992]], the [[2002 Gujarat violence]], the [[2007 Orissa violence]]. Lesser incidents occur in many towns and villages.


Revision as of 16:12, 31 March 2008

Religious violence in India includes the targeting of religious institutions, the persecution of people on the basis of their religion. A predominantly Hindu country, many different religions are practiced in India (Hindu 80%, Muslim 13%, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism taken together account for 3% and Christianity accounts for 2% of the population) and while people of these faiths often coexist peacefully, the country has also been prone to outbreaks of religious violence in many occasions. Religious fundamentalism is a major cause behind this religious violence; with Hindu nationalism, Sikh Separatism, Fundamentalist Christianity, and Islamic fundamentalism acting as major forces. Major conflicts include the 1984 Anti-Sikh Riots, the riots in Mumbai in 1992, the 2002 Gujarat violence, the 2007 Orissa violence. Lesser incidents occur in many towns and villages.

The United States Department of State in its annual human rights report for 2006 noted attacks against religious minorities in India.[1] State Department's annual reports on religious freedom for 2007 expressed concern over organized societal attacks against religious minorities.[2] However in judging overall religious freedom, the report noted signs of improvement in India along with Saudi Arabia and Vietnam compared to Iran, Iraq, Burma, Eritrea, North Korea, China and Egypt.[3]

Ancient India

It has been suggested that the Buddhist Stupa in Sanchi was vandalized by Hindu king Pusyamitra Sunga.[4]

There are some incidents of orthodox Brahmins, under rising Sunga emperor Pusyamitra Sunga, adopted a violent anti-Buddhist policy.[5]He is recorded as having "destroyed monasteries and killed Monks".[6][7] British historian John Keay wrote, "As a source of political differentiation and conflict they (religious and cultural identities) are not much in evidence in pre-Islamic India, were often exaggerated thereafter, and only became paramount during the last decades of British Rule." [8]

December 24/25, 1024 AD, Mahmud of Ghazni attacked the temple of Somnath in Gujarat. Over 50,000 Hindus were slaughtered. Mahmud of Ghazni personally destroyed the Shiva lingam after stripping it of its gold. [9]

During Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent from 13th to 16th century, Islamic invaders and rulers destroyed and replaced many Hindu temples with mosques.[10]

During the Goa Inquisition, described as "contrary to humanity" by Voltaire [11], conversions to Catholicism occurred by force and many native Goans were executed by the Portuguese.[12][13]

During the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the revolt was fractured along religious lines,[14] and many Hindus dissatisfied by the Muslim rulers, supported the British.[15]

In the Moplah Rebellion in 1921, dissatisfaction of Muslim Moplah community with the British rule and sectarian resentment against the land owning Hindu Nairs who sided with the British,[16] led to riots, with a jihad being declared against non-Muslims[17].

Dead bodies after the Direct Action Day in Calcutta in 1946, the year before independence.

Direct Action Day, started on August 16, 1946, led approximately 3000 dead and 17000 injured.[18]

The Partition of India was based on religion, leading to two states — the Muslim-majority Dominion of Pakistan (comprising what is now the Islamic Republic of Pakistan and the People's Republic of Bangladesh) and the Hindu-majority Union of India (now the Republic of India). In the riots after the partition, more than 50000 people, comprising of Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs in Punjab, Bengal, Delhi and other parts of India died. [19]

Constitutionally India is a secular state, [20] but large-scale violence have periodically occurred in India since independence. In recent decades, communal tensions and religion-based politics have become more prominent, [21] coinciding with a rise in Islamic terrorism. Although India is generally known for religious pluralism, [22] the Hindutva ideology propagates that India belongs to the Hindus, and the Christians and the Muslims are "aliens", [23] and many proponents of this ideology portray violence against Muslims and Christians as a form of "self-defence" against "invaders". [24] The Hindutva ideology is at the core of Sangh Parivar politics and its expression in violence against religious minority. [23] Throughout the history of post-Independence India, both Muslim and Christian communities have faced repeated attacks from Hindu activists. [25][unreliable source?] As the Hindutva ideology has grown more powerful over the years, many Hindutva activists have partaken in riots against minority communities. [26] Over the last decade, religious violence in India has increasingly become what academics believe to be organized pogroms to eliminate minority communities. [27] [28] [29] Some state governments in India have been accused of not effectively prosecuting those who attack religious minorities. [2]

Sikh militancy and 1984 Anti-Sikh Riots

Main articles: Khalistan, Khalistan movement, and 1984 Anti-Sikh riots

Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale, the leader of the Damdami Taksal, a Sikh religious group based in India,[30] had heavy influence among many Sikhs in Punjab. Bhindranwale was a Khalistani separatist militant leader who tried to spread the original values of Sikhism and persuaded young people to follow the original rules and tenets of the religion and supported the creation of the proposed Sikhism-based theocratic state of Khalistan.[31] Bhindranwale and other militants occupied the Akal Takht complex, including the Golden Temple, in Amritsar.[32] He was killed in Operation Blue Star by the Indian Army, who had orders from Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi to kill separatist Sikh militants inside the temple.

Indira Gandhi was assassinated on October 31, 1984 by two of her Sikh guards as part of the retaliatian of many Sikhs after Operation Bluestar. After the assassination the 1984 anti-Sikh riots took place in Delhi. The main perpetrators were led by supporters of the Indian National Congress and the Nehru-Gandhi Dynasty.

The riots started on 1st November and continued till 3rd November 1984. The killings were led by activists and sympathizers of Indian National Congress. The first killing of a Sikh reported from east Delhi in the early hours of November 1. About 9 am, armed mobs took over the streets of Delhi and launched a massacre. Everywhere the first targets were Gurdwaras – to prevent Sikhs from collecting there and putting up a combined defence. The then Congress government was widely criticized for doing very little at the time, possibly acting as a conspirator, especially since voting lists were used to identify Sikh families. [33] .The reactions seemed politically managed and confined to the Congress party .[34]

Ayodhya and Babri Mosque

Main article: Ayodhya debate
File:Babri rearview.jpg
The 16th Century Babri Mosque was destroyed by the members of VHP and Bajrang Dal in 1992,[35] resulting in nationwide religious riots and persecution of Hindus in neighbouring Bangladesh and Pakistan

During the almost 800 years of Muslim conquest and rule in India, Islamic invaders and rulers destroyed and replaced many Hindu temples with mosques.[36] In more recent times, Hindu groups such as Vishva Hindu Parishad are attempting to reclaim some of these sites, which include some of the most scared sites such as Ram Janmabhoomi and Krishnajanmabhoomi. This attempt to reclaim such sites has often led to tensions between Hindu and Muslim communities in India.[37]

On December 6, 1992, members of the Vishva Hindu Parishad and the Bajrang Dal destroyed the 430 year old Babri Mosque in Ayodhya,[35] allegedly built over the birthplace of the Hindu deity Rama. This action caused great anger in the Muslim community. The resulting religious riots caused at least 1200 deaths.[38][39] Reprisals against Hindu minorities also occurred in Pakistan and Bangladesh. Since then the Government of India has blocked off or heavily increased security at these disputed sites while encouraging attempts to resolve these disputes through court cases and negotiations.[40]

Bombay Riots and blasts in Mumbai

Main articles: Bombay Riots and 1993 Bombay bombings

The Bombay Riots occurred in the city of Mumbai, there was an incident of arson, killings and property destruction in every suburb of the city. The riots occurred in the aftermath of the destruction of the Babri Mosque in Ayodhya by Hindu nationalists on December 6, 1992. 500 people died in the resulting violence of the worst civil unrest in India since the partition. Four people died in a fire in the Asalpha timber mart at Ghatkopar, five were killed in the burning of Bainganwadi; shacks along the harbor line track between Sewri and Cotton Green stations were gutted; and a couple was pulled out of a rickshaw in Asalpha village and burnt to death. [41] The riots changed the demographics of Mumbai greatly, as Hindus moved to Hindu-majority areas and Muslims moved to Muslim-majority areas. It is estimated that almost 200,000 people moved location in the aftermath of the riots.

After the riots the 1993 Bombay bombings occurred, where a series of thirteen bomb explosions took place in Mumbai (then Bombay) on March 12, 1993.[42] The coordinated attacks were the most destructive bomb explosions in Indian history. The single-day attacks resulted in over 250 civilian fatalities and 700 injuries.[43] The attacks are believed to have been coordinated by Dawood Ibrahim, don of the organized crime syndicate named D-Company, which had operated as a terrorist organization.[44] It is believed that the attacks were carried out in retaliation for the destruction of Babri Mosque. There were fears that the attacks would restart the rioting, but this did not occur.

2002 Gujarat violence

Many Ahmedabad's buildings were set on fire during 2002 Gujarat violence
Main article: 2002 Gujarat violence

In 2002 a series of communal riots took place between Hindus and Muslims in Gujarat in February-May 2002, sparked by the Godhra Train Burning. According to the death toll given to the parliament on May 11, 2005 by the government, 790 Muslims and 254 Hindus were killed, and another 2,548 injured. 223 people are missing. The report placed the number of riot widows at 919 and 606 children were declared orphaned.[45][46][47] According to human rights groups, the death tolls were up to 2000.[48][49][50][51][52][53][54] According to the Congressional Research Service, up to 2000 people, mostly Muslim were killed in the violence.[55] Tens of thousands were displaced from their homes because of the violence. The large-scale, collective violence has been described by some as a "massacre"[56] and an attempted pogrom or genocide[57] of the Muslim population. According to New York Times reporter Celia Williams Dugger, witnesses were "dismayed by the lack of intervention from local police", who often "watched the events taking place and took no action against the attacks on Muslims and their property".[58] The perpetrators of the violence, Sangh leaders[59][60] as well as the Gujarat government[61][62] maintain that the violence was rioting or inter-communal clashes - spontaneous and uncontrollable reaction to the Godhra train burning.[63]

Anti-Christian violence

In India, there is an increasing amount of violence being perpetrated by Hindu Nationalists against Christians.[64] According to UCLA history professor Vinay Lal, the increase in anti-Christian violence in India bears a direct relationship to the ascendancy of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP).[65] Incidents of violence against Christians have occurred in many parts of India. It is especially prevalent in Gujarat, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and New Delhi.[65] The Vishva Hindu Parishad (VHP), the Bajrang Dal, and the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) are the most responsible organizations for violence against Christians.[64] The Sangh Parivar and local media were involved in promoting anti-Christian propaganda in Gujarat.[64] The Sangh Parivar and related organisations have stated that the violence is an expression of "spontaneous anger" of "vanvasis" against "forcible conversion" activities undertaken by missionaries,[66] a belief described as mythical[67] and propaganda by Sangh Parivar;[68] the Parivar objects in any case to all conversions as a "threat to national unity".[69]

In recent years, there has been a sharp increase in violent attacks on Christians in India. From 1964 to 1996, thirty-eight incidents of violence against Christians were reported.[65] In 1997, twenty-four such incidents were reported.[70] In 1998, it went up to ninety.[65] Between January 1998 and February 1999 alone, there were one hundred and sixteen attacks against Christians in India.[71] Between 1 January and 30 July 2000, more than fifty-seven attacks on Christians were reported.[72] The acts of violence include arson of churches, forcible conversion of Christians to Hinduism, distribution of threatening literature, burning of Bibles, murder of Christian priests and destruction of Christian schools, colleges, and cemeteries.[65][64] The attacks often accompanied by large amounts of anti-Christian hate literature.[72]

In some cases, anti-Christian violence has been co-ordinated, involving multiple attacks. In 2007 Orissa violence Christians were attacked in Kandhamal, Orissa, resulting in 9 deaths and destruction of houses and churches.[73][74] Nearly twelve churches were targeted in the attack by Hindu activists.[75][76][77] Twenty people were arrested following the attacks on churches.[76]

Foreign Christian missionaries have also been targets of attacks.[25][unreliable source?] In a well-publicised case Graham Staines, an Australian missionary, was burnt to death while he was sleeping with his two sons Timothy (aged 9) and Philip (aged 7) in his station wagon at Manoharpur village in Keonjhar district in Orissa in January 1999.[64][78][79][25][unreliable source?] In 2003, the Hindu nationalist activist Dara Singh was convicted of leading the gang responsible.[80]

In its annual human rights reports for 1999, the United States Department of State criticised India for "increasing societal violence against Christians."[81] The report listed over 90 incidents of anti-Christian violence, ranging from damage of religious property to violence against Christians pilgrims.[81]

Christian Militancy in North-East India

Religion has begun to play an increasing role in reinforcing ethnic divides among the decades old militant separatist movements in north-east India.[82][83][84]

The separatist group National Liberation Front of Tripura (NLFT) seeks to convert all tribals in the state of Tripura, who are mostly Hindu or Buddhist, to Christianity. It has proclaimed bans on Hindu worship and has attacked animist Reangs and Hindu Jamatia tribesmen who resisted. Some resisting tribal leaders have been killed and their womenfolk raped. The RSS has attempted to counter Christian separatist groups by backing Reang and Jamatia tribals, and has called for the central government to help arm and fund them.[83]

Hindu nationalists, upset with the rapid spread of Chistianity in the region, link the overt Christian religiosity of the groups and the local churches' liberation theology-based doctrine to allege church support for ethnic separatism.[83] Vatsala Vedantam identifies statements from the American Baptist Churches USA as endorsing the Naga separatist cause.[85]

According to The Government of Tripura, the Baptist Church of Tripura is involved in supporting the NLFT and arrested two church officials in 2000, one of them for possessing explosives.[86]. In late 2004, the National Liberation Front of Tripura banned all Hindu celebrations of Durga Puja and Saraswati Puja[87]. The South Asia Terrorism Portal reports that up to 90% of the NLFT cadres are Christian[88]. The Naga insurgency has Christianity as its basis, and has been repeatedly involved in violence against Hindus in the region.[89][90][91][92]

Ethnic cleansing of Kashmiri Pandits

In the Kashmir region, approximately 300 Kashmiri Pandits were killed between September 1989 to 1990 in various incidents.[93] In early 1990, local Urdu newspapers Aftab and Al Safa called upon Kashmiris to wage jihad against India and ordered the expulsion of all Hindus choosing to remain in Kashmir.[93] In the following days masked men ran in the streets with AK-47 shooting to kill Hindus who would not leave.[93] Notices were placed on the houses of all Hindus, telling them to leave within 24 hours or die.[93]

Since March 1990, estimates of between 250,000 to 300,000 pandits have migrated outside Kashmir due to persecution by Islamic fundamentalists in the largest case of ethnic cleansing since the partition of India.[94]

Many Kashmiri Pandits have been killed by Islamist militants in incidents such as the Wandhama massacre and the 2000 Amarnath pilgrimage massacre.[95][96][97][98][99] The incidents of massacring and forced eviction have been termed ethnic cleansing by some observers.[93]

Lesser incidents

Lesser incidents of religious violence happen in many towns and villages in India. In October 2005, five people were killed in Mau in Uttar Pradesh during Hindu-Muslim rioting, which was triggered by the proposed celebration of a Hindu festival.[100]

On January 3rd and 4th of 2002, three Hindus and two Muslims were killed in Marad, near Calicut due to scuffles between two groups, in what began as a trivial altercation over drinking water at the public tap.[101].

On May 2 of 2003, eight Hindus and one Muslim were hacked to death by a Muslim mob, in what is believed to be a sequel to the earlier incident[102][103]. The National Development Front (NDF), a right-wing militant Islamist organization, was suspected as the perpetrator of the Marad Massacre[104].

Media portrayal

Parzania, a film about 2002 Gujarat violence did not release in Gujarat due to fear of attack from Hindu activists.

Religious violence in India have been a topic of various films and novels.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ 'India respects rights, but problems remain'
  2. ^ a b c d "International Religious Freedom Report 2007:India".
  3. ^ US reports on religious freedom
  4. ^ "Who was responsible for the wanton destruction of the original brick stupa of Asoka and when precisely the great work of reconstruction was carried out is not known, but it seems probable that the author of the former was Pushyamitra, the first of the Sunga kings (184-148 BCE), who was notorious for his hostility to Buddhism, and that the restoration was affected by Agnimitra or his immediate successor." in John Marshall, A Guide to Sanchi, p. 38. Calcutta: Superintendent, Government Printing (1918).
  5. ^ Ashok Kumar Anand (1996). Buddhism in India: From the Sixth Century B.C. to the Third Century A.D. Gyan Books. pp. p77. ISBN 8121205069. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  6. ^ Divyavadana, pp. 429–434
  7. ^ Anjana Motihar Chandra. India Condensed: 5,000 Years of History and Culture. Marshall Cavendish. pp. p19. ISBN 9812613501. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  8. ^ Keay, J. India a History, HarperCollinsPublishers London, pg. xix
  9. ^ Keay, J. India a History, HarperCollinsPublishers London, pg. 209
  10. ^ For example, Satish Chandra, Medieval India, NCERT, 1990, pp.70-71, 230-33; Romila Thapar, Medieval India, NCERT, 1979, p.141.
  11. ^ Voltaire, Lettres sur l'origine des sciences et sur celle des peuples de l'Asie (first published Paris, 1777), letter of 15 December 1775
  12. ^ Salomon, H. P. and Sassoon, I. S. D., in Saraiva, Antonio Jose. The Marrano Factory. The Portuguese Inquisition and Its New Christians, 1536-1765 (Brill, 2001), pp. 345-7.
  13. ^ Hunter, William W, The Imperial Gazetteer of India, Trubner & Co, 1886
  14. ^ The communal hatred led to ugly communal riots in many parts of U.P. The green flag was hoisted and Muslims in Bareilly, Bijnor, Moradabad, and other places the Muslims shouted for the revival of Muslim kingdom." R.C. Majumdar: Sepoy Mutiny and Revolt of 1857 (page 2303-31)
  15. ^ from the account of Bidrohi Bengali of Durgadas Bandyopadhyaya R. C. Majumdar: Sepoy Mutiny and Revolt of 1857 (page 177).
  16. ^ The Malabar Campaign (Moplah Rebellion)
  17. ^ O P Ralhan (1996). Encyclopaedia of Political Parties: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh : National, Regional, Local. Anmol Publications PVT. LTD. p. 297.
  18. ^ Wavell to Pethick Lawrence, August 21, 1946, Mansergh, Transfer of Power, Vol. VIII, P.274
  19. ^ Symonds 1950, p. 74
  20. ^ Preamble of the Constitution
  21. ^ Ludden 1996, p. 253
  22. ^ Barbara Harriss-White (2003). India Working: Essays on Society and Economy. Cambridge University Press. pp. p132. ISBN 0521007631. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  23. ^ a b Ram Puniyani (2003). Communal Politics: Facts Versus Myths. SAGE. p. 174. ISBN 0761996672.
  24. ^ Basu, Tapan Kumar (1993). Khaki shorts and saffron flags: a critique of the Hindu right. [New Delhi]: Orient Longman. p. 20. ISBN 0-86311-383-4.
  25. ^ a b c Hindu Extremists Attack Indian Churches, Torch Home of Prominent Christian
  26. ^ Paul Brass, The Production of Hindu-Muslim Violence in Contemporary India, University of Washington Press, 2003: p1144.
  27. ^ Bhatt, Chetan. "Majority ethnic" claims and authoritarian nationalism", in Eric Kaufman (ed.) Rethinking Ethnicity: Majority Groups and Dominant Minorities, Routledge, 2004.
  28. ^ Joshi, Sanjay; Walhof, Darren R.; Peterson, Derek R. (2002). The invention of religion: rethinking belief in politics and history. New Brunswick, N.J: Rutgers University Press. p. 92. ISBN 0-8135-3093-8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  29. ^ Jalal, Ayesha (1995). Democracy and authoritarianism in South Asia: a comparative and historical perspective. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 99. ISBN 0-521-47271-7.
  30. ^ Lamba, Puneet Singh (2004-06-06). "Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale: Five Myths". The Sikh Times. Retrieved 2007-06-25. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  31. ^ Joshi, Chand (1985). Bhindranwale: Myth and Reality. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House. pp. p129. ISBN 0706926943. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  32. ^ Kaur, Naunidhi (2004-06-03). "Flashbacks: Golden Temple attack". BBC News. Retrieved 2007-03-28.
  33. ^ Swadesh Bahadur Singh (editor of the Sher-i-Panjâb weekly): “Cabinet berth for a Sikh”, Indian Express, 31-5-1996.
  34. ^ Remembering 1984
  35. ^ a b The Context of Anti-Christian Violence
  36. ^ Satish Chandra, Medieval India, NCERT, 1990, pp.70-71, 230-33; Romila Thapar, Medieval India, NCERT, 1979, p.141.
  37. ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/2528025.stm
  38. ^ Gargan, Edward (December 16, 1992). "India, Acting on Militants, Ousts Local Rulers". New York Times. Retrieved November 29, 2007. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); More than one of |author= and |last= specified (help)
  39. ^ Serrill, Michael (December 21, 1992). "The Unholy War". New York Times. Retrieved November 29, 2007. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); More than one of |author= and |last= specified (help)
  40. ^ "Ayodhya excavation: Digging for trouble". 2003-03-13.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: year (link)
  41. ^ Bombay Riots (1993),The Times Group
  42. ^ "Mumbai bombings: 400 detained". CNN. July 13, 2006. Retrieved on March 15, 2007
  43. ^ Hansen, Thomas (2001). Wages of Violence: Naming and Identity in Postcolonial Bombay. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. pp. p125. ISBN 0691088403. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help)
  44. ^ James S. Robbins (July 12, 2006). "The Mumbai Blasts". National Review Online. Retrieved on March 15, 2007
  45. ^ Gujarat riot death toll revealed,BBC
  46. ^ BJP cites govt statistics to defend Modi,Indian Express
  47. ^ 254 Hindus, 790 Muslims killed in post-Godhra riots,Indiainfo.com
  48. ^ Human Rights Watch 2006, p. 265.
  49. ^ "Talibanization" and "Saffronization" in India,hir.harvard.edu
  50. ^ Why is Narendra Modi in Wembley?,The Guardian
  51. ^ India Shining, Communal Darkness,pucl.org
  52. ^ India's Calculated Ethnic Violence
  53. ^ Communal violence and nuclear stand-off
  54. ^ India in crisis
  55. ^ India-U.S. Relations
  56. ^ Ram Puniyani (2003). Communal Politics: Facts Versus Myths. SAGE. p. 282. ISBN 0761996672.
  57. ^ Tamara Sonn (2004). A Brief History of Islam. Blackwell Publishing. p. 371. ISBN 1405109009.
  58. ^ Dugger, Celia W. Hindu Rioters Kill 60 Muslims in India New York Times. New York, N.Y.:1 March 2002.
  59. ^ ""People Wanted Revenge And Got It"". Outlook. March 18, 2002.
  60. ^ "Muslim forum flays RSS resolution". The Hindu. March 19, 2002.
  61. ^ "Sectarian violence in India". The Economist. May 1st 2002. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  62. ^ "NGO says Gujarat riots were planned". BBC News Online. 19 March, 2002. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  63. ^ Brass (2005), pp. 387
  64. ^ a b c d e "Anti-Christian Violence on the Rise in India".
  65. ^ a b c d e "Anti-Christian Violence in India".
  66. ^ Low, Alaine M.; Brown, Judith M.; Frykenberg, Robert Eric (eds.) (2002). Christians, Cultural Interactions, and India's Religious Traditions. Grand Rapids, Mich: W.B. Eerdmans. p. 134. ISBN 0-7007-1601-7. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); |author= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  67. ^ Ram Puniyani (2003). Communal Politics: Facts Versus Myths. SAGE. pp. p173. ISBN 0761996672. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  68. ^ Ram Puniyani (2003). Communal Politics: Facts Versus Myths. SAGE. pp. p176. ISBN 0761996672. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  69. ^ Subba, Tanka Bahadur; Som, Sujit; Baral, K. C (eds.) (2005). Between Ethnography and Fiction: Verrier Elwin and the Tribal Question in India. New Delhi: Orient Longman. ISBN 8125028129. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); |author= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  70. ^ Ram Puniyani (2003). Communal Politics: Facts Versus Myths. SAGE. pp. p167. ISBN 0761996672. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  71. ^ Indian Christians are victims of a 'concerted campaign'
  72. ^ a b Violence against Christians continues
  73. ^ "Orissa carnage: Christian group demands CBI probe".
  74. ^ "India: Stop Hindu-Christian Violence in Orissa".
  75. ^ "Stop the hate crime".
  76. ^ a b "Fresh violence in Orissa, curfew continues".
  77. ^ "Church Attack: Indefinite curfew in Orissa".
  78. ^ Catholic priest killed in Mathura
  79. ^ INDIA
  80. ^ The Staines case verdict V. Venkatesan, Frontline Magazine, Oct 11-23, 2003
  81. ^ a b "US rights report slams India for anti-Christian violence". 1999-02-27. Retrieved 2007-12-17.
  82. ^ Fernandes, Edna. "Part II: The Crusaders, Chapter 11: 'Nagaland for Christ'". Holy Warriors: A Journey Into the Heart of Indian Fundamentalism. Penguin Global. ISBN 978-0670058709.
  83. ^ a b c Subir Bhaumik (Spring 2004), "Ethnicity, Ideology and Religion: Separatist Movements in India's Northeast", Religious Radicalism and Security in South Asia (PDF), Asia-Pacific Center for Security Studies
  84. ^ Anatomy of an Insurgency Ethnicity & Identity in Nagaland
  85. ^ Vatsala Vedantam (April 14, 1999), Privilege and resentment: Religious conflict in India, Christian Century
  86. ^ "Church backing Tripura rebels". BBC. April 18 2000. Retrieved 2007-11-30. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  87. ^ 'Church backing Tripura rebels' BBC News - April 18, 2000
  88. ^ National Liberation Front of Tripura South Asian Terrorism Portal
  89. ^ Parratt (2003). "Christianity, ethnicity and structural violence: The north-east India case". Kangla Online. Retrieved 2008-03-10. ... it is clear that the Naga insurgency movements in India ... have to a degree a Christian ideological base... It is significant the Rev Michael Scott, one of the members of the earlier abortive Peace Mission, was widely perceived as being the Nagas' spokesman. Phizo (the first Naga independence leader) was a convinced Baptist. In the earlier period a substantial number of pastors joined the underground. The insurgents did not fight on Sundays unless attacked (Horam 1988:76-77). The slogan "Nagaland for Christ" was a recognised rallying cry, and to some extent still is. Overtly Christian elements have appeared in official statements. The Constitution of the Federal Government of Nagaland, while it guaranteed free profession and practice of any religion, declared that Christianity would be the religion of the Naga state (Horam 1988:61). It was not averse to using religion as propaganda tool either, when it claimed that the "Hindu government" of India had adopted a policy of stopping Nagas eating meat. In the earlier days of the movement (Phanjoubam 1993:125) volunteer gospel teams preached under armed guard (one might almost say gun in one hand Bible in the other), and the conduct of the jungle camps was (and to some extent remains, like those in Myanmar) ordered by Christian spiritual activities. As with the non-Christian Meitei movements, the NSCN tended towards puritannical life style, banning alcohol and drugs, and discouraging sexual immorality. Provision of social amenities, like schools and clinics, goes hand in hand with religious teaching. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  90. ^ Horam, B (1988) Naga Insurgency (New Delhi)
  91. ^ Horam, B (1977) Social and cultural life of the Nagas (New Delhi)
  92. ^ Phanjoubam, Tarapot (1993) Insurgency Movement in North Eastern India (New Delhi 1993)
  93. ^ a b c d e When Kashmiri pandits fled Islamic Terror
  94. ^ "Kashmiri Pandits in Nandimarg decide to leave Valley". Outlook. 30 March 2003. Retrieved 2007-11-30. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  95. ^ "'I heard the cries of my mother and sisters'". Rediff. 27 January 1998. Retrieved 2007-11-30. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  96. ^ "Migrant Pandits voted for end of terror in valley". The Tribune. April 27 2004]. Retrieved 2007-11-30. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  97. ^ "At least 58 dead in 2 attacks in Kashmir". CNN. August 2 2000. Retrieved 2007-11-30. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  98. ^ "City shocked at killing of Kashmiri Pandits". The Times of India. 25 March 2003. Retrieved 2007-11-30. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  99. ^ Phil Reeves (March 25 2003). "Islamic militants kill 24 Hindus in Kashmir massacre". The Independent. Retrieved 2007-11-30. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  100. ^ Human Rights Watch World Report 2006
  101. ^ Marad can yet be retrieved [1]
  102. ^ IMC India - 8 Hindus hacked to death by muslim mob in kerala
  103. ^ Marad can yet be retrieved
  104. ^ NDF behind Marad massacre?
  105. ^ Bumbai (1995) IMDB
  106. ^ Earth (1998) IMDB
  107. ^ Fiza (2000) IMDB
  108. ^ Hey Ram (2000) IMDB
  109. ^ Mr. and Mrs. Iyer (2002) IMDB
  110. ^ Final Solution (2003) IMDB
  111. ^ Black Friday (2004) IMDB
  112. ^ Parzania (2005) IMDB
  113. ^ Parzania not screened in Gujarat
  114. ^ Cinema at its very best... and then some not quite so at all

References

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