Ancient literature
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Ancient literature comprises religious and scientific documents, tales, poetry and plays, royal edicts and declarations, and other forms of writing that were recorded on a variety of media, including stone, clay tablets, papyri, palm leaves, and metal. Before the spread of writing, oral literature did not always survive well, but some texts and fragments have persisted. One can conclude that an unknown number of written works too have likely not survived the ravages of time and are therefore lost.
Incomplete list of ancient texts
Bronze Age
Early Bronze Age: 3rd millennium BC (approximate dates shown). The earliest written literature dates from about 2600 BC (classical Sumerian).[1] The earliest literary author known by name is Enheduanna, a Sumerian priestess and public figure dating to ca. 24th century BC.[2] Certain literary texts are difficult to date, such as the Egyptian Book of the Dead, which was recorded in the Papyrus of Ani around 1240 BC, but other versions of the book probably date from about the 18th century BC.
- 2600: Sumerian texts from Abu Salabikh, including the Instructions of Shuruppak and the Kesh temple hymn
- 2600: Egyptian The Life of Metjen, from Saqqara[3]
- 2500: Egyptian Diary of Merer (Oldest papyrus)
- 2400: Egyptian Pyramid Texts, including the Cannibal Hymn
- 2400: Sumerian Code of Urukagina[4]
- 2400: Egyptian Palermo stone
- 2350: Egyptian The Maxims of Ptahhotep
- 2270: Sumerian Enheduanna's Hymns
- 2250: Egyptian Autobiography of Weni
- 2250-2000: Earliest Sumerian stories in the Epic of Gilgamesh[5][6]
- 2200: Egyptian Autobiography of Harkhuf[7]
- 2100: Sumerian Curse of Agade
- 2100: Sumerian Debate between Bird and Fish
- 2050: Sumerian Code of Ur-Nammu
- 2000: Egyptian Coffin Texts
- 2000: Sumerian Lament for Ur
- 2000: Sumerian Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta
Middle Bronze Age: ca. 2000 to 1600 BC (approximate dates shown)
- 2000-1900: Egyptian Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor[8]
- 1950: Akkadian Laws of Eshnunna
- 1900: Akkadian Legend of Etana[9]
- 1900: Sumerian Code of Lipit-Ishtar
- 1859-1840: Egyptian The Eloquent Peasant[8]
- 1859-1840: Egyptian Story of Sinuhe (in Hieratic)[8]
- 1859-1840: Egyptian Dispute between a man and his Ba[8]
- 1859-1813: Egyptian Loyalist Teaching[8]
- 1850: Akkadian Kultepe texts
- 1800: Akkadian Enûma Eliš
- 1780: Akkadian Mari letters, including the Epic of Zimri-Lim
- 1754: Akkadian Code of Hammurabi stele
- 1750: Hittite Anitta text
- 1700: Akkadian Atra-Hasis epic
- 1700: Egyptian Westcar Papyrus
- 1700: Akkadian Epic of Gilgamesh
- 1650: Egyptian Ipuwer Papyrus
- 1600: Akkadian Eridu Genesis
Late Bronze Age: ca. 1600 to 1200 BC (approximate dates shown)
- 1600: Hittite Code of the Nesilim
- 1500: Akkadian Poor Man of Nippur[10]
- 1500: Hittite military oath
- 1500-1200: Ugaritic Legend of Keret
- 1550: Egyptian Book of the Dead
- 1500: Akkadian Dynasty of Dunnum[11]
- 1400: Akkadian Marriage of Nergal and Ereshkigal
- 1400: Akkadian Autobiography of Kurigalzu
- 1400: Akkadian Amarna letters
- 1400-1200: Sanskrit Rig Veda
- 1330: Egyptian Great Hymn to the Aten
- 1240: Egyptian Papyrus of Ani, Book of the Dead
- 1200-900: Akkadian version and younger stories in the Epic of Gilgamesh[5]
- 1200: Akkadian Tukulti-Ninurta Epic
- 1200: Egyptian Tale of Two Brothers[12]
Iron Age
Iron Age texts predating Classical Antiquity: 12th to 8th centuries BC
- 1200–800: BC approximate date of the Vedic Sanskrit
- 1050: BC Egyptian Story of Wenamun
- 1050: BC Akkadian Sakikkū (SA.GIG) "Diagnostic Omens" by Esagil-kin-apli.[13]
- 1050: BC The Babylonian Theodicy of Šaggil-kīnam-ubbib.[13]
- 1000: BC Chinese Classic of Poetry (Shījīng)
- 1000: BC Akkadian Dialogue of Pessimism
- 900: BC Akkadian Epic of Erra
- 900: BC Vedic Sanskrit Aranyaka
Classical Antiquity
9th century BC
- Classic of Changes (I Ching)
8th century BC
- Greek Trojan War cycle, including the Iliad and the Odyssey
- 800–500 BC: Vedic Sanskrit
7th century BC
- Vedic Sanskrit
- Shulba Sutra (containing geometry related to fire-altar construction)
- Shatapatha Brahmana – Commentary on the Vedas
- Nirukta (technical treatise on etymology, lexical category and the semantics of Sanskrit words)
- Kausitaka Upanishad
- Greek:
- Paleo-Hebrew alphabet
- Ketef Hinnom amulets, the oldest found Biblical text (amulets with the Priestly Blessing, which are recorded in the Book of Numbers)
- Classic of Documents (Shūjīng) (authentic portions)
6th century BC
- Persian:
- Sanskrit:
- Sushruta: Sushruta Samhita (Book on Surgery and Medicine)
- Kapila: Samkhya-sutra, Kapilanyayabhasa, Kapila Gita, Dṛṣṭantara Yoga
- Kanada: Vaiśeṣika Sūtra (Book on Atomism)
- Kashyapa Samhhita (Book on Medicine)
- Pratishakhyas
- Greek:
5th century BC
- Sanskrit:
- Avestan: Yasht
- Chinese:
- Spring and Autumn Annals (Chūnqiū) (722–481 BC, chronicles of the state of Lu)
- Confucius: Analects (Lúnyǔ)
- Classic of Rites (Lǐjì)
- Commentaries of Zuo (Zuǒzhuàn)
- Mozi: Mozi (book) (Mòzǐ)
- Sun Tzu: The Art of War (Sūnzǐ Bīngfǎ)
- Greek:
- Pindar: Odes
- Herodotus: The Histories of Herodotus
- Thucydides: History of the Peloponnesian War
- Aeschylus: The Suppliants, The Persians, Seven Against Thebes, Oresteia
- Sophocles: Oedipus Rex, Oedipus at Colonus, Antigone, Electra and other plays
- Euripides: Alcestis, Medea, Heracleidae, Hippolytus, Andromache, Hecuba, The Suppliants, Electra, Heracles, Trojan Women, Iphigeneia in Tauris, Ion, Helen, Phoenician Women, Orestes, Bacchae, Iphigeneia at Aulis, Cyclops, Rhesus
- Aristophanes: The Acharnians, The Knights, The Clouds, The Wasps, Peace, The Birds, Lysistrata, Thesmophoriazusae, The Frogs, Ecclesiazousae, Plutus
- Hebrew: date of the extant text of the Torah
4th century BC
- Sanskrit:
- Katha Upanishad
- Prashnopanishad
- Mundaka Upanishad
- Māṇḍūkya Upanishad
- Bhadrabahu: Kalpa Sūtra
- Chankaya: Arthshastra, Chanakya Neeti
- Salihotra: Shalihotra Samhita (treatise on veterinary medicine)
- Vyasa: Mahabharata, Puranas, Brahma Sutras
- Jaimini: Mimamsa Sutras, Jaimini Sutras, Ashvamedhika Parva
- Valmiki : Ramayana
- Bhāsa: Svapnavāsavadattam, Pancarātra, Pratijna Yaugandharayaanam, Pratimanātaka, Abhishekanātaka, Bālacharita, Karnabhāram, Dūtaghaṭotkaca, Chārudatta, Madhyamavyayoga and Urubhanga.
- Pali: Tipitaka[14]
- Hebrew: Book of Job, beginning of Hebrew wisdom literature
- Chinese:
- Laozi (or Lao Tzu): Tao Te Ching
- Zhuangzi: Zhuangzi (book)
- Mencius: Mencius
- Shang Yang: The Book of Lord Shang (Shāng jūn shū)
- Persian:
- Greek:
- Xenophon: Anabasis, Cyropaedia, Oeconomicus, Memorabilia, Hellenica
- Aristotle: Nicomachean Ethics, Metaphysics, Organon, Physics, Historia Animalium, De Partibus Animalium, De Motu Animalium, De Mundo, De Caelo, Poetics, Politics, Magna Moralia
- Plato: Euthyphro, Apology, Crito, Theaetetus, Parmenides, Symposium, Phaedrus, Protagoras, Gorgias, Meno, Republic, Timaeus, Critias, Laws, Menexenus, Phaedo, Lysis, Alcibiades I, Alcibiades II, Hippias minor, Epinomis, Minos, Hipparchus
- Euclid: Elements
- Menander: Dyskolos
- Theophrastus: Enquiry into Plants
3rd century BC
- Avestan: Avesta
- Etruscan: Liber Linteus Zagrabiensis (Linen Book of Zagreb)
- Sanskrit:
- Pingala: Chandaḥśāstra
- Moggaliputta-Tissa: Kathāvatthu
- Kātyāyana: Vārttikakāra, Śulbasūtras
- Vishnu Sharma: Panchatantra
- Vedanga Jyotisha
- Bharata Muni: Natya Shastra (A theoretical treatise on classical Indian dance and drama)
- Sinhalese (Elu): Sīhalattakathā or Hela Atuwā (Pali commentaries of Buddhist teachings that were translated into Sinhalese after the introduction of Buddhism to Sri Lanka)[15]
- Tamil:
- 3rd century BC to 3rd century AD: Sangam poems
- Tolkāppiyam (grammar book)
- Korakkar(3rd century BC),Siddhar, Physician, Philosopher
- Bogar(3rd century BC)Siddhar, Physician, Yogi
- Agattiyam
- Hebrew: Ecclesiastes
- Greek:
- Apollonius of Rhodes: Argonautica
- Callimachus (310/305-240 B.C.), lyric poet
- Manetho: Aegyptiaca
- Theocritus, lyric poet
- Latin:
- Lucius Livius Andronicus (c. 280/260 BC — c. 200 BC), translator, founder of Roman drama
- Gnaeus Naevius (c. 264 — 201 BC), dramatist, epic poet
- Titus Maccius Plautus (c. 254 — 184 BC), dramatist, composer of comedies: Poenulus, Miles Gloriosus, and other plays
- Quintus Fabius Pictor (3rd century BC), historian
- Lucius Cincius Alimentus (3rd century BC), military historian and antiquarian
2nd century BC
- Sanskrit
- Patanjali(Founder of Yoga School of Philosophy):Mahābhāṣya(Treatise on grammar and linguistics),Patanjalatantra(medical text), Yoga sūtras
- Badrayana(Founder of Vedanta School of Philosophy):Brahma Sutras
- Manu:Manusmriti(Laws of Manu)
- Avestan: Vendidad
- Chinese: Sima Qian: Records of the Grand Historian (Shǐjì)
- Aramaic: Book of Daniel
- Hebrew: Sirach
- Greek
- Latin:
- Terence (195/185 BC — 159 BC), comic dramatist: The Brothers, The Girl from Andros, Eunuchus, The Self-Tormentor
- Quintus Ennius (239 BC — c. 169 BC), poet
- Marcus Pacuvius (c. 220 BC — 130 BC), tragic dramatist, poet
- Statius Caecilius (220 BC — 168/166 BC), comic dramatist
- Marcius Porcius Cato (234 BC — 149 BC), generalist, topical writer
- Gaius Acilius (2nd century BC), historian
- Lucius Accius (170 BC — c. 86 BC), tragic dramatist, philologist
- Gaius Lucilius (c. 160s BC — 103/2 BC), satirist
- Quintus Lutatius Catulus (2nd century BC), public officer, epigrammatist
- Aulus Furius Antias (2nd century BC), poet
- Gaius Julius Caesar Strabo Vopiscus (130 BC — 87 BC), public officer, tragic dramatist
- Lucius Pomponius Bononiensis (2nd century BC), comic dramatist, satirist
- Lucius Cassius Hemina (2nd century BC), historian
- Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi (2nd century BC), historian
- Manius Manilius (2nd century BC), public officer, jurist
- Lucius Coelius Antipater (2nd century BC), jurist, historian
- Publius Sempronius Asellio (158 BC — after 91 BC), military officer, historian
- Gaius Sempronius Tuditanus (2nd century BC), jurist
- Lucius Afranius (2nd & 1st centuries BC), comic dramatist
- Titus Albucius (2nd & 1st centuries BC), orator
- Publius Rutilius Rufus (158 BC — after 78 BC), jurist
- Quintus Lutatius Catulus (2nd & 1st centuries BC), public officer, poet
- Lucius Aelius Stilo Praeconinus (154 BC — 74 BC), philologist
- Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius (2nd & 1st centuries BC), historian
- Valerius Antias (2nd & 1st centuries BC), historian
- Lucius Cornelius Sisenna (121 BC — 67 BC), soldier, historian
- Quintus Cornificius (2nd & 1st centuries BC), rhetorician
1st century BC
- Pali (Sri Lanka): Pāli Tripiṭaka (Written under the patronage of King Vattagamani of Anuradhapura in Aluhihare, Matale)
- Latin:
- Cicero: Catiline Orations, Pro Caelio, Dream of Scipio
- Julius Caesar: Gallic Wars, Civil War
- Virgil: Eclogues, Georgics and Aeneid
- Lucretius: On the Nature of Things
- Livy: History of Rome (Ab Urbe Condita)
1st century AD
- Sanskrit
- Śabara:Sābara-bhāṣyam
- Gunadhara:Kasayapahuda
- Aśvaghoṣa:Buddhacharita (Acts of the Buddha),Saundarananda, Sutralankara
- Chinese: Ban Gu: Book of Han (Hànshū)
- Greek:
- Plutarch: Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans
- Josephus: The Jewish War, Antiquities of the Jews, Against Apion
- The books of the New Testament of the Christian Bible and the Didache
- Latin: see Classical Latin
- Tacitus: Germania
- Ovid: Metamorphoses; also Tristia and Epistulae ex Ponto written during his exile
- Pliny the Elder: Natural History
- Petronius: Satyricon
- Seneca the Younger: Phaedra, Dialogues
- Statius: Thebaid; also Silvae and unfinished Achilleid
2nd century
- Sanskrit: Aśvaghoṣa: Buddhacharita (Acts of the Buddha)
- Pahlavi:
- Yadegar-e Zariran (Memorial of Zarēr)
- Visperad
- Drakht-i Asurig (The Babylonian Tree)
- Greek:
- Latin: see Classical Latin
- Apuleius: The Golden Ass
- Lucius Ampelius: Liber Memorialis
- Suetonius: Lives of the Twelve Caesars
- Tertullian: Apologeticus
3rd century
- Avestan: Khordeh Avesta (Zoroastrian prayer book)
- Pahlavi: Mani: Shabuhragan (Manichaean holy book)
- Chinese:
- Chen Shou: Records of Three Kingdoms (Sānguó Zhì)
- Zhang Hua: Bowuzhi
- Greek: Plotinus: Enneads
- Latin: see Late Latin
- Hebrew: Mishnah
- Pali (Sri Lanka): Dīpavaṃsa
Late Antiquity
4th century
- Latin: see Late Latin
- Augustine of Hippo: Confessions, On Christian Doctrine
- Faltonia Betitia Proba: Cento Vergilianus de laudibus Christi ("A Virgilian Cento Concerning the Glory of Christ")
- Apicius (De re coquinaria, "On the Subject of Cooking")
- Pervigilium Veneris ("Vigil of Venus")
- Sanskrit
- Asanga:Dharma-dharmata-vibhaga(Distinguishing Phenomena and Pure Being), Mahāyānasaṃgraha (Summary of the Great Vehicle)
- Vasubandhu:Verses on the Treasury of the Abhidharma, Pañcaskandhaprakaraṇa (Explanation of the Five Aggregates), Pañcaskandhaprakaraṇa (Explanation of the Five Aggregates),Vyākhyāyukti ("Proper Mode of Exposition"), Vādavidhi ("Rules for Debate"), Dharmadharmatāvibhāgavṛtti (Commentary on Distinguishing Elements from Reality), Madhyāntavibhāgabhāṣya (Commentary on Distinguishing the Middle from the Extremes), Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkārabhāṣya (Commentary on the Ornament to the Great Vehicle Discourses)
- Dignāga:Pramāṇa-samuccaya (Compendium of Valid Cognition),Hetucakra (The wheel of reason)
- Haribhadra:Anekāntajayapatākā [The Victory Banner of Anekantavada (Relativism)],Dhūrtākhyāna (The Rogue's Stories),Yogadṛṣṭisamuccaya (An Array of Views on Yoga),Ṣaḍdarśanasamuccaya (Compendium of Six Philosophies)
- Syriac: Aphrahat, Ephrem the Syrian
- Aramaic: Jerusalem Talmud
- Pali (Sri Lanka): Mahāvaṃsa
5th century
- Armenian:
- Chinese:
- Bao Zhao: Fu on the Ruined City (蕪城賦, Wú chéng fù)
- Fan Ye: Book of the Later Han (後漢書, Hòuhànshū)
- Sanskrit:
- Kālidāsa (speculated): Abhijñānaśākuntalam (अभिज्ञान शाकुन्तलम्, "The Recognition of Shakuntala"), Meghadūta (मेघदूत, "Cloud Messenger"), Vikramōrvaśīyam (विक्रमोर्वशीयम्, "Urvashi Won by Valour", play)
- Pujyapada:Iṣṭopadeśa (Divine Sermons), Sarvārthasiddhi (Attainment of Higher Goals), Jainendra Vyākaraṇa (Jainendra Grammar), Samādhitantra (Method of SelfContemplation), Daśabhaktyādisangraha (Collection of Ten Adorations),Śabdāvatāranyāsa (Arrangement of Words and their Forms)
- Aryabhata: Aryabhatiya
- Kamandaka:Nitisara(The Elements of Polity)
- Bodhidharma:Two Entrances and Four Practices, Treatise on Realizing the Nature, Refuting Signs Treatise
- Bhartṛhari:Vākyapadīya(Treatise on Sanskrit grammar and linguistic philosophy), Śatakatraya(The three hundred poems of moral values)
- Siddhasena:Nyāyāvatāra, Sanmati sutra, Kalyan Mandir stotra
- Sarvanandi:Lokavibhaga(Text on Jain Cosmology)
- Tamil:[16]
- Tirukkural (Sacred verses)
- Silappatikaram (The Tale of the Anklet)
- Pahlavi:
- Matigan-i Hazar Datistan (The Thousand Laws of the Magistan)
- Frahang-i Oim-evak (Pahlavi-Avestan dictionary)
- Pali (Sri Lanka)
- Buddhaghosa: Visuddhimagga (The Path of Purification)
- Latin: see Late Latin
- Publius Flavius Vegetius Renatus: De Re Militari
- Augustine of Hippo: The City of God
- Paulus Orosius: Seven Books of History Against the Pagans
- Jerome: Vulgate
- Prudentius: Psychomachia
- Consentius's grammar
- Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite: De Coelesti Hierarchia (Περὶ τῆς Οὐρανίας Ἱεραρχίας, "On the Celestial Hierarchy"), Mystical Theology
- Socrates of Constantinople: Historia Ecclesiastica
- Greek:
6th century
- Latin: Boethius, De consolatione philosophiae ("The Consolation of Philosophy", 524), widely considered to be the last work of classical philosophy[17][18]
- Aramaic: Babylonian Talmud
- Sanskrit:
- Varāhamihira:Pañcasiddhāntikā ("[Treatise] on the Five [Astronomical] Canons"), Brihat-Samhita(Great Compilation)Encyclopedic Work
- Yativṛṣabha:Tiloya Panatti(Book on Cosmology and Mathematics)
- Virahanka
- Prabhākara:Triputipratyaksavada ("Doctrine of Triple Perception")
- Dharmakirti:Saṃbandhaparikṣhāvrtti (Analysis of Relations),Pramāṇaviniścaya (Ascertainment of Valid Cognition),Nyāyabinduprakaraṇa (Drop of Logic),Hetubindunāmaprakaraṇa (Drop of Reason),Saṃtānāntarasiddhināmaprakaraṇa (Proof of Others' Mindstreams),Vādanyāyanāmaprakaraṇa (Reasoning for Debate)
- Praśastapāda :Padārtha-dharma-saṅgraha (Collection of Properties of Matter)
- Bhāviveka:Heart of the Middle, Wisdom Lamp
- Udyotakara:Nyāyavārttika(Work on logic)
- Gaudapada:Mandukya Karika
- Sinhalese:
- Wansaththppakāsinī (Sinhalese translation of the Pali Mahāvaṃsa)[19]
- Sigiriya Poems ( Poems written by visitors to the citadel of Sigiriya)
- Pali (Sri Lanka): Cūḷavaṃsa
- Irish: Early Irish literature
- Dallán Forgaill: Amra (life of St Columba)
See also
- Early Medieval literature
- List of languages by first written accounts
- List of years in literature
- List of oldest documents
- List of Hebrew Bible manuscripts
- Biblical manuscript
References
- ^ Grimbly, Shona (2000). Encyclopedia of the Ancient World. Taylor & Francis. p. 216. ISBN 978-1-57958-281-4.
The earliest written literature dates from about 2600 BC, when the Sumerians started to write down their long epic poems.
- ^ "Why Has No One Ever Heard of the World's First Poet?". Literary Hub. 2017-06-22. Retrieved 2019-01-19.
- ^ Toby A. H. Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge, London/New York 2001, ISBN 0-415-26011-6.
- ^ Jones, Mark (2006). Criminals of the Bible: Twenty-Five Case Studies of Biblical Crimes and Outlaws. FaithWalk Publishing. p. 6. ISBN 978-1-932902-64-8.
The Sumerian code of Urukagina was written around 2400 BC.
- ^ a b Stephanie Dalley, ed. (2000). Myths from Mesopotamia: Creation, the Flood, Gilgamesh, and Others. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-953836-2.
- ^ Eccles, Sir John Carew (1989). Evolution of the Brain: Creation of the Self. Routledge. p. 115. ISBN 978-0-415-03224-7.
The Epic of Gilgamesh, written in Sumer about 2200 BC.
- ^ Miriam., Lichtheim (2006). The Old and Middle Kingdoms. University of California press. p. 23. ISBN 9780520248427. OCLC 889165092.
- ^ a b c d e James P. Allen (2015). Middle Egyptian Literature: Eight Literary Works of the Middle Kingdom. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-08743-9.
- ^ Dalley, Stephanie, ed. (2000). "Etana (pp. 189ff.)". Myths from Mesopotamia. Creation, The Flood, Gilgamesh, and Others. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0199538360.
- ^ Noonan, John T. (1987). Bribes. University of California Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-520-06154-5.
The Poor Man of Nippur dates from about 1500 BC.
- ^ Thorkild Jacobsen (1978). The treasures of darkness: a history of Mesopotamian religion. Yale University Press. pp. 167–168, 231. "Perhaps it was brought east with the Amorites of the First Dynasty of Babylon."
- ^ Miriam Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature, vol.2, 1980, p.203
- ^ a b Alan Lenzi (2008). "The Uruk List of Kings and Sages and Late Mesopotamian Scholarship". Journal of Ancient Near Eastern Religions. 8 (2): 137–169. doi:10.1163/156921208786611764.
- ^ Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: "Ajahn Sujato – A Practical Guide to Reading The Suttas – March 2018". YouTube.
- ^ Sri Lankan Journal of Librarianship and Information Management Vol.4, Nos.,3&4 (July – Dec.2011) pp. 1 -58
- ^ Zvelebil, Kamil (1973). The Smile of Murugan on Tamil literature of South India. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 9789004035911.
- ^ The Consolation of Philosophy (Oxford World's Classics), Introduction (2000)
- ^ Dante placed Boethius the "last of the Romans and first of the Scholastics" among the doctors in his Paradise (see The Divine Comedy).
- ^ "International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, Volume 11, Issue 7, July 2021 682" (PDF). International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications. 11. 2021.