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==Hazara tribes==
==Hazara tribes==
{{Main|List of Hazara tribes}}
{{Main|List of Hazara tribes}}
The Hazara people have been organized by various [[tribe]]s. The [[Daikundi]] are the largest tribe, representing 57.2% of the Hazara population.{{Citation needed|reason=15 March 2010|date=April 2010}} However, more recently and since the inclusion of the Hazaras into the "Afghan state", tribal affiliations have been disappearing and former tribal names (e.g. [[Daizangi]], [[Behsoodi]], [[Daikundi (tribe)|Daykundi]], or [[Jaghori (tribe)|Jaghori]]) today more commonly refer to territorial designations.<ref name=Iranica3>{{cite encyclopedia |last= Monsutti|first= Alessandro|editor= [[Ehsan Yarshater]]|encyclopedia= [[Encyclopædia Iranica]]|title= HAZĀRA: iii. ETHNOGRAPHY AND SOCIAL ORGANIZATION|url=http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v12f1/v12f1080c.html |edition= Online Edition|publisher= [[Columbia University]]|location= United States}}</ref>
The Hazara people have been organized by various [[tribe]]s. The [[Daikundi]] are the largest tribe, representing 57.2% of the Hazara population.{{Citation needed|reason=15 March 2010|date=April 2010}} However, more recently and since the inclusion of the Hazaras into the "Afghan state", tribal affiliations have been disappearing and former tribal names (e.g. [[Daizangi]], [[Behsoodi]], [[Daikundi (tribe)|Daykundi]], or [[Jaghori (tribe)|Jaghori]]) Uruzgani, Sheikh Ali (Dai Kalan)today more commonly refer to territorial designations.<ref name=Iranica3>{{cite encyclopedia |last= Monsutti|first= Alessandro|editor= [[Ehsan Yarshater]]|encyclopedia= [[Encyclopædia Iranica]]|title= HAZĀRA: iii. ETHNOGRAPHY AND SOCIAL ORGANIZATION|url=http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v12f1/v12f1080c.html |edition= Online Edition|publisher= [[Columbia University]]|location= United States}}</ref>
<!--This section perhaps should note who the major tribes are (numerically) whilst a full listing be added to the List of Hazara tribes article-->
<!--This section perhaps should note who the major tribes are (numerically) whilst a full listing be added to the List of Hazara tribes article-->


Revision as of 17:27, 14 November 2010

Template:Distinguish2

Hazāra
هزاره
Total population
ca. 6.5 to 8 million[citation needed]
Regions with significant populations
 Afghanistan4,994,250[1]
 Pakistan545,000[2][3]
 Iran283,000
(1993 estimate)[2]
 Canada36,376[4]
 United Kingdom24,330
 Australia90,000
 Turkey25,380
15,672
10,000
Languages
Persian (Dari and Hazaragi dialects)[5]
Religion
Islam - Shia (Twelver and Ismaili), with a Sunni minority[6]
Related ethnic groups
Aimaks and Turks,[7] also Uyghurs and Mongols

The Hazāra (Persian: هزاره) are a Persian-speaking ethnic group who live mainly in central Afghanistan. They are overwhelmingly Shia Muslims and comprise the third largest ethnic group,[8][9][10] with 9-18% of the total population of Afghanistan.[1][11] Over half a million Hazaras live in neighboring Pakistan (especially in the city of Quetta) and a similar number or less may be found in Iran.

Etymology

The name Hazara, probably, comes from the Persian word hazār, which means "thousand". According to scholars, the term was first used to refer to a Mongol military unit of 1,000 but was later applied to a distinct group of people.[12]

Origin theories

The origins of the Hazaras have not been fully reconstructed. At least partial Mongol descent is difficult to rule out, because the Hazaras' physical attributes and parts of their culture and language resemble those of Mongolians. Thus, it is widely accepted that Hazaras do have Mongolian ancestry, if not direct male-line descent from Genghis Khan, as some Hazaras allege.[13] Some Hazara tribes are named after famous Mongol generals, including the Tulai Khan Hazara named after Tolui, the youngest son of Genghis Khan. Theories of Mongol or partially Mongol descent, are plausible, given that the Il-Khanate Mongol rulers, beginning with Oljeitu, embraced Shia Islam. Today, the majority of the Hazaras adhere to Shi'ism, whereas Afghanistan's other ethnic groups are mostly Sunni. However, the population of the Sunni and Ismaili Hazaras against the Shi'ite Hazaras is not discussed extensively enough by the scholarship. Another theory proposes that Hazaras are descendants of the Kushans,[14] the ancient dwellers of Afghanistan famous for constructing the Buddhas of Bamiyan. Its proponents find the location of the Hazara homeland, and the similarity in facial features of Hazaras with those on frescoes and Buddha's statues in Bamiyan, suggestive. However, this belief is contrary not only to the fact that the Kushans were Indo-European Tocharians, but also to historical records which mention that in a particularly bloody battle around Bamiyan, Genghis Khan's grandson, Mutugen, was killed, and he ordered Bamiyan to be burnt to the ground in retribution.[15] A third theory, and the one accepted by most scholars,[8] maintains that Hazaras are a very mixed race. This is not entirely inconsistent with descent from Mongol military forces. For example, Nikudari Mongols settled in eastern Persia and mixed with native populations who spoke Persian.[8] A second wave of mostly Chagatai Mongols came from Central Asia and were followed by other Turko-Mongols, associated with the Ilkhanate (driven out of Persia) and the Timurids, all of whom settled in Hazarajat and mixed with the local Persian population, forming a distinct group.[8]

Genetics

Genetically, the Hazara are primarily eastern Eurasian with western Eurasian genetic mixtures.[16][17][18] Genetic research suggests that they are related to neighboring peoples, while there also seems to be a patrimonial relation to Mongol peoples of Mongolia,[19][20] Mongol male ancestry is supported by studies in genetic genealogy as well, which have identified a particular lineage of the Y-chromosome characteristic of people of Mongolian descent ("the Y-chromosome of Genghis Khan").[16] This chromosome is virtually absent outside the limits of the Mongol Empire except among the Hazara, where it reaches its highest frequency anywhere. About two thirds of the Hazara males sampled carry a Y-chromosome of this lineage.[21][22]

History

Emergence of the Hazara

In the late 16th century, the first mention of Hazaras are made by the court historians of Shah Abbas of the Safavid dynasty and by Babur (Emperor of the Mughal Empire) in his Baburnama, referring to the people living from west of Kabul to Ghor, and south to Ghazni.[8]

18th century

In their modern history, Hazaras have faced several wars and forced displacements. Since the beginnings of modern Afghanistan in the mid 18th century, Hazaras have faced persecution from the Pashtuns and have been forced to flee from many parts of today's Afghanistan to Hazarajat.[8] In the mid 18th century they were forced out of Helmand and the Arghandab basin of Kandahar.[8] During Dost Mohammad Khan's rule, Hazaras in Bamiyan and the Hazarajat area were heavily taxed. However, for the most part they still managed to keep their regional autonomy in Hazarajat.[8] This would soon change as the new Emir, Abdur Rahman Khan, was brought to power.

Subjugation by Abdur Rahman Khan

Besudi Hazara chieftains, taken by John Burke in 1879-80, possibly at Kabul, Afghanistan.

As the new Emir, Abdur Rahman set out a goal to bring Hazarajat under his control. After facing resistance from the Hazaras, he launched several campaigns in Hazarajat with many atrocities and ethnic polarization.[8] The southern part of Hazarajat was spared as they accepted Abdur Rahman's rule while the other parts of Hazarajat rejected Abdur Rahman and were supporting his uncle Sher Ali Khan and as a result Abdur Rahman waged war against Hazaras who reject his policies and ruling.[8]

In 1856 Abdur Rahman arrested Syed Jafar who was chief of Sheikh Ali Hazara and jailed him in Mazar-e-Sharif. The first Hazara uprising took place during 1888 - 1890. When Abdur Rahman's cousin, Mohammad Eshaq, revolted against him, the Sheikh Ali Hazaras joined the revolt. The revolt was short lived and crushed as the Emir extended his control over large parts of Hazarajat. Sheikh Ali Hazaras had allies in two different groups, Shia and Sunni. Abdur Rahman took advantage of the situation, pitting Sunni Hazaras against Shia Hazaras, and made pacts among Hazaras.

After all of Sheikh Ali Hazara chiefs were sent to Kabul, opposition within the leadership of Sawar Khan and Syed Jafar Khan continued against government troops, but at last were defeated. Heavy taxes were imposed and Pashtun administrators were sent to occupied places, where they subjugated the people with many abuses.[8] The people were disarmed, villages were looted, local tribal chiefs were imprisoned or executed, and the best lands were confiscated and given to Pashtun nomads (Kuchis).[8][23]

The Second uprising occurred in 1890s - 1893. The cause of the uprising was the rape of the wife of a Hazara chief by 33 Afghan soldiers. The soldiers had entered their house under the pretext of searching for weapons and raped the chief's wife in front of him.[23] The families of the Hazara chief and his wife retaliated against the humiliation and killed the soldiers and attacked the local garrison, where they took back their weapons. Several other tribal chiefs who supported Abdur Rahman now turned against him and joined the rebellion which rapidly spread through the entire Hazarajat. In response to the rebellion, the Emir declared a "Jihad" against the Shiites and raised an army of 40,000 soldiers, 10,000 mounted troops, and 100,000 armed civilians (most of which were Pashtun nomads).[23] He also brought in British military advisers to assist his army.[23] The large army defeated the rebellion at its center, in Oruzgan, by 1892 and the local population was severely massacred. According to S. A. Mousavi,

thousands of Hazara men, women, and children were moved to Mountain area from their land and Kabul and Qandahar, while numerous towers of human heads were made from the defeated rebels as a warning to others who might challenge the rule of the Amir

The third upraising of Hazaras was in response to the harsh repression, the Hazaras revolted again by early 1893s. This revolt had taken the government forces by surprise and the Hazaras managed to take most of Hazarajat back. However even after months of fighting, they were eventually defeated due to a shortage of food. Small pockets of resistance continued to the end of the year as government troops committed atrocities against civilians and deported entire villages.[23]

Abdur Rahman's subjugation of the Hazaras due to fierce rebellion against the Afghan king gave birth to strong hatred between the Pashtuns and Hazaras for years to come.[23] Massive forced displacements, especially in Oruzgan and Daychopan, continued as lands were confiscated and populations were expelled or fled.[23] Some 35,000 families fled to northern Afghanistan, Mashhad (Iran), Quetta (Pakistan), and even as far as Central Asia. It is estimated that more than 60% of the Hazara population were massacred or displaced during Abdur Rahman's campaign against them. Hazara farmers were often forced to give up their property to Pashtuns and as a result many Hazara families had to leave seasonally to the major cities in Afghanistan, Iran, or Pakistan in order to find jobs and a source of income. Pakistan is now home to one of the largest settlements of Hazara particularly in and around the city of Quetta.[23] Pashtun-Hazara conflicts were and are based solely on Shia-Sunni relations and no other factors, as such is conflict carried out by the Taliban.

Hazaras in the 20th century

Faiz Mohammad Katib Hazara, a historian from Afghanistan.

In 1901, Habibullah Khan, Abdur Rahman's successor, granted amnesty to all people who were exiled by his predecessor. However, the division between the Afghan government and the Hazara people was already made too deep under Abdur Rahman and as a result Hazaras continued to face severe social, economic and political discrimination through most of the 20th century.[8]

Mistrust of the central government continued by the Hazaras and local uprisings also continued. In particular, in the 1940s, during Zahir Shah's rule, a revolt took place against new taxes that were exclusively imposed on the Hazaras.[8] The Pashtun nomads meanwhile not only were exempted from taxes, but also received allowances from the Afghan government.[8] The angry rebels began capturing and killing government officials. In response, the central government sent a force to subdue the region and later removed the taxes.

Soviet invasion to the Taliban era

File:BabaMazari.jpg
Abdul Ali Mazari, Leader and Founder of Hizb-e-Wahdat.[24]

During the Soviet war in Afghanistan, the Hazarajat region did not see as much heavy fighting like other regions of Afghanistan. However, rival Hazara political factions had internal conflicts during this period. The division was across the Tanzáim-e nasl-e naw-e Hazara, a party based in Quetta of Hazara nationalists and secular intellectuals, and the pro-Khomeini Islamist parties backed by the new Islamic Republic of Iran.[8] By 1979, the Iran backed Islamist groups liberated Hazarajat from the central Soviet-backed Afghan government and later these Islamist groups took entire control of Hazarajat away from the secularist groups. By 1984, after severe fighting, the secularist groups lost all their power to the Islamist groups.

Later as the Soviets withdrew in 1989, the Islamist groups felt the need to broaden their political appeal and turned their focus to Hazara ethnic nationalism.[8] This led to establishment of the Hezb-e Wahdat, an alliance of all the Hazara resistance groups (except the Harakat-e Islami). In 1992, with the fall of Kabul, the Harakat-e Islami took sides with Burhanuddin Rabbani's government while the Hezb-e Wahdat took sides with the opposition. The Hezb-e Wahdat was eventually forced out of Kabul in 1995 when the Pashtun Taliban movement captured and killed their leader Abdul Ali Mazari. With the Taliban's capture of Kabul in 1996, all the Hazara groups united with the new Northern Alliance against the common new enemy. However, it was too late and despite the fierce resistance Hazarajat fell to the Taliban by 1998. The Taliban had Hazarajat totally isolated from the rest of the world going as far as not allowing the United Nations to deliver food to the provinces of Bamiyan, Ghor, Wardak, and Ghazni.[25]

During the years that followed, Hazaras suffered severe oppression and many large ethnic massacres were carried out by the predominately ethnic Pashtun Taliban and are documented by such groups as the Human Rights Watch.[26] These human rights abuses not only occurred in Hazarajat, but across all areas controlled by the Taliban. Particularly after their capture of Mazar-e Sharif in 1998, where after a massive killing of some 8000 civilians, the Taliban openly declared that the Hazaras would be targeted. Mullah Niazi, the commander of the attack and governor of Mazar after the attack, similar to Abdur Rahman Khan over 100 years ago, declared the Shia Hazara as infidels:

Hazaras are not Muslim, they are Shi’a. They are kafir [infidels]. The Hazaras killed our force here, and now we have to kill Hazaras... If you do not show your loyalty, we will burn your houses, and we will kill you. You either accept to be Muslims or leave Afghanistan... wherever you go we will catch you. If you go up, we will pull you down by your feet; if you hide below, we will pull you up by your hair.[27]

Society

Education

Hazaras in post-Taliban Afghanistan

Karim Khalili, 2nd Vice President of Afghanistan, (with Turban) standing with Hamid Karzai, Mohammed Fahim and George W. Bush.
Governor Habiba Sarabi, center, and former First Lady from the United States, Laura Bush, meet local ANP commander at an Afghan Regional Training Center, during a visit to the Police Training Academy in Bamiyan, Afghanistan.

Following the 11 September 2001 attacks on the United States, British and American forces invaded Afghanistan, and removed the Taliban from power and effectively saved the Hazaras from ethnic cleansing at the hands of the Taliban. Since then, the situation for Hazaras in Afghanistan has changed drastically and has much improved in a very short time. Today, due to the NATO involvement, Hazaras enjoy much more freedom and equality than ever before. Hazaras can now pursue higher education, enroll in the army, and have top government positions.[28] For example, Haji Mohammad Mohaqiq, a Hazara from the Hezb-e Wahdat party, was able to run in the 2004 presidential election in Afghanistan. However, discrimination still lingers, and even accususations of genocide [28][29] An indication of discrimination is the policy of allocating international help by the Afghan government. Hazarajat historically has been kept from any improvement by past governments. Since ousting the Taliban, there have been several billions of dollars poured into Afghanistan for reconstruction and numerous mega scale reconstruction projects took place in Afghanistan. But effectively a very small portion of international aid was allocated in the central regions of Afghanistan, the Hazarajat area.

For example, there have been more than 5000 kilometers of road pavement and construction in Afghanistan, of which almost none happened in central Afghanistan Hazarajat. Another indication of such discrimination is that Kochis (Afghan nomads from western Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan) are allowed now to use Hazarajat pastures in summer time. This practice started during the rule of Amir Abdurahman Khan for punishing Hazaras.

Living in mountainous Hazarajat where little farm land exists, Hazara people rely on these pasture lands for their livelihood and survival during long and harsh winters. In 2007 heavily armed Kochis moved into Hazarajat for grazing their livestock, and when the local people resisted, it is reported that they clashed and several people died on both sides, Kochis and Hazara. Such a practice happened in 2008, and the government appears to approve this practice. Kochis like Taliban belong to the Pashtun ethnicity.

In 2010, the drive by President Hamid Karzai after the Peace Jirga to strike a deal with Taliban leaders caused deep unease in Afghanistan’s minority communities, who fought the Taliban the longest and suffered the most during their rule. The leaders of the Tajik, Uzbek and Hazara communities, which together make up close to half of the country's population, vowed to resist any return of the Taliban to power, referring to the large-scale massacres of Hazara civilians during the Taliban period.[30]

Geographic distribution

Diaspora

File:Students in Afghanistan.jpg
Ali and Hussain Saberi, Hazara students in the United Kingdom[31]

Alessandro Monsutti argues, in his recent anthropological book,[32] that migration is the traditional way of life of the Hazara people, referring to the seasonal and historical migrations which have never ceased and do not seem to be dictated only by emergency situations such as war.[33]

Besides the major populations of Hazaras in Quetta (Pakistan) - where many have achieved considerably high positions within the government and police force - and Iran, there are significant communities in Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the United States, the United Kingdom and particularly the Northern European countries such as Sweden and Denmark. Many young Hazara are studying in developed countries such as Australia, legally through education or work visas. There are many Afghan Hazara who have migrated to developed countries especially in Australia as refugees. The notable case was the Tampa affair in which a shipload of refugees, mostly Hazaras, was rescued by the Norwegian freighter MV Tampa and subsequently sent to Nauru.[34] Many refugee claims were rejected by Australia and forwarded to New Zealand, where all claims but one were approved.

Pakistani Hazaras

Template:Distinguish2

File:Musa khan at school.jpg
Musa Khan, Pakistan's chief of Army Staff from 1958 to 1966

Hazara refugees from Afghanistan in Quetta and Peshawar Pakistan, along with their Pakistani Hazara (native, 3rd and 4th generation) brethren, have set up a remittance economy which has led to the opening of foreign money exchange places to handle the currency coming in. In Pakistan most of the Hazaras live in and around the city of Quetta, Hazara town and Mehr Abad where they hold high positions in the government of Balochistan, the federal government, and the Police force.

File:Saira Batool.jpg
Saira batool, first Female pilots of Pakistan Air Force[35]

A Hazara girl named Saira Batool became the first woman pilot in the Pakistan Air Force. In Pakistan, Hazaras are mostly in business and have high education levels in comparison to their Afghan counter-parts. They are integrated into the local social dynamics of the respective areas they have settled into and operated several successful trades and business. Hazaras are also politically active in Quetta and have a political party known as the Hazara Democratic Party.[36] Other notable Hazara settlements can be found in Karachi, Lahore and more recently in Multan.[37] Jan Ali Changezi, the current Minister of Quality Education & Clean Drinking Water in Balochistan is a Hazara and Syed Abbass Shah is the Member of National Assembly from PB1 Quetta city is also a Hazara. The most notable Hazara in Pakistan was General Musa Khan, who served as Commander in Chief of the Pakistani Army between 1958 to 1966. Another notable Pakistani Hazara was Hussain Ali Yousafi who was the chairman of the Hazara Democratic Party.[38]

Culture

The Hazara, outside of Hazarajat, have adopted the cultures of the cities where they dwell, and in many cases are quite Persianized. Traditionally the Hazara are highland farmers and although sedentary like the Tajiks, in the Hazarajat, they have retained many of their own customs and traditions, some of which are more closely related to those of Central Asia than to Iran.[18][39][40] For instance, many Hazara musicians are widely hailed as being skilled in playing the dambura, a lute instrument similarly found in other Central Asian nations such as Uzbekistan and Mongolia.

Language

Main articles: Persian language, Eastern Persian, Hazaragi, and Mogholi language

Hazaras living in rural areas speak Hazaragi, an eastern dialect of the Persian language[41] and containing a significant number of Turkic and some Mongolian loan words.[8][42][43] In particular, Hazaragi in the Daykundi regions has a significant admixture of Altaic influence in the language.

Many of the urban Hazaras in the larger cities such as Kabul and Mazari Sharif no longer speak Hazaragi but speak standard literary Persian (usually the Kābolī dialect) or regional varieties of Persian (for example the Khorāsānī dialect in the western region of Herat).

Until recently, a very small number of Hazaras near Herat still spoke the Moghol language, a dialect of the Mongol language and once spoken by the army of Genghis Khan. It is probably extinct by now.[44] On the other hand, the Nikudari used to speak Mogholi.

Religion

Hazaras are predominantly Shi'a Muslims, mostly of the Twelver sect[45] and some Ismaili[6] Since the majority of Afghans practice Sunni Islam, this probably contributed to the discrimination against the Hazaras.[12] Hazaras probably converted from Sunnism to Shi'aism during the reign (1304 to 1316) of the Il-Khanate ruler Oljeitu, or during the first part of the 16th century, in the early days of the Safavid Dynasty.[46] Nonetheless, a small number of Hazaras are Sunni,[6][12] primarily among the Taimani Hazara and the Hazara Aymaq.[47] Sunni Hazaras have been attached to non-Hazara tribes while the Ismaili Hazaras have always been kept separate from the rest of the Hazaras on account of religious beliefs and political purposes. Ghor and Badghis are largely populated by Sunni Hazaras.

Hazara tribes

Main article: List of Hazara tribes

The Hazara people have been organized by various tribes. The Daikundi are the largest tribe, representing 57.2% of the Hazara population.[citation needed] However, more recently and since the inclusion of the Hazaras into the "Afghan state", tribal affiliations have been disappearing and former tribal names (e.g. Daizangi, Behsoodi, Daykundi, or Jaghori) Uruzgani, Sheikh Ali (Dai Kalan)today more commonly refer to territorial designations.[48]

Sports

21-year-old Rohullah Nikpai, an ethnic Hazara, won a bronze medal in taekwondo in the Beijing Olympics 2008, beating world champion Juan Antonio Ramos of Spain 4-1 in a play-off final. It was Afghanistan's first-ever Olympics medal. Afghanistan's first female Olympic athlete Friba Razayee competed in Judo at the 2004 Athens Olympics, but was eliminated in the first round of competition. Other famous Hazara athletes are Syed Abdul Jalil Waiz (Badminton) and Ali Hazara (Football). Syed Abdul Jalil Waiz is the first Hazara Badminton-player who represented the country in Asian Junior Championships in 2005 where he produced the first win for the country against Iraq, winning 15/13 15/1. He participated in several international championships since 2005 and achieved victories against Australia, Philippines and Mongolia.

Syed Abrar Hussain Shah, an eminent, agile and daring Boxer was born on February 9, 1961 at Quetta. He had made his International debut at the Asian Boxing Championship held in Japan, 1983 and won a Bronze Medal. He represented the country in 23rd Los Angles Olympics 1984, 11th Mini World King's Cup-Bangkok, 1985, President Cup Jakarta 1986, Asian Boxing Championship Kawai 1987, 11th President Cup-Jakarta 1987, 24th Seoul Olympics 1988, President Cup 1989, International Boxing Festival-Islamabad 1989, President Cup-Jakarta 1990 and 14th Commonwealth Games-New Zealand 1990 and annexed a number of medals for his country. He won Gold Medal in 2nd South Asian Games held in Dhaka 1985 and was declared "Best Boxer" of the Tournament. He also won Gold Medal in 4th SAF Games held at Islamabad, 1989 and was declared "Best Boxer" of the Tournament. In the recently concluded 5 th SAF Games in Sri Lanka, he won Gold Medal. In 11th Asian Games in Beijing, 1990, he gave superb performance and won prestigious Gold Medal. He performed creditably well and won the coveted Gold Medal in 2nd KESC International Boxing Championship held in Karachi from 18–23 January 1992 in which besides Pakistan, Teams from Kuwait, Iran, Indonesia, Korea, Thailand, China and Sri Lanka participated. He was declared "The Best Boxer" of the eight-national contest.

Notes and references

  1. ^ a b "Afghanistan". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. December 13, 2007. Retrieved December 26, 2007.
  2. ^ a b Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (ed.), 2005. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Fifteenth edition. Dallas, Tex.: SIL International. Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com/.
  3. ^ Census of Afghans in Pakistan, UNHCR Statistical Summary Report (retrieved December 27, 2007)
  4. ^ The population of people with descent from Afghanistan in Canada is 48,090. Hazaras make up an estimated 9% of the population of Afghanistan according to the CIA Factbook and others. The Hazara population in Canada is estimated from these two figures. Ethnic origins, 2006 counts, for Canada
  5. ^ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazaragi
  6. ^ a b c The Afghans, Their History and Culture, Religion
  7. ^ [1]
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r L. Dupree, "Afghānistān: (iv.) ethnocgraphy", in Encyclopædia Iranica, Online Edition 2006, (LINK). Cite error: The named reference "Iranica2" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  9. ^ CIA World Factbook.
  10. ^ "A survey of the Afghan people - Afghanistan in 2006", The Asia Foundation, technical assistance by the Centre for the Study of Developing Societies (CSDS; India) and Afghan Center for Socio-economic and Opinion Research (ACSOR), Kabul, 2006, PDF.
  11. ^ "Ethnic Groups of Afghanistan". Library of Congress Country Studies on Afghanistan. 1997. Retrieved 2010-09-18. In 1996, approximately 40 percent of Afghans were Pashtun, 11.4 of whom are of the Durrani tribal group and 13.8 percent of the Ghilzai group. Tajiks make up the second largest ethnic group with 25.3 percent of the population, followed by Hazaras, 9 percent; Uzbeks, 6.3 percent; Turkmen, 2.5 percent; Qizilbash, 1.0; 6.9 percent other.
  12. ^ a b c Ehsan Yarshater (ed.). "HAZĀRA". Encyclopædia Iranica (Online Edition ed.). United States: Columbia University. Retrieved 2007-12-23. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |edition= has extra text (help)
  13. ^ Genetics: Analysis Of Genes And Genomes By Daniel L. Hartl, Elizabeth W. Jones, pg. 308
  14. ^ A Profile On Bamyan Civilization.
  15. ^ Ratchnevsky, Paul (1991) Genghis Khan: His Life and Legacy Blackwell, Oxford, UK, page 164, ISBN 0-631-18949-1
  16. ^ a b http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/02/0214_030214_genghis_2.html Genghis Khan a Prolific Lover, DNA Data Implies
  17. ^
    • "The Hazara Tribes in Afghanistan" In (1959) Collection of papers presented: International Symposium on History of Eastern and Western Cultural Contacts (1957 : Tokyo and Kyoto) Japanese National Commission for Unesco, Tokyo, p. 61 9240301
    • Quintana-Murci, Lluís et al. (May 2004) "Where West Meets East: The Complex mtDNA Landscape of the Southwest and Central Asian Corridor" American Journal of Human Genetics 74(5): pp. 827-845, on pages 834 and 835
    • Debets, G. F. (1970) Physical Anthropology of Afghanistan: I-II (translated from Russian) Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Cambridge, Mass., OCLC 90304
    • Rubin, Barnett R. (2002) The Fragmentation of Afghanistan: State Formation and Collapse in the international system Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn., page 30, ISBN 0-300-05963-9
  18. ^ a b Jochelson, Waldemar (1928) Peoples of Asiatic Russia American Museum of Natural History, New York, page 33, OCLC 187466893, also available in microfiche edition
  19. ^ Genetics: Analysis Of Genes And Genomes By Daniel L. Hartl, Elizabeth W. Jones, pg. 309
  20. ^ Rosenberg, Noah A. et al. (December 2002) "Genetic Structure of Human Populations" Science (New Series) 298(5602): pp. 2381-2385
  21. ^ ZERJAL T; Xue, Y; Bertorelle, G; Wells, RS; Bao, W; Zhu, S; Qamar, R; Ayub, Q; Mohyuddin, A (2003). "The Genetic Legacy of the Mongols". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 72 (3): 717–721. doi:10.1086/367774. PMC 1180246. PMID 12592608. Retrieved December 28, 2007. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help)
  22. ^ McKie, Robin (March 2, 2003). "We owe it all to superstud Genghis". The Observer. Retrieved December 29, 2007.
  23. ^ a b c d e f g h Mousavi, Sayed Askar (1998) [1997]. The Hazaras of Afghanistan: An Historical, Cultural, Economic and Political Study. Richmond, New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-17386-5. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help)
  24. ^ http://www.wahdat.net
  25. ^ Rashid, Ahmed (March 1, 2001). Taliban: Militant Islam, Oil and Fundamentalism in Central Asia (Paperback ed.). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300089028.
  26. ^ Human Rights Watch (2001). "AFGHANISTAN: MASSACRES OF HAZARAS IN AFGHANISTAN". hrw.org. Retrieved December 27, 2007. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  27. ^ Human Rights Watch (1998). "INCITEMENT OF VIOLENCE AGAINST HAZARAS BY GOVERNOR NIAZI". AFGHANISTAN: THE MASSACRE IN MAZAR-I SHARIF. hrw.org. Retrieved December 27, 2007. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  28. ^ a b Sappenfield, Mark (August 6, 2007). "Afghanistan's success story: The liberated Hazara minority". The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved December 27, 2007.
  29. ^ "Hazara Australians to protest across Australia at Afghanistan genocide"
  30. ^ "Afghan Overture to Taliban Aggravates Ethnic Tensions"
  31. ^ http://www.usaid.gov/stories/afghanistan/fp_af_textbooks.html
  32. ^ Monsutti, Alessandro (2005) War and migration: Social networks and economic strategies of the Hazaras of Afghanistan Routledge, New York, ISBN 0-415-97508-5
  33. ^ Monsutti, Alessandro (2005). War and migration: Social networks and economic strategies of the Hazaras of Afghanistan (in English and translated by Patrick Camiller). Routledge, New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-97508-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
  34. ^ Australia ships out Afghan refugees - BBC News
  35. ^ http://pakistanigirls.org/pakistani-women-pilots/
  36. ^ Balochistan's Hazaras speak out — Qurat ul ain Siddiqui interviews Secretary-General of the Hazara Democratic Party, Mr Abdul Khaliq Hazara
  37. ^ List of Political parties
  38. ^ "Hussain Ali Yousafi, chairman of the Hazara Democratic Party'" BBC News, 26 January 2009
  39. ^ Schurmann, Franz (1962) The Mongols of Afghanistan: An Ethnography of the Moghôls and Related Peoples of Afghanistan Mouton, The Hague, Netherlands, OCLC 401634
  40. ^ Mousavi, Sayed Askar (1991) "The Hazaras of Afghanistan: An Historical, Cultural, Economic, and Political Study University of Oxford, Oxford, England, ISBN 0-312-17386-5
  41. ^ Mongols of Afghanistan: An Ethnography of the Moghôls and Related Peoples of Afghanistan Mouton, The Hague, Netherlands, - page 17, OCLC 401634
  42. ^ Malistani, A. H. Tariq and Gehring, Roman (compilers) (1993) Farhang-i ibtidal-i milli-i Hazarah : bi-inzimam-i tarjamah bih Farsi-i Ingilisi = Hazaragi - Dari/Persian- English: a preliminary glossary A. H. Tariq Malistani, Quetta, OCLC 33814814
  43. ^ Farhadi, A. G. Ravan (1955). Le persan parle‚ en Afghanistan: Grammaire du kâboli accompagne‚e d'un recuil de quatrains populaires de re‚gion de Kâbol. Paris.
  44. ^ Michael Weiers. 2003. "Moghol," The Mongolic Languages. Ed. Juha Janhunen. Routledge Language Family Series 5. London: Routledge. Pages 248-264.
  45. ^ 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica - Hazara (Race)
  46. ^ Revolution unending: Afghanistan, 1979 to the present, By Gilles Dorronsoro, pg.44
  47. ^ Brice, William Charles (ed.) (1981) "Hazāras" An Historical Atlas of Islam (under the patronage of the Encyclopaedia of Islam) E. J. Brill, Leiden, p. 367, ISBN 90-04-06116-9
  48. ^ Monsutti, Alessandro. "HAZĀRA: iii. ETHNOGRAPHY AND SOCIAL ORGANIZATION". In Ehsan Yarshater (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica (Online Edition ed.). United States: Columbia University. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |edition= has extra text (help)

Further reading

  • Monsutti, Alessandro (2005). War and migration: Social networks and economic strategies of the Hazaras of Afghanistan (in English and translated by Patrick Camiller). Routledge, New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-97508-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
  • Mousavi, Sayed Askar (1998) [1997]. The Hazaras of Afghanistan: An Historical, Cultural, Economic and Political Study. Richmond, New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-17386-5. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help)
  • Frederiksen, Birthe (1996). Caravans and trade in Afghanistan: The changing life of the nomadic Hazarbuz. Carlsberg Foundation's Nomad Research Project. London: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-01687-9. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Poladi, Hassan (1989). The Hazāras. Stockton, California: Mughal Publishing Company. ISBN 0-929824-00-8. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |origdate= (help)
  • Kakar, M. Hasan (1973). The pacification of the Hazaras of Afghanistan. New York: Afghanistan Council, Asia Society. OCLC 1111643.
  • Mousavi, Syed Askr (1997). The Hazaras of Afghanistan. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0312173865, 9780312173869. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
  • Harpviken, Kristian Berg. Political Mobilization Among the Hazara of Afghanistan: 1978-1992. Rapportserien ved Sosiologi, Nr. 9 1996. Oslo: Institutt for Sosiologi, Universitetet i Oslo.

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hazaras.
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Hazara (Race)".
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