Intersectionality

Intersectionality is an analytic framework which attempts to identify how interlocking systems of power impact those who are most marginalized in society. Intersectionality considers that the various forms of what it sees as social stratification, such as class, race, sexual orientation, age, disability and gender, do not exist separately from each other but are complexly interwoven. While the theory began as an exploration of the oppression of women of color within society, today the analysis is potentially applied to all categories (including statuses usually seen as dominant when seen as standalone statuses).

Historical background

External videos
Women of the World Festival 2016
Kimberlé Crenshaw – On Intersectionality via Southbank Centre on YouTube

The concept of intersectionality is intended to illuminate dynamics that have often been overlooked in feminist movements and theory. As articulated by bell hooks, such an approach "challenged the notion that 'gender' was the primary factor determining a woman's fate". This exploration sprang from a historical exclusion of black women from the feminist movement that had been challenged since at least the 1800s by black feminists such as Anna Julia Cooper. In many ways, the introduction of intersectional theory supported claims made by women of color that they belong in both of these political spheres.

The movement led by women of color disputed the idea, common to earlier feminist movements, that women were a homogeneous category essentially sharing the same life experiences. This argument stemmed from the realization that white middle-class women did not serve as an accurate representation of the feminist movement as a whole. Recognizing that the forms of oppression experienced by white middle-class women were different from those experienced by black, poor, or disabled women, feminists sought to understand the ways in which gender, race, and class combined to "determine the female destiny".

Historically, the idea of intersectionality has been connected with terms such as feminism, black feminism, and womanism. Intersectionality is weaved within these other ideologies because of the need to understand how there are layers between disparities, which are not traditionally studied. These dynamics are more complex than simply recognizing either race, or economic status as a factor towards inequality. Intersectionality works to identify how multiple factors are interlocking at all times to create inequalities on a macro level.

First wave feminism focused on gaining political equality between men and women; however, race was a large factor that was not protested in addition to women's right to vote. Consequently, early women's rights movements are often seen as exclusively pertaining to white women's membership, concerns, and struggles. Third wave feminism is highly noted for understanding the multiple layers of oppression presented within injustices towards women. Historically, these injustices needed to be addressed, and are now visible through recognizing the term intersectionality. Third wave feminism notes the lack of attention to race, class, sexual orientation, and gender identity in early feminist movements, and now provides a channel to address political and social disparities. As these factors were previously ignored, they were seen as struggles that were independent of each other. However, intersectionality is a concept that recognizes the failure to address these issues in early social justice movements. This term presents a unifying term for identifying these struggles, which are present between minority groups today.

Leslie McCall argues that the introduction of the intersectionality theory was vital to sociology, claiming that before its development there was little research that specifically addressed the experiences of people who are subjected to multiple forms of subordination within society.

The term also has historical and theoretical links to the concept of "simultaneity" advanced during the 1970s by members of the Combahee River Collective, in Boston, Massachusetts. Members of this group articulated an awareness that their lives, and their forms of resistance to oppression, were profoundly shaped by the simultaneous influences of race, class, gender, and sexuality. Thus, the women of the Combahee River Collective advanced an understanding of African-American experiences that challenged analyses emerging from Black and male-centered social movements; as well as those from mainstream white, middle-class, heterosexual feminists.

Feminist thought

The term intersectionality theory was first coined by legal scholar Kimberlé Crenshaw in 1989. In her work, Crenshaw discussed Black feminism, which argues that the experience of being a black woman cannot be understood in terms of being black and of being a woman considered independently, but must include the interactions, which frequently reinforce each other. Crenshaw mentioned that the intersectionality experience within black women is more powerful than the sum of their race and sex, and that any observations that do not take intersectionality into consideration cannot accurately address the manner in which black women are subordinated.

In order to show that women of color have a vastly different experience from white women due to their race and/or class and that their experiences are not easily voiced or pinpointed, Crenshaw explores two types of male violence against women: domestic violence and rape. Through her analysis of these two forms of male violence against women, Crenshaw depicts that the experiences of women of color consist of a combination or intersection of both racism and sexism. Because women of color are present within discourses that have been designed to address either race or sex, but not both at the same time, women of color are marginalized within both of these systems of oppression.

In her work, Crenshaw identifies three aspects of intersectionality that affect the visibility of women of color: structural intersectionality, political intersectionality, and representational intersectionality. Structural intersectionality deals with how women of color experience domestic violence and rape in a manner qualitatively different from the ways that white women experience them. Political intersectionality examines how feminist and anti-racists laws and policies have paradoxically decreased the visibility of violence against women of color. Finally, representational intersectionality delves into how pop culture portrayals of women of color can obscure the actual, real life experiences of women of color.

The term gained prominence in the 1990s, particularly in the wake of sociologist Patricia Hill Collins's further development of Crenshaw's work in her writings on black feminism. Crenshaw's term replaced her previous coinage "black feminist thought," and "increased the general applicability of her theory from African American women to all women." Much like Crenshaw, Collins argued that cultural patterns of oppression are not only interrelated, but are bound together and influenced by the intersectional systems of society, such as race, gender, class, and ethnicity. Collins described this as "interlocking social institutions [that] have relied on multiple forms of segregation... to produce unjust results".

Collins sought to create frameworks to think about intersectionality, rather than expanding on the theory itself. As a field, she identified three main branches of study within intersectionality. One branch deals with the background, ideas, issues, conflicts, and debates within intersectionality. Another branch seeks to apply intersectionality as an analytical strategy to various social institutions in order to examine how they might perpetuate social inequality. The final branch formulates intersectionality as a critical praxis to determine how social justice initiatives can use intersectionality to bring about social change.

Of course, the ideas behind intersectional feminism existed long before the term was coined. For example, in 1851 Sojourner Truth delivered her famous "Ain't I a Woman?" speech, in which she spoke from her racialized position as a former slave to critique essentialist notions of femininity. Similarly, in her 1892 essay, "The Colored Woman's Office", Anna Julia Cooper identifies black women as the most important actors in social change movements, because of their experience with multiple facets of oppression.

Though intersectionality began with the exploration of the interplay between gender and race, over time other identities and oppressions were added to the theory. For example, in 1981 Cherríe Moraga and Gloria Anzaldúa published the first edition of This Bridge Called My Back. This anthology explored how classifications of sexual orientation and class also mix with those of race and gender to create even more distinct political categories. Many black, Latina, and Asian writers featured in the collection stress how their sexuality interacts with their race and gender to inform their perspectives. Similarly, poor women of color detail how their socio-economic status adds a layer of nuance to their identities, unknown to or misunderstood by middle-class white feminists.

According to black feminists and many white feminists, experiences of class, gender, sexuality, etc., cannot be adequately understood unless the influences of racialization are carefully considered. This focus on racialization was highlighted many times by scholar and feminist bell hooks, specifically in her 1981 book Ain't I A Woman: Black Women and Feminism. Feminists argue that an understanding of intersectionality is a vital element to gaining political and social equality and improving our democratic system. Collins's theory represents the sociological crossroads between modern and post-modern feminist thought.

Marie-Claire Belleau argues for "strategic intersectionality" in order to foster cooperation between feminisms of different ethnicities. She refers to different nat-cult (national-cultural) groups that produce unique types of feminisms. Using Québécois nat-cult as an example, Belleau acknowledges that many nat-cult groups contain infinite sub-identities within themselves. Due to this infinity, she argues that there are endless ways in which different feminisms can cooperate by using strategic intersectionality, and these partnerships can help bridge gaps between "dominant and marginal" groups. Belleau argues that, through strategic intersectionality, differences between nat-cult feminisms are neither essentialist nor universal, but that they should be understood as results of socio-cultural contexts. Furthermore, the performances of these nat-cult feminisms are also not essentialist. Instead, they are strategies.

Similarly, Intersectional theorists like Vrushali Patil argue that intersectionality ought to recognize transborder constructions of racial and cultural hierarchies. Patil recognizes the affect of the state on identity formation, "If we continue to neglect cross-border dynamics and fail to problematize the nation and its emergence via transnational processes, our analyses will remain tethered to the spatialities and temporalities of colonial modernity."

Marxist-feminist critical theory

Collins's intersectionality theory and its relative principles have a wide range of applicability in the sociological realm, especially in topics such as politics and violence (see, for instance, Collins, 1998). The struggle faced by Black women in the economic sector, for example, demonstrates how the interrelated principles of Collins's theory come together to add a new dimension to Marxist economic theory. Collins used her insight and built a dynamic theory of political oppression as related to Black women in particular.

W. E. B. Du Bois theorized that the intersectional paradigms of race, class, and nation might explain certain aspects of black political economy. Collins writes: "Du Bois saw race, class, and nation not primarily as personal identity categories but as social hierarchies that shaped African American access to status, poverty, and power." Du Bois omitted gender from his theory and considered it more of a personal identity category.

Cheryl Townsend Gilkes expands on this by pointing out the value of centering on the experiences of black women. Joy James takes things one step further by "using paradigms of intersectionality in interpreting social phenomena". Collins later integrated these three views by examining a black political economy through both the centering of black women's experiences and using a theoretical framework of intersectionality.

Collins uses a Marxist feminist approach and applies her intersectional principles to what she calls the "work/family nexus and black women's poverty". In her 2000 article "Black Political Economy" she describes how the intersections of consumer racism, gender hierarchies, and disadvantages in the labor market can be centered on black women's unique experiences. Considering this from a historical perspective examining interracial marriage laws and property inheritance laws creates what Collins terms a "distinctive work/family nexus that in turn influences the overall patterns of black political economy". For example, anti-miscegenation laws effectively suppressed the upward economic mobility of black women.

The intersectionality of race and gender has been shown to have a visible impact on the labor market. "Sociological research clearly shows that accounting for education, experience, and skill does not fully explain significant differences in labor market outcomes." The three main domains on which we see the impact of intersectionality are wages, discrimination, and domestic labor. Those who experience privilege within the social hierarchy in terms of race, gender and socio-economic status are less likely to receive lower wages, to be subjected to stereotypes and discriminated against, or be hired for exploitive domestic positions. Study of the labor market and intersectionality provides a better understanding of economic inequalities and the implications of the multidimensional impact of race and gender on social status within society.

Key concepts

Interlocking matrix of oppression

Collins refers to the various intersections of social inequality as the matrix of domination. This is also known as "vectors of oppression and privilege". These terms refer to how differences among people (sexual orientation, class, race, age, etc.) serve as oppressive measures towards women and change the experience of living as a woman in society. Collins, Audre Lorde (in Sister Outsider), and bell hooks point towards either/or thinking as an influence on this oppression and as further intensifying these differences. Specifically, Collins refers to this as the construct of dichotomous oppositional difference. This construct is characterized by its focus on differences rather than similarities.

Colorism is skin tone stratification, and it typically has the lighter skin tones at the top of the hierarchy while darker skin tones are treated less favorably and have been denied things allocated to those lighter. In America, a common expression of colorism stems from the notion that some African Americans with lighter complexions have ties to "house slaves" and Africans Americans with darker complexions have ancestral ties to "field slaves". Some implications have been that those in the house were being treated better than those in the field because of the intensity of field labor as well as being inside. However, there are two sides that being a "house slave" came with the danger of being subject to more trauma, such as rape, as well as other dangers of interacting with the white slave owners more often. Colorism also exists strongly today on an everyday level with tangible and long-lasting results, in, for example, the education system. How African-American and Latino/a students are treated by staff, teachers, administrators, etc. may be biased by the student's skin tone.

Colorism is not a synonym to racism as colorism can occur, and often does, within racial and ethnic groups. The brown paper bag test was used in America for black people to be further divided: those lighter than a brown paper bag were allotted some privilege that those darker were not permitted to. The brown paper bag test and colorism add to the fuel of intersectionality: recognizing the different identities of an individual in order to better understand one's lived experiences which can be different by race, gender, sexuality, as well as color, amongst other qualities. The brown paper bag test is not used outright today but there are still implications of colorism; for example in media, lighter skin black females are often more sexualized than their darker counterparts.

Standpoint epistemology and the outsider within

Both Collins and Dorothy Smith have been instrumental in providing a sociological definition of standpoint theory. A standpoint is an individual's unique world perspective. The theoretical basis of this approach views societal knowledge as being located within an individual's specific geographic location. In turn, knowledge becomes distinctly unique and subjective; it varies depending on the social conditions under which it was produced.

The concept of the outsider within refers to a unique standpoint encompassing the self, family, and society. This relates to the specific experiences to which people are subjected as they move from a common cultural world (i.e., family) to that of the modern society. Therefore, even though a woman—especially a Black woman—may become influential in a particular field, she may feel as though she does not belong. Their personalities, behaviors, and cultural beings overshadow their value as an individual; thus, they become the outsider within.

Resisting oppression

Speaking from a critical standpoint, Collins points out that Brittan and Maynard claim "domination always involves the objectification of the dominated; all forms of oppression imply the devaluation of the subjectivity of the oppressed." She later notes that self-valuation and self-definition are two ways of resisting oppression. Participating in self-awareness methods helps to preserve the self-esteem of the group that is being oppressed and help them avoid any dehumanizing outside influences.

Marginalized groups often gain a status of being an "other". In essence, you are "an other" if you are different from what Audre Lorde calls the mythical norm. "Others" are virtually anyone that differs from the societal schema of an average white male. Gloria Anzaldúa theorizes that the sociological term for this is "othering", or specifically attempting to establish a person as unacceptable based on a certain criterion that fails to be met.

Individual subjectivity is another concern for marginalized groups. Differences can be used as a weapon of self-devaluation by internalizing stereotypical societal views, thus leading to a form of psychological oppression. The point Collins effectively makes is that having a sense of self-value and a stable self-definition not obtained from outside influences helps to overcome these oppressive societal methods of domination.

Intersectionality in practice

Template:Globalize/US Intersectionality can be applied to nearly all fields from politics, education healthcare, employment, to wealth and property. For example, within the institution of education, Sandra Jones' research on working class women in academia takes into consideration meritocracy within all social strata, but argues that it is complicated by race and the external forces that oppress. Additionally, people of color often experience differential treatment in the healthcare system. For example in the period immediately after 9/11 researchers noted low birth weights and other poor birth outcomes among Muslim and Arab Americans, a result they connected to the increased racial and religious discrimination of the time. Some researchers have also argued that immigration policies can affect health outcomes through mechanisms such as stress, restrictions on access to health care, and the social determinants of health.

Additionally applications with regard to property and wealth can be traced to the American historical narrative that is filled "with tensions and struggles over property—in its various forms. From the removal of Indians (and later Japanese Americans) from the land, to military conquest of the Mexicans, to the construction of Africans as property the ability to define, possess, and own property has been a central feature of power in America ... [and where] social benefits accrue largely to property owners". One would apply the intersectionality framework analysis to various areas where race, class, gender, sexuality and ability are affected by policies, procedures, practices, and laws in "context-specific inquiries, including, for example, analyzing the multiple ways that race and gender interact with class in the labor market; interrogating the ways that states constitute regulatory regimes of identity, reproduction, and family formation"; and examining the inequities in "the power relations [of the intersectionality] of whiteness ... [where] the denial of power and privilege ... of whiteness, and middle-classness", while not addressing "the role of power it wields in social relations".

Social work

In the field of social work, proponents of intersectionality hold that unless service providers take intersectionality into account, they will be of less use for various segments of the population e.g. those reporting domestic violence or disabled victims of abuse. According to intersectionality, the advice of domestic violence counselors in the United States urging all women to report their abusers to police would be of little use to women of color due to the history of racially motivated police brutality, and those counselors should adapt their counseling for women of color.

Women with disabilities encounter more frequent domestic abuse with a greater number of abusers. Health care workers and personal care attendants perpetrated abuse in these circumstances, and women with disabilities have fewer options for escaping the abusive situation. There is a "silence" principle concerning the intersectionality of women and disability, which maintains that there is an overall social denial of the prevalence of the abused and disabled and this abuse is frequently ignored when encountered. A paradox is presented by the overprotection of people with disabilities combined with the expectations of promiscuous behavior of disabled women. This is met with limitations of autonomy and isolation of the individuals, which place women with disabilities in situations where further or more frequent abuse can occur.

Criticism

Strong focus on subjective narratives

According to Rebecca Reilly-Cooper intersectionality relies heavily on standpoint theory, which has its own set of criticisms. Intersectionality posits that an oppressed person is often the best person to judge their experience of oppression; however, this can create paradoxes when people who are similarly oppressed have different interpretations of similar events. Such paradoxes make it very difficult to synthesize a common actionable cause based on subjective testimony alone.

Some commentators have claimed intersectionality can demonstrate a narrative of disadvantage with regards to black women's pay over other groups considered statistically to be underprivileged, others, especially those based on multiple intersections of oppression are more complex.

Incomplete class analysis

Intersectional theory sees class as just another intersection, while economic class has a far more complex relationship with other marginalized identities. Marginalized people typically earn less than non-marginalized people, meaning marginalized are more likely to be economically oppressed as well. In this sense economic class is a mechanism of oppression, not just another intersection. For this reason, many marginalized groups can find common cause fighting economic oppression. Coatoan said "To say that poor people of color, queers, or immigrants are not interested or not profoundly impacted by the economy, and instead interested only in reaffirming their identities within existing hierarchies of power, is to work within a rigged zero-sum game for the liberation of a particular oppressed identity at the expense of all the others." Michael Rectenwald accuses intersectional theorists of furthering a neoliberal agenda by discussing only the distribution of resources within our current system of income inequality, without questioning income inequality itself.

Encouraging paralysis in attempting perfection

Rekia Jibrin and Sara Salem argue that intersectional theory creates a unified idea of anti-oppression politics that requires a lot out of its adherents, often more than can reasonably be expected, creating difficulties achieving praxis. They also say that intersectional philosophy encourages a focus on the issues inside the group instead of on society at large, and that intersectionality is "a call to complexity and to abandon over simplification... this has the parallel effect of emphasizing 'internal differences' over hegemonic structures." Writing in the New Statesman, Helen Lewis adds that in emphasizing internal differences over hegemonic structures, and having complex and, at times, contradictory recommendations, it can create paralysis because it is not very accessible. "People are not perfect, and they do not have unlimited time and resources. I've given the example of disability, because I think most people would agree that obviously, any public meeting should be accessible to wheelchairs. But what about the deaf? The blind? Should a group of feminists starting their own meet-up in a university hall enlist someone proficient in sign-language in case that's needed? Should they print their leaflets in braille?" Hannah Wilder says that this also complicates building alliances, because imperfect humans cannot live up to the standard intersectionality promotes, and may stop attempting intersectionality for this reason, an effect, argues Chris Black, that can create a broader political problem building intersectional alliances or mass movements.

Oversimplification

The social psychologist Jonathan Haidt, in a speech at the Manhattan institute, criticized the theory by saying:

[In intersectionality] the binary dimensions of oppression are said to be interlocking and overlapping. America is said to be one giant matrix of oppression, and its victims cannot fight their battles separately. They must all come together to fight their common enemy, the group that sits at the top of the pyramid of oppression: the straight, white, cis-gendered, able-bodied Christian or Jewish or possibly atheist male. This is why a perceived slight against one victim group calls forth protest from all victim groups. This is why so many campus groups now align against Israel. Intersectionality is like NATO for social-justice activists.

Alan Dershowitz derided the theory of intersectionality as the "phoniest academic doctrine I have encountered in 53 years" in academia, during a lecture at Columbia University. Dershowitz sees the concept as an oversimplification of reality that makes LGBT activists stand in solidarity with advocates of Sharia, even though Islamic law denies the rights with the former. He feels that identity politics do not evaluate ideas or individuals on the basis of the quality of their character. Dershowitz argues that in academia, intersectionality is taught with a large influence of antisemitism. He states that Jews are actually more liberal and supportive of equal rights than many other religious sects.

Chloé Valdary considers intersectionality "a rigid system for determining who is virtuous and who is not, based on traits like skin color, gender, and financial status". Valdary also states:

Intersectionality's greatest flaw is in reducing human beings to political abstractions, which is never a tendency that turns out well—in part because it so severely flattens our complex human experience, and therefore fails to adequately describe reality. As it turns out, one can be personally successful and still come from a historically oppressed community—or vice versa. The human experience is complex and multifaceted and deeper than the superficial ways in which intersectionalists describe it.

The Essigian "Hairball" Theory of Power

The metaphor of a “hairball” has been used in order to permit for intersectionality while simultaneously characterizing it in a much more messy and inseparable way.  Director and Professor of Gender, Sexuality, & Feminist Studies, Laurie Essig utilizes this figure of speech in order to capitalize on feminist thought perpetuated by the theoretical work of Kimberlé Crenshaw and Patricia Hill Collins. Specifically, Essig argues that we must view gender, class, race, sex, and ability as inseparable and, therefore, culminate as identities to form what she refers to as a “hairball.”  Essig reaches this conclusion through Crenshaw in allowing for race and gender to act on the body.  This relates to the feminist author’s suggestion that race when considered in cases of discrimination, tends to be associated with the “sex- or class-privileged” Black people and similarly, in discrimination cases relating to sex, the focus tends to be on “race- and class-privileged women."

In terms of Patricia Hill Collins, Essig recognizes her concept of the matrix of domination in the sense that difference among people serve as the measures of oppression that change the lived experience of women in society.  In this context, differences refer specific identities relating to the sexual orientation, class, race, age, and other markers which contribute to contemporary identity politics.  Thus, the “hairball” theory of power posits that one can never separate sex from gender, race, and other forms of identity, and therefore, creates a more realistic metaphor for the messiness of power than simply the one of a “intersection” or “matrix.”

Lack of ideological diversity

Helen Pluckrose argues that intersectional feminism primarily draws on far-left ideologies and ultimately ends up excluding women, lower economic classes, people of colour, LGBT and disabled people who do not share similar political views. Pluckrose also states that these groups are politically diverse and that they often have views that are incompatible with intersectional feminism, or alternatively, they express opinions that it is intolerant of, as it violates intersectional stereotypes of these marginalized groups. Pluckrose argues that proponents of intersectional feminism aren't representative of the groups they claim to represent but rather that "It is clearly misguided to assume that by listening to intersectionals, we are listening to women, people of color, LGBTs and the disabled. We are, in fact, listening to a minority ideological view dominated by people from an economically privileged class who have had a university education in the social sciences and/or the necessary leisure time and education to study intersectionality, critical race theory, queer theory and critical analyses of ableism."

Similarly, Davis (2008) asserts that intersectionality is ambiguous and open ended, and that its "lack of clear-cut definition or even specific parameters has enabled it to be drawn upon in nearly any context of inquiry".

Ruth Wisse argued that intersectionality is a "coalition of self-declared victims" who have very little in common with one another. In her reading, disproportional support for Palestinian nationalism is part of the glue that holds intersectionalists together. This is because focusing on more urgent causes (such as the massive civilian casualties in the Syrian Civil War) risks dividing internationalists.

Compared to abiding religious faiths

Intersectionality's premises have been characterized by some libertarian-leaning skeptics as manifested similarly to religious faith. Notably, for example, public intellectual Andrew Sullivan has argued that intersectionality manifests itself "almost as a religion. It posits a classic orthodoxy through which all of human experience is explained—and through which all speech must be filtered. Its version of original sin is the power of some identity groups over others. To overcome this sin, you need first to confess, i.e., 'check your privilege,' and subsequently live your life and order your thoughts in a way that keeps this sin at bay."

See also

• Black feminism
• Humanism
• Kyriarchy
• Privilege (social inequality)
• Standpoint theory
• Triple oppression
• Womanism

Further reading

• Bates, Laura (31 March 2014). "Sexism, double discrimination and more than one kind of prejudice". The Guardian.
• Clarke, Averil Y.; McCall, Leslie (2013). "Intersectionality and social explanation in social science research". Du Bois review: Social science research on race. 10 (2): 349–363. doi:10.1017/S1742058X13000325. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Collins, Patricia Hill; Andersen, Margaret L. (2015) [1992]. Race, Class, & Gender: an anthology. Boston, Massachusetts: Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-305-09361-4.
• Collins, Patricia Hill (2009) [1990]. Black Feminist Thought: knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-96472-2.
• Collins, Patricia Hill; Bilge, Sirma (2016). Intersectionality. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. ISBN 978-0-7456-8448-2.
• Collins, Patricia Hill (1998). "The tie that binds: race, gender and US violence". Ethnic and Racial Studies. 21 (5). Taylor & Francis: 917–938. doi:10.1080/014198798329720. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Doucet, Andrea; Siltanen, Janet (2008). Gender Relations in Canada: intersectionality and beyond. Don Mills, Ontario: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-542320-4.
• Doná, Giorgia (March 2013). "Interconnected modernities, ethnic relations and violence". Current Sociology, special issue: Violence and Society. 61 (2). Sage: 226–243. doi:10.1177/0011392112456507. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Harnois, Catherine E. (2010). "Race, Gender, and the Black Women's Standpoint". Sociological Forum. 25 (1). Wiley: 68–85. doi:10.1111/j.1573-7861.2009.01157.x. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Hancock, Ange-Marie (2016). Intersectionality: an intellectual history. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-937037-5. OCLC 941724695.
• Köllen, Thomas (2014). "A review of minority stress related to employees' demographics and the development of an intersectional framework for their coping strategies in the workplace" (PDF). The Role of Demographics in Occupational Stress and Well Being. Research in Occupational Stress and Well Being. Vol. 12. Emerald. pp. 41–82. doi:10.1108/S1479-355520140000012000. ISBN 978-1-78350-646-0.
• Lee, Butch; Rover, Red (1993). Night-vision: illuminating war & class on the neo-colonial terrain. New York: Vagabond. ISBN 978-1-883780-00-5.
• Leung, Lai-ching (May 2017). "Intersectional challenges: marginalization of ethnic minority sexual assault survivors in Hong Kong". Affilia. 32 (2). Sage: 217–229. doi:10.1177/0886109916678026. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Mitchell, Eve (2013). I am a woman and a human: a Marxist feminist critique of intersectionality (pamphlet). Houston, NYC, and Atlanta: Unity and Struggle. Archived from the original on 29 May 2017. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help) Pdf of pamphlet.
• Ní Aoláin, Fionnuala; Rooney, Eilish (December 2007). "Underenforcement and intersectionality: gendered aspects of transition for women". International Journal of Transitional Justice. 1 (3). Oxford Journals: 338–354. doi:10.1093/ijtj/ijm031. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Robertson, Eleanor (23 December 2013). "In defence of intersectionality – one of feminism's most important tools". The Guardian. Guardian Media Group.
• Schuster, Julia (September–October 2016). "Intersectional expectations: young feminists' perceived failure at dealing with differences and their retreat to individualism". Women's Studies International Forum. 58: 1–8. doi:10.1016/j.wsif.2016.04.007. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Smooth, Wendy (September 2006). "Intersectionality in electoral politics: a mess worth making". Politics & Gender. 2 (3). Cambridge Journals: 400–414. doi:10.1017/S1743923X06261087. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Sunderland, Jane (April 2012). "'Brown Sugar': The textual construction of femininity in two 'tiny texts'". Gender and Language. 6 (1). Equinox: 105–129. doi:10.1558/genl.v6i1.105. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Vidal, Ava (15 January 2014). "'Intersectional feminism'. What the hell is it? (And why you should care)". The Telegraph.
• Weldon, S. Laurel (June 2006). "The structure of intersectionality: a comparative politics of gender". Politics & Gender. 2 (2). Cambridge Journals: 235–248. doi:10.1017/S1743923X06231040. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Gutiérrez y Muhs, Gabriella; Niemann, Yolanda Flores; González, Carmen G.; Harris, Angela P., eds. (2012). Presumed Incompetent: the intersections of race and class for women in academia. Boulder, Colorado: University Press of Colorado. ISBN 978-0-87421-922-7.

External links

• Black Feminist Thought in the Matrix of Domination
• Collins, Patricia Hill. "Black Feminist Thought". Women of Color Web. Archived from the original on 11 December 2006. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
• A Brief History of Black Feminist Thought
• Intersectionality Theory
• McCarthy, Allison. Siegel, Deborah (ed.). "The Intersectional Feminist". Girl w/ Pen. Archived from the original on 15 November 2012. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
• Intersectionality 101