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*R1a (SRY1532)
*R1a (SRY1532)
**R1a1 (M17, M198) ''Typical of [[Eastern Europe]]ans, [[Central Asia]]ns, and [[South Asia]]ns''
**R1a1 (M17, M198) ''Typical of [[Eastern Europe]]ans, [[Central Asia]]ns, and [[South Asia]]ns'' Kalina
***R1a1a (M56) ''Found in a significant minority of people of [[Eastern Europe]]''
***R1a1a (M56) ''Found in a significant minority of people of [[Eastern Europe]]''
***R1a1b (M157) ''Found at low frequency in [[Scotland]], [[Ireland]] and [[France]]''
***R1a1b (M157) ''Found at low frequency in [[Scotland]], [[Ireland]] and [[France]]''

Revision as of 02:05, 12 July 2008

Haplogroup R1a
Possible time of origin15,000 years BP
Possible place of originUkraine or Western Caucasus
AncestorHaplogroup R1
Defining mutationsSRY-1532, M17
Highest frequenciesIshkashimi 68%, Tajik/Khojant 64%, Sorbs 63%, Kyrgyz 63%, Hungarians 20.4%-60%, Poles 56%, Ukrainians 41.5%-54%, Altayans 38%-53%, Russians 47%, Pashtuns 45%, Belorussians 39%-46%

A subclade of R1, R1a is a Y-chromosome haplogroup found at high frequency (more than 40%) from the Czech Republic across to the Altai Mountains in Siberia and south throughout Central Asia.[1]

R1a arose 15,000 years ago in the vicinity of Ukraine, expanding from either the Ukrainian LGM refuge following the end of the last ice age, or from the Pontic-Caspian steppe as a result of the Kurgan migrations.[2][3][4]. But some studies question these earlier findings and claim that R1a lineages may have its origin in North India [5][6] [7]. The expansion of R1a as well as J2 has been associated with the spread of the Indo-European languages.[2][3]

Origins

European LGM refuges, 20 kya.

Although in south east Europe the R1a haplogroup occurs at just 16% frequency, high-resolution Y chromosome analysis by Pericic et al. (2005) shows a maximum diversity of R1a STR variance among mainland Croatians and Bosnians. At the current resolution level the influence of gene flow to this effect is not fully understood:

At least three major episodes of gene flow might have enhanced R1a variance in the region: early post-LGM recolonizations expanding from the refugium in Ukraine, migrations from northern Pontic steppe between 3000 and 1000 B.C., as well as possibly massive Slavic migration from A.D. 5th to 7th centuries.

The gene reach maximum distribution frequencies in Poland and in the Ukraine.

Kivisild et al. (2003) suggested that southern and western Asia might be the source of R1 and R1a differentiation.[8]

Historical distribution of the Slavic languages. The area shaded in light purple is the Prague-Penkov-Kolochin complex of cultures of the 6th to 7th c. AD, likely corresponding to the spread of Slavic tribes at the time. The area shaded in darker red indicates the core area of Slavic river names (after EIEC p. 524ff.)

Earlier, Spencer Wells, director of the Genographic Project at the National Geographic Society, identified southern Russia/Ukraine as the likely origin of R1a (as identified by genetic marker M17) on the basis of both microsatellite diversity and frequency distribution.

Microsatellite diversity is greatest in southern Russia and Ukraine, suggesting that it arose there.[1]

The current distribution of the M17 haplotype is likely to represent traces of an ancient population migration originating in southern Russia/Ukraine, where M17 is found at high frequency(>50%).[3]

Archaeological cultures associated with Indo-Iranian migrations (after EIEC). The Andronovo, BMAC and Yaz cultures are associated with early Indo-Iranian, expansion, the Swat, Copper Hoard and PGW cultures with Indo-Aryan expansion into the Indian subcontinent.

Wells et al. (2001) support spread of R1a with the expansion of the Kurgan people around 3,000 B.C., which may have been driven by the domestication of the horse, which also took place in southern Russia/Ukraine at about the same time:

The current distribution of the M17 haplotype is likely to represent traces of an ancient population migration originating in southern Russia/Ukraine, where M17 is found at high frequency(>50%). It is possible that the domestication of the horse in this region around 3,000 B.C. may have driven the migration. The distribution and age of M17 in Europe and Central/Southern Asia is consistent with the inferred movements of these people, who left a clear pattern of archaeological remains known as the Kurgan culture, and are thought to have spoken an early Indo-European language. The decrease in frequency eastward across Siberia to the Altai-Sayan mountains (represented by the Tuvinian population) and Mongolia, and southward into India, overlaps exactly with the inferred migrations of the Indo-Iranians during the period 3,000 to 1,000 B.C.

Passarino et al. (2002) support the Ukrainian LGM refuge scenario, that R1a expanded from the area of the Dniepr-Don Valley in Ukraine between 13 000 and 7600 years ago, after the Last Glacial Maximum receded.

Semino et al. (2000) propose a synthesis of these two explanations, suggesting that the spread of R1a from a point of origin in Ukraine following the Last Glacial Maximum may have been magnified by the expansion of males from the Kurgan culture area of present-day southern Ukraine, where according to Gimbutas proposals[9] Indo-European languages spread from. Within this context, the study also reminds the existence of an alternative hypothesis proposed on the basis of archeological data,[10] pointing to a Middle Eastern origin of the language family instead (see Urheimat hypotheses).

Investigation of SNP and STR markers in the Czech Republic, however, that focus on frequently related to diversity occurring within subgroup R1a1 (and two other prominent YDNA groupings), confirmed that the results are compatible with a presence of the gene during or soon after the LGM. Without any reference to Kurgan invasions, the Czech population appears to be influenced though, to a very moderate extent, by genetic inputs (E3b, J2) from outside Europe in the post-Neolithic and historical times. Population growth beginning in the first millennium B.C. was detected and found characteristic for a gene pool that already contained R1a1, next to I-M170 and P*(xR1a1).[11] The overall diversity suggests a rapid demographic expansion beginning about 60 to 80 generations ago, which would equate to about 1500 years ago (approx. 500 AD) to 2000 years ago (approx. 1 AD) with a generation time of 25 years. Similar results have been found in Lithuania.[12]

Subclades

Distribution

Distribution of R1a (purple) and R1b (red), after McDonald (2005). See also this map for distribution in Europe.

R1a is "present at high frequency (40 per cent plus) from the Czech Republic across to the Altai Mountains in Siberia and south throughout Central Asia."[1] To the east, this gene found its way as far as Eastern Siberia, with considerable concentrations in Kamchatka and Chukotka, and it is possible that the gene even entered the Americas by this route.[13]

The modern population of Ukraine has the highest level of diversity of the gene making it the likeliest location of its origin.[2][14][1] this map[15] Even in South Eastern Europe (not a major concentration of R1a1) microsatellite networks of major Y chromosomal lineages show high diveristy of R1a1 (graph C)[15]. The variance cluster in South Eastern Europe (SEE) is located in the Republic of Macedonia.[citation needed]

Europe

In Europe, R1a is found primarily in the eastern part of the continent, with the highest frequencies among the Sorbs (63.39%), Poles (56.4%),[2] , Russians (50.0%)[16] and Ukrainians (54.0%).[2] [17] An early study reported an R1a frequency of 60.0% among a sample of 45 Hungarians,[2] but a more recent study found haplogroup R1a Y-DNA in only 20.4% of a sample of 113 Hungarians.[18] The two main directional components of the spread are consistent with an East to West migration as well as a radial spread from the Balkans.[citation needed]

Pericic et al. (2005) suggest three possible explanations for the distribution of R1a variation:

At least three major episodes of gene flow might have enhanced R1a variance in the region: early post-LGM recolonizations expanding from the refugium in Ukraine, migrations from northern Pontic steppe between 3000 and 1000 B.C., as well as possibly massive Slavic migration from A.D. 5th to 7th centuries.

It is likely that Vikings settling in Britain and Ireland carried the the R1a lineage,[4] which accounts for the presence of the haplogroup on those islands.[19][20]

Central Asia

Exceptionally high frequencies of M17 are found among the Ishkashimi (68%), the Tajik population of Khojant (64%), and the Kyrgyz (63%), but are likely "due to drift, as these populations are less diverse, and are characterized by relatively small numbers of individuals living in isolated mountain valleys."[3] (The frequency of the Tajik/Dushanbe population is, at 19%, far lower than the 64% frequency of the Tajik/Khojant population.)[3]

The gene has proven to be a "diagnostic Indo-Iranian marker," and "is likely to represent traces of an ancient population migration originating in southern Russia/Ukraine," where it may have been driven by the domestication of the horse around 3,000 B.C.; its distribution and age are "consistent with the inferred movements of these people, who left a clear pattern of archaeological remains known as the Kurgan culture, and are thought to have spoken an early Indo-European language".[3]

The frequency of R1a1 in western Iran, as in the Middle East, is only 5% to 10%, but in eastern Iran, the frequency of R1a1 is around 35%.[21] Wells et al. (2001) suggest that the deserts of central Iran acted as "significant barriers to gene flow," and propose two possibilities:

Intriguingly, the population of present-day Iran, speaking a major Indo-European language (Farsi), appears to have had little genetic influence from the M17-carrying Indo-Iranians. It is possible that the pre-Indo-European population of Iran— effectively an eastern extension of the great civilizations of Mesopotamia—may have reached sufficient population densities to have swamped any genetic contribution from a small number of immigrating Indo-Iranians. If so, this may have been a case of language replacement through the ‘‘elite-dominance’’ model. Alternatively, an Indo-Iranian language may have been the lingua franca of the steppe nomads and the surrounding settled populations, facilitating communication between the two. Over time, this language could have become the predominant language in Persia, reinforced and standardized by rulers such as Cyrus the Great and Darius in the mid-first millennium B.C. Whichever model is correct, the Iranians sampled here (from the western part of the country) appear to be more similar genetically to Afro-Asiatic-speaking Middle Eastern populations than they are to Central Asians or Indians.

Noteworthy is as such, result emanate from samples of a few hundred individuals of populations living in non-Iranian inhabited areas.

Haplogroup R1a is also common among Mongolic- and Turkic-speaking populations of Northwestern China, such as the Bonan, Dongxiang, Salar, and Uyghur peoples.[22][23]

India

Further information: Genetics and Archaeogenetics of South Asia: R1a1 and R2

In India initial studies with limited samples observed a correlation between the Brahmin caste and the R1a haplogroup which was consistent with an Indo-Aryan migration from Central Asia (Bamshad et al. 2001),[24] in line with earlier suggestions (Cavalli-Sforza 1994).[25] The frequency gradients of the haplogroup, falling off eastward across Siberia to the Altai mountains and southward into India, were held to perfectly reflect the inferred migrations of the (pre-)Proto-Indo-Iranians and Indo-Iranians during the period 3000 to 1000 BC (Wells et al 2001).[3] The northern migration theory is also supported by the dating of the haplogroup (Wells et al 2003).

However, Studies of India scholars showed the R1a lineage forms around 35–45% among all the castes in North Indian population (Namita Mukherjee et al. 2001) and the Badagas of the Nilgiris making the association with the Brahmin caste more vague. A further study (Saha et al 2005)[26] examined R1a1 in South Indian tribals and Dravidian population groups more closely, and questioned the concept of its Indo-Iranian origin. Most recently Sengupta et al. (2006)[27] have confirmed R1a's diverse presence including even Indian tribal and lower castes (the so-called untouchables) and populations not part of the caste system. From the diversity and distinctiveness of microsatellite Y-STR variation they conclude that there must have been an independent R1a1 population in India dating back to a much earlier expansion than the Indo-Aryan migration.

The pattern of clustering does not support the model that the primary source of the R1a1-M17 chromosomes in India was Central Asia or the Indus Valley via Indo-European speakers.[28]

According to Sengupta et al. (table 5),[27] R1* is virtually absent in Southeast and East Asia.

Haplotypes

The Eastern European Y-DNA-R1a Modal Haplotype can be found in Poland, Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine. It has spread westwards into Germany, Bohemia, Moravia, Slovakia and Hungary. Ysearch: ANJNY

DYS 393 390 19 391 385A 385B 426 388 439 389I 392 389II 458 459A 459B 455 454 447 437 448 449 464A 464B 464C 464D
Alleles 13 25 16 10 11 14 12 12 11 13 11 30 16 9 10 11 11 23 14 20 32 12 15 15 16

The English Y-DNA-R1a Modal Haplotype could have spread to the British Isles via the Anglo-Saxons, Vikings or Normans. Ysearch: AXEZU

393 390 19 391 385A 385B 426 388 439 389I 392 389II 458 459A 459B 455 454 447 437 448 449 464A 464B 464C 464D
Alleles 13 25 16 11 11 14 12 12 10 13 11 31 15 9 10 11 11 24 14 19 32 12 14 15 16

Famous

Main articles: Somerled and Famous haplogroup members

In 2003 Oxford University researchers traced the Y-chromosome signature of Somerled of Argyll, one of Scotland's greatest warriors who is credited with driving out the Vikings. He was also the founder of Clan Donald and it is through the clan genealogies of the clan that the genetic relation was mapped out.[29] Somerled belongs to haplogroup R1a1.

In 2005 a study by Professor of Human Genetics Bryan Sykes of Oxford University led to the conclusion that Somerled has possibly 500,000 living descendants - making him the second most common historical ancestor after Genghis Khan[30]

The Y-DNA sequence is as follows (12 markers):[31]

DYS 393 390 19 391 385a 385b 426 388 439 389i 392 389ii 458 459a 459b 455 454 447 437 448 449 464a 464b 464c 464d
Alleles 13 25 15 11 11 14 12 12 10 14 11 31 16 8 10 11 11 23 14 20 31 12 15 15 16

Ysearch: YS495

DYS 393 390 19 391 385a 385b 426 388 439 389i 392 389ii 458 459a 459b 455 454 447 437 448 449 464a 464b 464c 464d
Alleles 13 25 15 11 11 14 12 12 10 13 11 31 15 9 10 11 11 25 14 21 32 12 12 14 14

Ysearch: WUZG2

Frequency

Main article: Y-DNA haplogroups by ethnic groups

R1a frequency is expressed as percentage of population samples.

Europe

  N R1(xR1a1) R1a1 source
Sorbs 112 - 63.39 Behar et al. (2003)
Hungarian 45 13.3 60.0 Semino et al. (2000)
Hungarian 113 20.4 20.4 Tambets et al. (2004)
Poles 55 16.4 56.4 Semino et al. (2000), Pericic et al. (2005)
Ukrainian 50 2.0 54.0 Semino et al. (2000), Pericic et al. (2005)
Belarusian 306 50.98 Behar et al. (2003)  ?- Pericic et al. (2005)
Russian 122 7.0 47.0 Pericic et al. (2005)
Belarusian - 46 4
Belarusian 41 10.0 39.0 Pericic et al. (2005)
Ukrainian - 44 3  ?
Ukrainians, Rashkovo 53 41.5 10  ?
Russian, North 49 0 43 5
Latvian 34 15.0 41.0 Pericic et al. (2005)
Udmurt 43 11.6 37.2 Semino et al. (2000)
Pomor 28 0 36 5
Greek Macedonian 20 10.0 35.0 Semino et al. (2000)
Moldavians, Karahasan 72 34.7 10
Lithuanian 38 6 34 Pericic et al. (2005)
Croatian 58 10.3 29.3 Semino et al. (2000)
UK Orkney 26 65 27 5
Gagauzes, Etulia 41 26.8 10
Czech + Slovakian 45 35.6 26.7 Semino et al. (2000),14
Norwegian 83 26.5 13
Icelander 181 41.4 23.8 Pericic et al. (2005)
Norwegian 87 21.69 Behar et al. (2003)
Moldavians, Sofia 54 20.4 10
Orcandin 71 66.0 19.7 Pericic et al. (2005)
Swedish (Northern) 48 23.0 19.0 Pericic et al. (2005)
Swedish 110 20.0 17.3 Pericic et al. (2005)
Danish 12 41.7 16.7 Pericic et al. (2005)
Mari 46 0 13.0 Semino et al. (2000)
German 88 12.50 Behar et al. (2003)
German 48 47.9 8.1 Pericic et al. (2005)
Greek 76 27.6 11.8 Semino et al. (2000)
Albanian 51 17.6 9.8 Semino et al. (2000)
Saami 24 8.3 8.3 Semino et al. (2000)
UK Isle of Man 62 15 8 Capelli et al. (2003)
UK Orkney 121 23 7 Capelli et al. (2003)  ?? 7% <> 23% *5
UK 309 ~7 13 see references
Georgian 63 14.3 7.9 Semino et al. (2000)
Turkish 523 16.3 6.9 Cinnioğlu et al. (2004)
UK Shetland 63 17 6 Capelli et al. (2003)
UK Chippenham 51 16 6 Capelli et al. (2003)
UK Cornwall 52 25 6 Capelli et al. (2003)
Dutch 27 70.4 3.7 Semino et al. (2000)
German 16 50.0 6.2 Semino et al. (2000)
Italian central/north 50 62.0 4.0 Semino et al. (2000)
British ~1000 ~4 Capelli et al. (2003)
Irish 222 81.5 0.5 Pericic et al. (2005)
Calabrian 37 32.4 0 Semino et al. (2000)
Sardinian 77 22.1 Semino et al. (2000)
British 25 72 0 5
Poles 913 9
Germans 1215 9
Dniester-Carpathian - 50.06 10
Gagauzes, Kongaz 48 12.5 10 
empty or - = no data in sample.
?          = datasets differences, [?-x]:= ^x=# source

Asia

                             N      R1*    R1a1(%)  Sr. Published
                            
Ishkashimi                   25      4     68        5 Wells et al. (2001)
Tajiks/Khojant               22      0     64        5 Wells et al. (2001)
Tajiks/Dushanbe              16      0     19        5 Wells et al. (2001)
Tajiks/Samarkand             40      10    25        5 Wells et al. (2001)
Kyrgyz                       52      2     63        5 Wells et al. (2001)
Southern Altays              96      1     53          V. N. Kharkov et al. (2007)
Tashkent IE                  69      7     47        ?
India Upper Caste            86      -     45.35     8
Sourasthran                  46      0     39        5 Wells et al. (2001)
Abkhazians                   12      8     33        7 Nasidze,2004
Chenchus (India-Drav.)        -      -     26       12  
Kazan Tatar                  38      3     24        5 Wells et al. (2001)
Saami                        23      9     22        5 Wells et al. (2001)
Uyghur                       49     ≤8.2   28.6        Ruixia Zhou et al. (2007)
Dongxiang                    49     <10    28          Wei Wang et al.,2003
Bonan                        47      0     26          Wei Wang et al.,2003
Salar                        52     <10    17          Wei Wang et al.,2003
Iran (Tehran)                24      4      4        5 Wells et al. (2001)
Iran (Tehran)                80      8     20        7 Nasidze,2004 

Iran (Isfahan)               50      0     18        7 Nasidze,2004
Pashtuns                     96      4.2   44.8        Firasat et al. (2007)
Kalash                       44      2.3   18.2        Firasat et al. (2007)
Burusho                      97      1.0   27.8        Firasat et al. (2007)
Pakistan                    638      5.6   37.1        Firasat et al. (2007)
Pakistan  ??                 85      1.10  16.47     8 ?
Pakistan                    175      0.57  24.43     8 ?
Pakistan south               91      0     31.87     8 ?
India                       728      0     15.8      8 ?
India                       325      0.3   27       12 ? 
Tuvian                       42      2     14        5 Wells et al. (2001)
Abazinians                   14      0     14        7 Nasidze,2004(*7)
Georgians                    77     10     10        7 Nasidze,2004(*7)
Kurd                         17     29     12        5 Wells et al. (2001)
Nenets                       54      4     11        5 Wells et al. (2001)
Syrian                       20     15     10        1

Lebanese                     31     33     20  
Turkmen                      37     36      9          ?
Turkmen                      30     37      7        5 Wells et al. (2001)
Lezgi(S.Caucasus)            12     17      8        7 Nasidze,2004(*7)
Svans                        25      0      8        7 Nasidze,2004(*7)
Azerbaijanians               72     11      7        7 Nasidze,2004(*7)
Armenians                   100     19      6        7 Nasidze,2004(*7)
Armenians                    47     36      9        5 Wells et al. (2001)
S.Ossetians                  17     12      6        5 Wells et al. (2001)
Kazaks                       54      6      4        5 Wells et al. (2001)
Chechenians                  19      0      5        7 Nasidze,2004(*7)
Kallar Dravidian             84      0      4        5 Wells et al. (2001)
Mongolian                    24      0      4        5 Wells et al. (2001)
Ossetians (Ardon)            28      0      4        7 Nasidze,2004(*7)
Kazbegi                      25      8      4        7 Nasidze,2004(*7)
India Dravidian (Tribal)    180      -      2.78     8 
Kabardinians                 59      2      2        7 Nasidze,2004(*7)
Lezgi(Dagestan)              25      4      0        7 Nasidze,2004(*7)
Ossetians (Digora)           31      0      0        7 Nasidze,2004(*7)
Rutulians                    24      0      0        7 Nasidze,2004(*7)
Darginians                   26      4      0        7 Nasidze,2004(*7)
Ingushians                   22      0      0        7 Nasidze,2004(*7)
Cambodia                      6      0      0        8 ?
China                       127      0      0        8    
Japan                        23      0      0        8
Siberia                      18      0      0        8 ?

Publications:

Bryan Sykes in his book Blood of the Isles gives (from his fantasy) the populations associated with R1a in Europe the name of Sigurd for a clan patriarch, much as he did for mitochondrial haplogroups in his work The Seven Daughters of Eve.

See also

Haplogroup R
Haplogroup R1

Haplogroup R2

Notes

  1. ^ a b c d Wells (2002)
  2. ^ a b c d e f Semino et al. (2000)
  3. ^ a b c d e f g Wells et al. (2001)
  4. ^ a b Passarino et al. (2002)
  5. ^ Sengupta et al. (2006) Am J Hum Genet. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1380230&rendertype=abstract
  6. ^ Sahoo et al. (2006) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci, USA. http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/103/4/843
  7. ^ S. Sharma et al. (2007) American Society of Human Genetics meeting. http://www.ashg.org/genetics/ashg/annmeet/2007/call/abstractbook.pdf
  8. ^ [1] The Genetic Heritage of the Earliest Settlers Persists Both in Indian Tribal and Caste Populations - Kivisild et al., Am. J. Hum. Genet. 72:p.313–332, 2003
  9. ^ M. Gimbutas, in Indo-European and Indo-Europeans, G. Cardona, H. M. Hoenigswald, A. M. Senn, Eds. (Univ. of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, PA, 1970),pp. 155-195.
  10. ^ C. Renfrew, Archaeology and Language; the Puzzle of Indo-European Origin (Jonathan Cape, London, 1987).
  11. ^ Quote: "On the whole, in this scheme Hg P-DYS257*(xR1a) is relatively ill-defined"
  12. ^ [2] F. Luca et al. - Y-chromosomal variation in the Czech Republic, 2006, American Journal of Physical Anthropology
  13. ^ The Dual Origin and Siberian Affinities of Native American - Jeffrey T. Lell et al [3]
  14. ^ Passarino et al. (2001)
  15. ^ a b Pericic et al. (2005) Haplogroup frequency data in table 1
  16. ^ Oleg Balanovsky. Two Sources of the Russian Patrilineal Heritage in Their Eurasian Context
  17. ^ Behar et al. (2003)
  18. ^ Kristiina Tambets et al., "The Western and Eastern Roots of the Saami—the Story of Genetic 'Outliers' Told by Mitochondrial DNA and Y Chromosomes," American Journal of Human Genetics 74:661–682, 2004.
  19. ^ Capelli; et al. (2003), "A Y chromosome census of the British Isles", Current Biology, vol. 13, no. 11, pp. 979–84, PMID 12781138 {{citation}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help).
  20. ^ Garvey, D. "Y Haplogroup R1a1". Retrieved 2007-04-23.
  21. ^ "The Genographic Project". National Geographic Society. Retrieved 2008-03-10. In India, around 35 percent of the men in Hindi-speaking populations carry the M17 marker, whereas the frequency in neighboring communities of Dravidian speakers is only about ten percent. This distribution adds weight to linguistic and archaeological evidence that a large migration from the Asian steppes into India occurred within the last 10,000 years. The M17 marker is found in only five to ten percent of Middle Eastern men. This is true even in Iranian populations where Persian, a major Indo-European language, is spoken. Despite the low frequency, the distribution of men carrying the M17 marker in Iran provides a striking example of how climate conditions, the spread of language, and the ability to identify specific markers can combine to tell the story of the migration patterns of individual genetic lineages. In the western part of the country, descendants of the Indo-European clan are few, encompassing perhaps five to ten percent of the men. However, on the eastern side, around 35 percent of the men carry the M17 marker. This distribution suggests that the great Iranian deserts presented a formidable barrier and prevented much interaction between the two groups. {{cite web}}: line feed character in |quote= at position 361 (help)
  22. ^ Wei Wang, Cheryl Wise, Tom Baric, Michael L. Black and Alan H. Bittles, "The origins and genetic structure of three co-resident Chinese Muslim populations: the Salar, Bo'an and Dongxiang," Human Genetics (2003)
  23. ^ Ruixia Zhou, Lizhe An, Xunling Wang, Wei Shao, Gonghua Lin, Weiping Yu, Lin Yi, Shijian Xu, Jiujin Xu and Xiaodong Xie, "Testing the hypothesis of an ancient Roman soldier origin of the Liqian people in northwest China: a Y-chromosome perspective," Journal of Human Genetics, Volume 52, Number 7 / July, 2007 [4]
  24. ^ Bamshad, M (2001). "Genetic evidence on the origins of Indian caste populations". Genome Research. 11 (6): 994–1004. PMID 11381027. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  25. ^ Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca (1994). The History and Geography of Human Genes. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-08750-4.
  26. ^ Saha, A (2005). "Genetic affinity among five different population groups in India reflecting a Y-chromosome gene flow". J. Hum. Genet. 50 (1): 49–51. PMID 15611834. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  27. ^ a b Sengupta, S (2006). "Polarity and Temporality of High-Resolution Y-Chromosome Distributions in India Identify Both Indigenous and Exogenous Expansions and Reveal Minor Genetic Influence of Central Asian Pastoralists". Am. J. Hum. Genet. 78 (2): 202–21. PMID 16400607. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  28. ^ Polarity and Temporality of High-Resolution Y-Chromosome Distributions in India Identify Both Indigenous and Exogenous Expansions and Reveal Minor Genetic Influence of Central Asian Pastoralists - Sanghamitra Sengupta et al [5] 2005, by The American Society of Human Genetics
  29. ^ The Norse Code
  30. ^ DNA shows Celtic hero Somerled's Viking roots, The Scotsman, 26 Apr 2006
  31. ^ Famous DNA
  32. ^ [6], ISOGG
  33. ^ 2004 I. Nasidze & all "Mitochondrial DNA and Y-Chromosome Variation in the Caucasus" doi: 10.1046/j.1529-8817.2004.00092.x

References

Projects

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