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==Contemporary debate==
==Contemporary debate==
The role of women in combat has become a particularly contentious issue in contemporary militaries throughout the world. With the current exclusion of women from many combat roles seen by some as a form of sexual discrimination, an ongoing debate continues. Many on each side of the issue cite the physical and mental differences of the two sexes, the effect of the presence of the opposite sex on the battlefield, and the traditional view of men as soldiers as arguments both for and against women being employed as soldiers under combat situations. The idea of having women in combat has been thrown around by several civilizations since early history. Some societies have chosen to not allow women to fight for their countries, while others have used women to fight in their wars as frequently as men, such as 800,000 women who served in the Soviet military during World War 2, of which nearly 70% saw front line action<ref>[http://www.lothene.demon.co.uk/others/women20.html Women Warriors Throughout History, 20th Century, battles, tournaments, soldier, revolutionary, war, pirate, duel, fighter, female, lady, disguise, martial arts, historical re-enactment, living history, Lothene Experimental Archaeology<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>. Women have been serving in the military in numerous support roles in several countries for many years. In modern wars, however, there may be no front line, and women, in such roles as military police providing convoy escort, or staffing checkpoints, have gotten into firefights as part of a mixed unit.<ref name=DefLink2007-02-05>{{Cite web
The role of women in combat has become a particularly contentious issue in contemporary militaries throughout the world. With the current exclusion of women from many combat roles seen by some as a form of sexual discrimination, an ongoing debate continues. Many on each side of the issue cite the physical and mental differences of the two sexes, the effect of the presence of the opposite sex on the battlefield, and the traditional view of men as soldiers as arguments both for and against women being employed as soldiers under combat situations. The idea of having women in combat has been thrown around by several civilizations since early history. Some societies have chosen to not allow women to fight for their countries, while others have used women to fight in their wars as frequently as men, such as 800,000 women who served in the Soviet military during World War 2, of which nearly 70% saw front line action<ref>[http://www.lothene.demon.co.uk/others/women20.html Women Warriors Throughout History, 20th Century, battles, tournaments, soldier, revolutionary, war, pirate, duel, fighter, female, lady, disguise, martial arts, historical re-enactment, living history, Lothene Experimental Archaeology<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>. Women have been serving in the military in numerous support roles in several countries for many years. In modern wars, however, there may be no front line, and women, in such roles as military police providing convoy escort, or staffing checkpoints, have gotten into firefights as part of a mixed unit<ref name=DefLink2007-02-05>{{Cite web
| url = http://www.defenselink.mil/news/NewsArticle.aspx?ID=2937
| url = http://www.defenselink.mil/news/NewsArticle.aspx?ID=2937
| title = Heroes Turn Out for Exhibit Opening at Army Women's Museum
| title = Heroes Turn Out for Exhibit Opening at Army Women's Museum

Revision as of 23:29, 19 April 2010

Medieval depiction of Joan of Arc.

Women in the military have a history that extends over 4,000 years into the past, throughout a vast number of cultures and nations. Women have played many roles in the military, from ancient warrior women, to the women currently serving in conflicts, for instance the war in Iraq.

Despite various roles in the armies of past societies, the role of women in the military, particularly in combat, is controversial and it is only recently that women have begun to be given a more prominent role in contemporary armed forces. As increasing numbers of countries begin to expand the role of women in their militaries, the debate continues.

Contemporary debate

The role of women in combat has become a particularly contentious issue in contemporary militaries throughout the world. With the current exclusion of women from many combat roles seen by some as a form of sexual discrimination, an ongoing debate continues. Many on each side of the issue cite the physical and mental differences of the two sexes, the effect of the presence of the opposite sex on the battlefield, and the traditional view of men as soldiers as arguments both for and against women being employed as soldiers under combat situations. The idea of having women in combat has been thrown around by several civilizations since early history. Some societies have chosen to not allow women to fight for their countries, while others have used women to fight in their wars as frequently as men, such as 800,000 women who served in the Soviet military during World War 2, of which nearly 70% saw front line action[1]. Women have been serving in the military in numerous support roles in several countries for many years. In modern wars, however, there may be no front line, and women, in such roles as military police providing convoy escort, or staffing checkpoints, have gotten into firefights as part of a mixed unit[2]. SGT Leigh Ann Hester, among other decorated soldiers in the Raven 42 unit, received the Silver Star, the third highest US combat decoration. While nurses under fire had received this award previously, Hester was the first woman to receive it for direct participation in combat.

Although women are recruited to serve in the military in most countries, only a few countries permit women to fill active combat roles. Countries that allow this include New Zealand, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Norway, Israel, Sweden and Switzerland. Other nations allow female soldiers to serve in certain Combat Arms positions, such as the United Kingdom, which allows women to serve in Artillery roles, while still excluding them from units with a dedicated Infantry role. The United States allows women in most combat flying positions.

The arguments

Several points of argument have been put forward by those in favor of women serving in combat conditions as well as those against the idea. Many of these arguments are focused on the physical differences between men and women, but also on differing mentalities, and the effects upon one sex by the presence of the other on the battlefield. Since very few countries employ a fully integrated military, there are few references able to prove or disprove the arguments below.

Physical concerns

Some of the most obvious concerns are physical. The female skeletal system is less dense, and more prone to breakages.[3][4] There is also concern that, in aviation, the female body is not as adept at handling the increased g-forces experienced by combat pilots. Furthermore, health issues regarding women are argued as the reason vast majority of submarine services avoid accepting women, although mixed-gender accommodations in a small space is also an issue, as is explained in more depth below.[5] The Center for Military Readiness stated that “Female soldiers who are, on average, shorter and smaller than men, with 45-50% less upper body strength and 25-30% less aerobic capacity, which is essential for endurance”.[5]

However, an article in the Army Times July 29, 1996, states that some women do possess the physical attributes suitable to become combat soldiers.[6]

Psychological concerns

The disruption of a combat unit's esprit de corps is cited as another reason for women to be banned from front-line combat situations. Indeed, many soldiers have stated that they could not trust a woman to perform her duties in a place where trusting their fellow soldier would be critical.[2][6][7] There is a secondary concern that romantic relationships between men and women on the front lines could disrupt a unit's fighting capability and a fear that a high number of women would deliberately become pregnant in order to escape combat duties.[8][9] In the British Army, which continues to bar women from serving in infantry-roled units, all recruits joining to fill infantry vacancies partake in a separate training program called the Combat Infantryman's Course.

In the American armed forces, the 1994 rules forbidding female involvement in combat units of brigade size or smaller are being bent. Colonel Cheri Provancha, stationed in Iraq, argues that: "This war has proven that we need to revisit the policy, because they are out there doing it."[10]

A third argument against the inclusion of women in combat units is that placing women in combat where they are at risk of being captured and tortured and possibly sexually assaulted is unacceptable. In a Presidential Commission report it was found that male POWs, while being subject to physical abuse, were never subject to sexual abuse, and women were almost always subject to sexual abuse.[9] Rhonda Cornum, then a major and flight surgeon, and now a Brigadier General and Command Surgeon for United States Army Forces Command, was an Iraqi POW in 1991. At the time, she was asked not to mention that she had been molested while in captivity.[11] Cornum subsequently disclosed the attack, but said "A lot of people make a big deal about getting molested," she noted later, adding: "But in the hierarchy of things that were going wrong, that was pretty low on my list".

Finally, there is the argument that by not incorporating women into combat, the American government is failing to tap into another source of soldiers for military combat operations. This argument claims that the government is creating a military that treats women as second-class citizens and not equals of men.[12] Other observers state that without women, the military would have numerous manpower shortfalls they would not be able to fill.[13]

Sex discrimination and tradition

Many view the exclusion of women from military combat jobs as the last bastion of sex discrimination. Some believe that women are forbidden to serve in these roles only as a result of the traditionalist view of soldiering as a profession for men and that the equal opportunity laws should apply to the military. Many point out that there are many historical examples of women achieving much on the battlefield in combat roles.

In 2006, a female U.S. Coast Guardsman was the whistleblower for the several rapes in the United States Coast Guard and the four other military branches. She started a military rape crisis center, which has pushed for stricter laws to protect sexual assault victims.[14]

Tactical concerns

In On Killing: The Psychological Cost of Learning to Kill in War and Society, Lt. Col. Dave Grossman briefly mentions that female soldiers in the Israel Defense Forces have been officially prohibited from serving in close combat military operations since 1948 (in 2001, subsequent to publication, women began serving in IDF combat units on an experimental basis). The reason for removing female soldiers from the front lines is no reflection on the performance of female soldiers, but that of the male infantrymen after witnessing a woman wounded. The IDF saw a complete loss of control over soldiers who apparently experienced an uncontrollable, protective, instinctual aggression.

Grossman also notes that Islamic militants rarely, if ever, surrender to female soldiers. In modern warfare where intelligence is perhaps more important than enemy casualties, every factor reducing combatants' willingness to fight is considered. Similarly, Iraqi and Afghani civilians are often not intimidated by female soldiers. However, in such environments, having female soldiers serving within a combat unit does have the advantage of allowing for searches on female civilians, and in some cases the female areas of segregated mosques, while causing less offense amongst the occupied population. A notable example of this would be female US military personnel who are specially selected to participate in patrols and raids for this purpose.

Melody Kemp mentions that the Australian soldiers have voiced similar concern saying these soldiers "are reluctant to take women on reconnaissance or special operations, as they fear that in the case of combat or discovery, their priority will be to save the women and not to complete the mission. Thus while men might be able to be programmed to kill, it’s is not as easy to program men to neglect women."[15]

Women on submarines

Following the advent of submarine warfare the majority of submarine operators do not allow female personnel to serve in submarines as a matter of course.[citation needed] Stated justifications include the fact that doses of radiation from nuclear submarine reactors can result in infertility, since women do not continually produce eggs as men do with sperm. Also, the finite amount of space available on submarines limits the ability to offer separate berths and lavatories for females. Female sailors are permitted on most other naval ships because they are typically larger than submarines, offering more space to accommodate females. [citation needed]

The Royal Norwegian Navy became the first[citation needed] navy in the world to permit female personnel to serve in submarines, appointing a female submarine captain in 1995,[16] followed by the Royal Australian Navy (RAN) in 1998 and thereafter Canada and Spain,[17] all operators of conventional submarines.

Social reasons include the need to segregate accommodation and facilities, with figures from the US Navy highlighting the increased cost, $300,000 per bunk to permit women to serve on submarines versus $4,000 per bunk to allow women to serve on aircraft carriers.[18]

The US Navy allows three exceptions for women being on board military submarines: (1) Female civilian technicians for a few days at most; (2) Women midshipmen on an overnight during summer training for both Navy ROTC and Naval Academy; (3) Family members for one-day dependent cruises.[19]

US Secretary of the Navy Ray Mabus stated October 8, 2009 that allowing women to serve on submarines is "an idea whose time has come" - and he said he sees no big hurdles to making it happen. Mabus has given no timeline for when women could begin serving, saying several steps must first be taken. They include devising an implementation process, notifying Congress of the plan and having the prospective female submariners complete the required nuclear training.[20]

Further information: List of women warriors in folklore, literature, and popular culture

There have been a number of significant representations of "women warriors" in popular culture, occasionally including women in the military, such as the film G. I. Jane.

A television movie about Margarethe Cammermeyer called Serving in Silence, was made in 1995, with Glenn Close starring as Cammermeyer. Cammermeyer, an honorably discharged colonel in the Washington National Guard disclosed in 1989 that she was a lesbian. The movies content was largely taken from Cammermeyer's autobiography of the same name.

Notes

  1. ^ Women Warriors Throughout History, 20th Century, battles, tournaments, soldier, revolutionary, war, pirate, duel, fighter, female, lady, disguise, martial arts, historical re-enactment, living history, Lothene Experimental Archaeology
  2. ^ a b Soucy, John (February 5, 1980). "Heroes Turn Out for Exhibit Opening at Army Women's Museum". Retrieved 2007-12-03.
  3. ^ Effect of Isokinetic Strength Training and Deconditioning on Bone Stiffness, Bone Density and Bone Turnover in Military-Aged Women
  4. ^ Stress Fractures in Female Army Recruits: Implications of Bone Density, Calcium Intake, and Exercise - Cline et al. 17 (2): 128 - Journal of the American College of Nutrition
  5. ^ a b Women in Combat: Frequently Asked Questions. Center for Military Readiness. November 22, 2004.
  6. ^ a b Women in the Military: Combat Roles Considered
  7. ^ Women in Combat
  8. ^ Facts about women in combat elude the right
  9. ^ a b Center for Military Readiness | Women in Combat
  10. ^ For Female GIs, Combat Is a Fact
  11. ^ Kristof, Nicholas D. (NY Times) (April 25, 2003). "A Woman's Place".
  12. ^ Congresswoman Louise M. Slaughter: Remarks on Women in Combat
  13. ^ American Thinker: Another Clinton legacy
  14. ^ www.stopmilitaryrape.org
  15. ^ Women in Action (3:1999) | Femme Fatale: Women in the Military Service - Melody Kemp
  16. ^ Armstrong, Rebecca (May 3, 2007). "U-34 submarine, Eckernforde, 02.05.07" ([dead link]). Independent, the (London),: 2.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  17. ^ chapter 4 "Traditions", paragraph 6
  18. ^ New Debate on Submarine Duty for Women Armed Forces Careers retrieved August 11, 2007
  19. ^ Can women go on submarines? United States Navy retrieved March 27, 2008
  20. ^ "Navy secretary: Time has come for women on subs"

See also


History

Ancient Era

Main article: Timeline of women in ancient warfare

Medieval Era (500-1500)

Main article: Timeline of women in Medieval warfare

Early Modern Era (1500-1750)

Main article: Timeline of women in early modern warfare

18th century

Main article: Women in 18th century warfare

19th century

Main article: Women in 19th century warfare

1900-1914

Main article: Women in warfare (1900-1914)

First World War

Main article: Women in the First World War

1918-1939

Main article: Women in warfare (1918-1939)

Second World War

File:Vo slobodno Skopje 1944.JPG
A young female Partisan of the People's Liberation Army of Macedonia entering the city of Skopje.
Main article: Female roles in the World Wars
Main article: Soviet women in World War II

Post World War II

Main article: Women in warfare (1945-1999)

21st Century

Main article: Women in warfare (2000-present)

References

Printed material

Middle East
  • Wise, James E. and Scott Baron. Women at War: Iraq, Afghanistan, and Other Conflicts (2006)
World War II
  • Campbell, D'Ann. "Servicewomen of World War II", Armed Forces and Society (Win 1990) 16: 251-270. statistical study based on interviews
  • Campbell, D'Ann. "Women in Combat: The World War Two Experience in the United States, Great Britain, Germany, and the Soviet Union" Journal of Military History (April 1993), 57:301-323. online edition
General
  • Campbell, D'Ann. Women at War with America: Private Lives in a Patriotic Era (Harvard University Press, 1984). on WW2
  • Carreiras, Helena and Gerhard Kammel (eds.) Women in the Military and in Armed Conflict (2008) excerpt and text search
  • Elshtain, Jean Bethke. Women and War (1995)
  • Elshtain Jean, and Sheila Tobias, eds., Women, Militarism, and War (1990),
  • Goldman, Nancy. "The Changing Role Of Women In The Armed Forces." American Journal Of Sociology 1973 78(4): 892-911. Issn: 0002-9602 online in Jstor
  • Goldstein, Joshua S. . War and Gender: How Gender Shapes the War System and Vice Versa (2003), psychology perspective
  • Herbert, Melissa S. Camouflage Isn't Only for Combat: Gender, Sexuality, and Women in the Military New York U. Pr., 1998.
  • Holm, Jeanne M. (1993). Women in the Military: An Unfinished Revolution.; women from the United States
  • Holmstedt, Kirsten. Band of Sisters: American Women at War in Iraq (2007) excerpt and text search
  • Jones, David. Women Warriors: A History, Brassey's, 1997
  • Salmonson, Jessica Amanda (1991). The Encyclopedia of Amazons: Women Warriors from Antiquity to the Modern Era. Paragon House. ISBN 1-55778-420-5.
  • Skaine, Rosemarie. Women at War: Gender Issues of Americans in Combat. McFarland, 1999.

Websites

Green Berets
Joan of Arc
Miscellaneous

For Further Reading

Booth, Bradford. 2003. “Contextual Effects of Military Presence on Women’s Earnings.” Armed Forces & Society, vol. 30: pp. 25-51. http://afs.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/30/1/25

Cooney, Richard; Segal, Mady Wechsler; Segal, David and Falk, William. 2003. “Racial Differences in the Impact of Military Service on the Socioeconomic Status of Women Veterans.” Armed Forces & Society, vol. 30: pp. 53-85. http://afs.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/30/1/53

Moore, Brenda. 1991. “African American Women in the U.S. Military.” Armed Forces & Society vol. 17: pp. 363-384. http://afs.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/17/3/363

Iskra, Darlene. 2007. “Attitudes toward Expanding Roles for Navy Women at Sea: Results of a Content Analysis.” Armed Forces & Society, vol. 33: pp. 203-223. http://afs.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/33/2/203

Dar, Yechezkel and Shaul Kimhi. 2004. “Youth in the Military: Gendered Experiences in the Conscript Service in the Israeli Army.” Armed Forces & Society, vol. 30: pp. 433-459. http://afs.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/30/3/433

“Michele Jones: A History of Firsts.” The Story of America's Black Patriots http://www.forloveofliberty.net/stories/michele-jones-history-firsts/36

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