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Demographics of Mexico

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"Mexican people" redirects here. For a discussion of the term in an ethnic/racial sense in the United States, see Mexican American.
Demography of Mexico
Mexican children of a school in Monterrey
Population 103,263,388
Male population 50,249,955
Female population 53,013,433
Population growth 1.0%
Birth rate 19/1,000
Death rate 4.9/1,000
Infant mortality rate 18.1/1,000
Life expectancy 75.6 years
Nationality Mexican
Demographic bureaus INEGI, CONAPO and CDI

With a population 103,263,388 in 2005, Mexico is the most populous Spanish-speaking country in the world, the second-most populous country in Latin America after Portuguese-speaking Brazil, and the second in North America, after the United States. Throughout most of the twentieth century Mexico's population was characterized by rapid growth. Even though this tendency has been reverted and average annual population growth over the last five years was less than 1%, the demographic transition is still in progress, and Mexico still has a large cohort of youths. The most populous city in the country is the capital city, Mexico City, with a population of 8.7 million (2005), and its metropolitan area is also the most populous in the country with 19.2 million (2005). Approximately 50% of the population lives in one of the 55 large metropolitan areas in the country.

The Census Bureau in Mexico is the National Institute of Statistics, Geography and Informatics (INEGI). The National Population Council (CONAPO), is an institution under the Secretary of the Interior in charge of the analysis and research of population dynamics. The National Commission for the Development of the Indigenous Peoples (CDI), amongst other things, undertakes research and analysis of the sociodemographic and linguistic indicators of the indigenous peoples of Mexico.

Demographic dynamics

Population growth
Mexico's population pyramid (2000)
Mexican states by population density

In 1900, the Mexican population was 13.6 million.[1] During the period of economic prosperity that was dubbed by economists as the "Mexican Miracle", the Mexican government invested in efficient social programs that reduced infant mortality rate and increased life expectancy which jointly led to an intense demographic increase between 1930 and 1980. The population's annual growth rate has been reduced from a 3.5% peak, in 1965 to 0.99% in 2005. While Mexico is now transitioning to the third phase of demographic transition, close to 50% of the population in 2005 was 25 and younger.[2] Fertility rates have also decreased from 5.7 children per woman in 1976 to 2.2 in 2006.[3]

From 2000 to 2005 the average annual population growth rate of the capital, the Federal District, was the first in the country at a mere 0.2%. The state with the lowest population growth rate over the same period was Michoacán (-0.1%), whereas the states with the highest population growth rates were Quintana Roo (4.7%) and Baja California Sur (3.4%),[4] both of which are two of the least populated states and the last to be admitted to the Union in the 1970s. The average annual net migration rate of the Federal District over the same period was negative and the lowest of all political divisions of Mexico, whereas the states with the highest net migration rate were Quintana Roo (2.7), Baja California (1.8) and Baja California Sur (1.6).[5] While the national annual growth rate is still positive (1.0%), the national net migration rate is negative (-4.75/1000 inhabitants), given the intense flow of immigrants to the United States; an estimated 5.3 million undocumented Mexicans lived in the United States in 2004[6] and 18.2 million American citizens in the 2000 Census declared having Mexican ancestry.[7] Mexico itself constitutes the second country of total number of immigrants to the United States from 1830 to 2000, after Germany.

The states and the Federal District that conform the Mexican federation are collectively called "federal entities". The five most populated federal entities in 2005 were the State of Mexico (14.4 million), the Federal District (8.7 million), Veracruz (7.1 million), Jalisco (6.7 million) and Puebla (5.4 million) which collectively contain 40.7% of the national population. Mexico City, being coextensive with the Federal District, is the most populated city in the country, whereas Greater Mexico City, that includes the adjacent municipalities that conform a metropolitan area, is estimated to be the second most populated in the world, by the UN Urbanization Report.

Intense population growth in the Northern states, especially in the US-Mexican border, changed the country's demographic profile in the second half of the 20th century since the 1967 US-Mexico maquiladora agreement through which all products manufactured in the border cities could be imported duty-free to the US. Since NAFTA, however, in which all products are allowed to be imported duty free regardless of their origin within Mexico, non-border maquiladora share of exports has increased while that of border cities has decreased,[8] allowing for the growth of middle-size cities in different regions in Mexico. This has also lead to decentralization and growth of other metropolitan areas that conform regional centers of economic growth, like Guadalajara, Monterrey, Puebla, San Luis Potosí, León and Torreón.

International migration

Immigration to Mexico

Main article: Immigration to Mexico

Aside of the Spanish colonists, European immigration to Mexico in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was smaller in number compared to the massive influx of immigrants to South American countries like Argentina, Brazil or Uruguay. Non-Spanish immigrant groups included British, Irish, Italian, German, French and Dutch.[9] Large numbers of Middle Eastern immigrants arrived in Mexico during the same period, mostly from Turkey and Lebanon.[10] Asian immigrants, mostly Chinese via the United States settled in northern Mexico, whereas Koreans settled in central Mexico.[11]

During the 1970s and 1980s Mexico opened its doors to immigrants from Latin America, mainly political refugees from Argentina, Chile, Cuba, Peru, Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela and Central America. The PRI governments in power for most of the 20th century had a policy of granting asylum to fellow Latin Americans fleeing political persecution in their home countries. A second wave of immigrants has come to Mexico as a result of the economic crises experienced by some countries in the region. The Argentine community is quite significant estimated to be somewhere between 30,000 and 150,000.[12][13]

Mexico is also the country where the largest number of American citizens live abroad. The American Citizens Abroad Association estimated in 1999 that a little more than one million Americans live in Mexico (which represent 1% of the population in Mexico and 25% of all American citizens living abroad).[14] This immigration phenomenon could well be explained by the interaction of both countries under the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), but also by the fact that Mexico has become a popular destination for retirees, especially the small towns: just in the State of Guanajuato, in San Miguel de Allende and its environs, 200,000 Americans have their residence.[15]

Discrepancies between the figures of official legal aliens and all foreign-born residents is quite large. The official figure for foreign-born residents in Mexico in 2000 was 493,000,[16] with a majority (86.9%) of these born in the United States (except Chiapas, where the majority of immigrants are from Central America). The six states with the most immigrants are Baja California (12.1% of total immigrants), Mexico City (the Federal District; 11.4%), Jalisco (9.9%), Chihuahua (9%) and Tamaulipas (7.3%).[16].

Emigration from Mexico

The national net migration rate in Mexico is negative, estimated at -4.32 migrant per 1,000 population. The great majority of Mexican emigrants have moved to the United States of America. This migration phenomenon is not new, but has been a defining feature in the relationship of both countries for most of the twentieth century.[17] Since World Wars I and II, the United States government approved the recruitment of Mexican workers in their territory, and tolerated unauthorized migration to obtain additional farm and industrial workers to fill the necessary spots vacated by the population in war, and to supply the increase in the demand for labor. Nonetheless, the United States, unilaterally ended the program as a result of civil rights groups.[17] In spite of that, emigration of Mexicans continued throughout the rest of the century at varying degrees, but it grew significantly during the 1990s and has continued to do so in the first years of the 2000s. In fact, it has been estimated that 37% of all Mexican immigrants to the United States in the 20th century arrived during the 1990s.[17] In 2000 approximately 20 million American residents identified themselves as either Mexican, Mexican-Americans or of Mexican origin, making it the sixth most cited ancestry of all US residents.[18]

INEGI estimated in 2000 that about 8 million Mexican-born individuals live in the United States of America; that is 8.7% of total Mexican population.[19] In that same year, the states with the greatest number emigrants to the United States were Jalisco (170,793), Michoacán (165,502) and Guanajuato (163,338), with the total number of emigrants being 1,569,157 the great majority of which were men.[20] Approximately 30% of emigrants come from rural communities.[21] That same year, only 260,650 emigrants returned to Mexico.[22]

In spite of the improved economic conditions in Mexico and the growing interdependence of both countries the emigration of Mexicans to the United States has not slowed. While some argue that this is due to economic disparities between rural and urban, rich and poor populations, others suggest that the migration phenomenon is simply moving in inertia, as Mexican residents in the United States are now bringing their families who had stayed in Mexico.

After the Mexican American community, it is thought that the Mexican British community is the second largest Mexican diaspora with between 80,000 and 100,000 members,[citation needed] Mexican Canadians number around 40,000,[citation needed] Mexican in Spain number a similar amount and an unknown, but thought to be large number of Mexicans live in the Philippines.[citation needed]

Cities and metropolitan areas

Settlements, cities and municipalities

See also: Municipalities of Mexico
Most populated municipalities
Municipality of Guadalajara
Municipality Pop. (2005)
Ecatepec de Morelos 1,688,258
Guadalajara 1,600,940
Puebla 1,485,941
Tijuana 1,410,700
León 1.325.210
Juárez 1,313,338

In 2005 Mexico had 187,938 localidades (lit. "localities" or "settlements"), which are census-designated places, which could be defined as a small town, a large city, or simply as a single unit housing in a rural area whether situated remotely or even close to an urban area. A city is defined to be a settlement with more than 2,500 inhabitants. In 2005 there were 2,640 cities with a population between 2,500 and 15,000 inhabitants, 427 with a population between 15,000 and 100,000 inhabitants, 112 with a population between 100,000 and one million, and 11 with a population of more than one million.[23] All cities are considered "urban areas" and represent 76.5% of total population. Settlements with less than 2,500 inhabitants are considered "rural communities" (in fact, more than 80,000 of those settlements have only one or two housing units). Rural population in Mexico is 23.5% of total population.[23]

Municipalities (municipios in Spanish) and boroughs (delegaciones in Spanish) are incorporated places in Mexico, that is, second or third-level political divisions with internal autonomy, legally prescribed limits, powers and functions. In terms of second-level political divisions there are 2,438 municipalities and Mexico and 16 semi-autonomous boroughs (all within the Federal District). A municipality can be constituted by one or more cities one of which is the cabecera municipal (municipal seat). Cities are usually contained within the limits of a single municipality, with a few exceptions in which small areas of one city may extend to other adjacent municipalities without incorporating the city which serves as the municipal seat of the adjacent municipality. Some municipalities or cities within municipalities are further divided into delegaciones or boroughs. However, unlike the boroughs of the Federal District, these are third-level administrative divisions; they have very limited autonomy and no elective representatives.

Municipalities in central Mexico are usually very small in area and thus coextensive with cities (as is the case of Guadalajara, Puebla and León), whereas municipalities in northern and southeastern Mexico are much larger and usually contain more than one city or town that may not necessarily conform a single urban agglomeration (as is the case of Tijuana).

Metropolitan areas

Main article: Metropolitan areas of Mexico
Metropolitan areas of Mexico
Greater Mexico City
Metro area Pop. (2005)
Greater Mexico City 19.231.829
Greater Guadalajara 4.095.853
Greater Monterrey 3.664.331
Greater Puebla 2.109.049
Greater Toluca 1.610.786
Tijuana 1.410.700
León 1.325.210
Ciudad Juárez 1.313.338
Comarca Lagunera 1.210.890
Greater San Luis Potosí 1.075.000

A metropolitan area in Mexico is defined to be the group of municipalities that heavily interact with each other, usually around a core city.[24] In 2004, a joint effort between CONAPO, INEGI and the Ministry of Social Development (SEDESOL) agreed to define metropolitan areas as either:[24]

  • the group of two ore more municipalities in which a city with a population of at least 50,000 is located whose urban area extends over the limit of the municipality that originally contained the core city incorporating either physically or under its area of direct influence other adjacent predominantly urban municipalities all of which have a high degree of social and economic integration or are relevant for urban politics and administration; or
  • a single municipality in which a city of a population of at least one million is located and fully contained, (that is, it does not transcend the limits of a single municipality); or
  • a city with a population of at least 250,000 which forms a conurbation with other cities in the United States of America.

In 2004 there were 55 metropolitan areas in Mexico, in which close to 53% of the country's population lives. The most populated metropolitan area in Mexico is the Metropolitan Area of the Valley of Mexico, or Greater Mexico City, which in 2005 had a population of 19.23 million, or 19% of the nation's population. The next four largest metropolitan areas in Mexico are Greater Guadalajara (4.1 million), Greater Monterrey (3.7 million), Greater Puebla (2.1 million) and Greater Toluca (1.6 million),[25] whose added population, along with Greater Mexico City, is equivalent to 30% of the nation's population. Greater Mexico City was the fastest growing metropolitan area in the country since the 1930s until the late 1980s. Since then, the country has slowly become economically and demographically less centralized. From 2000 to 2005 the average annual growth rate of Greater Mexico City was the lowest of the five largest metropolitan areas, whereas the fastest growing metropolitan area was Puebla (2.0%) followed by Monterrey (1.9%), Toluca (1.8%) and Guadalajara (1.8%).[25]

Religion

Main article: Religion in Mexico
Religion affiliation
Cathedral in Puebla
Religion Pop. professing
Catholics 74,612,373
Protestant and Evangelical

Historic [denominations]
Pentecostalism
Luz del Mundo
Others

4,408,159

599,875
1,373,.383
69,254
2,365,647

Other Biblical

Adventism
Mormonism
Jehovah's Witnesses

1,751,910

488,945
205,229
1,057,736

Judaism 45,260
No Religion 2,982,929
Not specified 732,630

The Mexican population is predominantly Catholic (in the 2000 census, 87.9% of the population 5 and older identified themselves as Catholic),[26] even though a much smaller percent (46%) attends church on a weekly basis.[27] About 5.2% of the population was classified as Protestant or Evangelic, 2.1% were classified as "Non-Evangelical Biblical" (a classification that groups Adventists, Mormons and Jehovah's Witnesses), 0.05% as practicing Jews, and 2.5% without a religion.[28] The largest group of Protestants are Pentecostals and Charismatics (classified as Neo-Pentecostals).

The states with the greatest percentage or professing Catholics are central states, namely Guanajuato (96.4%), Aguascalientes (95.6%) and Jalisco (95.4%), whereas southeastern states have the least percentage of Catholics, namely Chiapas (63.8%), Tabasco (70.4%) and Campeche (71.3%).[28] The percentage of professing Catholics has been decreasing over the last four decades, from over 98% in 1950 to 87.9% in 2000. Average annual growth of Catholic believers from 1990-2000 was 1.7% whereas that of Non-Catholics was 3.7%.[29] Given that average annual population increase over the same time period was 1.8%,[30] the percentage of Catholics with respect to total population is still decreasing.

Unlike some other countries in Latin America or Ibero-America, the 1857 Mexican Constitution drastically separated Church and State. The State does not support or provide any economic resource for the Church (as is the case in Spain and Argentina),[31] and the Church cannot participate in public education (no public school can be operated by a Catholic order, even though they can participate in private education). Moreover, the government nationalized all the Church's properties (some of which were given back in the 1990s), and priests lost the right to vote or to be voted for (in the 1990s they were given back the right to vote).

Languages

Main article: Languages of Mexico

The most important and de facto official language in Mexico is Spanish. Mexican Spanish has a great variety of dialects, accents and variations from one region to another, and changes in state by state.

The Law of Linguistic Rights, published in 2001, declared the 62 indigenous languages spoken in Mexico as "national languages" with the "same validity" in the territories where they are spoken. The indigenous language with the greatest number of speakers is Nahuatl (1.5% of the nation's population), followed by Yucatec Maya (0.8%) mainly spoken in Chiapas, Oaxaca and the Yucatan Peninsula. In Mexico City and other major cities after half a century of rural-to-urban migration, large districts and sections have Amerindian languages written and heard.

During the first half of the 20th century the government promoted a policy of castellanización, that is, promoting the use of Spanish as a way to integrate indigenous peoples into the Mexican society. However, this policy changed, and since the 1980s the government sponsors bilingual and intercultural education in all indigenous communities. This policy has mainly been successful in large communities with a significant amount of speakers while some languages, with less than 1,000 speakers are still facing extinction.

Map of the national indigenous languages with more than 100,000 speakers

The second most spoken language in Mexico, however, is English used extensively at the border areas, tourist centers and large metropolitan areas, a phenomenon arguably caused by the economic integration of North American under the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the immigration phenomenon and the return of workers and their families form the United States.[citation needed] In border cities, American TV and radio waves in English (and Spanish) are received as much Spanish-speaking radio and TV stations from Mexico on the US side of the border, thus a bilingual cross-cultural exchange is at work.

Among the languages brought by immigrants are the Venetian of Chipilo, and Plattdeutsch, a German dialect that is spoken in Durango and Chihuahua. Other European languages spoken in Mexico are French, German and Russian. Even though some of these may have a greater number of speakers than the national languages, they are not recognized by the government.

Ethnography

Admixture Graph, Bonilla et al 2005

Mexico is ethnically diverse. The second article of the Mexican Constitution defines the country to be a pluricultural nation originally founded upon the indigenous peoples .

Even though there are no official statistics for ethnicity (other than those reported for indigenous peoples), it is estimated that around 75% of the population is ethnically mestizo, and 12% is purely Amerindian. Whites or Europeans make up 10 to 17% of the population, mostly descendants of Spaniards, whereas other ethnic groups -namely Afro-Mexicans and Asians- make up less than 1% of the total population. Admixture levels in Mexico have been studied in multiple studies and have shown a strong presence of Amerindian and European genetic contributions with a significan African contribution as well.[32]

Indigenous peoples

Largest indigenous peoples
File:Mexicanpeople.jpg
Mayas in Chiapas
Group Number
Nahua (Nawatlaka) 2,445,969
Maya (Maaya) 1,475,575
Zapotec (Binizaa) 777,253
Mixtec (Ñuu sávi) 726,601
Otomí (Hñähñü) 646,875
Totonac (Tachihuiin) 411,266
Source: CDI (2000) [1]
Main article: Indigenous peoples of Mexico

The constitution not only recognizes the 62 indigenous peoples living in Mexican territory but also grants them autonomy and protects their culture and languages. This protection and autonomy is extended to those Amerindian ethnic groups which have migrated from the United States—like the Cherokees and Kickapoos—and Guatemala during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Municipalities in which indigenous peoples are located can keep their normative traditional systems in relation to the election of their municipal authorities. This system is known as Usos y Costumbres, roughly translated as "customs and traditions".

According to official statistics—as reported by the Commission for the Development of the Indigenous Peoples or CDI—Amerindians make up close to 12% (as of 2000) of the country's population, even though only a little more than half of them (7.1% of total population) still speak an indigenous language and a tenth (1.2% of total population) do not speak Spanish.[33] Other international organizations, however, prefer to report a 30% of predominantly Amerindians.[34] Official statistics of the CDI[35] report that the states with the greatest percentage of Amerindian population or individuals of Amerindian origin are Yucatán (59%), Oaxaca (48%), Quintana Roo (39%), Chiapas (28%), Campeche (27%), Hidalgo (24%), Puebla (19%), Guerrero (17%), San Luis Potosí (15%) and Veracruz (15%). Oaxaca is the state with the greatest number of distinct indigenous peoples and languages in the country.

Europeans

Apart from the recognition of indigenous peoples, neither INEGI nor CONAPO classify the population according to ethnicity. International organizations usually report that between 9%[34] and 17%[36] of the country's population could be classified as European, Caucasian or White. Most of these are criollo, the relatively unmixed descendants of the Spanish colonists. However, many other immigrants arrived during the Second Mexican Empire (mostly French) and during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, mostly from Italy, the United Kingdom, Ireland and Germany.[9][37] White Americans, Yugoslavians, Armenians, Greeks, Germans, Polish, Romanians, Russians and Ashkenazic Jews,[37] along with many Spanish refugees fleeing the Spanish Civil War also immigrated.[38] The European Jewish immigrants joined the Sephardic community that lived in Mexico since colonial times, though many lived as Crypto-Jews, mostly in the northern states of Nuevo León and Tamaulipas.[39] Some communities of European immigrants have remained isolated from the rest of the population since their arrival, amongst them the Dutch Menonites of Chihuahua and Durango,[40] the Venets of Chipilo, Puebla, which have retained their original languages.[41]

Other ethnic groups

Other groups of immigrants include Arabs of Lebanese and Syrian origin[10] present in significant numbers in Puebla, as well as Chinese, Japanese and Koreans.[11] Mexicans of Filipino descent are estimated at 200,000, mostly located at Michoacán, Guerrero, and Colima.[42] Afro-Mexicans, mostly of mixed ancestry, live in the coastal areas of Veracruz, Tabasco, Oaxaca and Guerrero.

Mexican nationality and citizenship

The Constitution of Mexico grants Mexican nationality based on "birth" and "naturalization". Mexican laws regarding nationality by birth are very open. Mexican nationality by "birth" is granted to:[43]

  • all those individuals born in Mexican territory,
  • all those individuals born outside Mexico, whose father or mother is Mexican by birth,
  • all those individuals born outside Mexico, whose father or mother is Mexican by naturalization,
  • all those individuals born in Mexican aircrafts or sea vessels, whether warships or commercial vessels.

Mexican nationals by "birth" are eligible to be president of Mexico; as such the constitution clearly establishes—unlike the US constitution— that Mexican nationals by "birth", but born outside national territory are eligible.

Mexican nationality by "naturalization" is granted to:[43]

  • foreign citizens granted Mexican nationality by the Secretariat of Government (Ministry of the Interior);
  • foreign citizens married to a Mexican national, whether by birth or naturalization.

See also

References and notes

  1. ^ From Traitors to Heroes: 100 Years of Mexican Migration Policies
  2. ^ Población total por grupos quinquenales de edad según sexo, 1950 a 2005
  3. ^ Tasa global de fecundidad, 1976 a 2006
  4. ^ Tasa de crecimiento media anual de la población por entidad federativa, 1990 a 2005
  5. ^ Tasas de inmigración, emigración y migración neta por entidad federativa, 1995-2000
  6. ^ Mexican Immigration to the US: The Latest Estimates
  7. ^ Census Bureau Summary File 3
  8. ^ Hufbauer GC and Schott, JJ, NAFTA Revisited, Institute for International Economics, Washington D.C. 2005
  9. ^ a b Asociaciones de Inmigrantes Extranjeros en la Ciudad de México. Una Mirada a Fines del Siglo XX
  10. ^ a b Los árabes de México. Asimilación y herencia cultural
  11. ^ a b Conmemoran 100 años de inmigración coreana
  12. ^ Migrantes, votos, remesas
  13. ^ Argentinos en México
  14. ^ American Citizens Abroad
  15. ^ Retiring Americans, Go south, old man by The Economist
  16. ^ a b Población nacida en otro país residente en México por entidad federativa según sexo, 2000
  17. ^ a b c Mexico-US Migration in Nafta Revisited by the International Institute of Economics.
  18. ^ The Hispanic Population in the United States
  19. ^ Indicadores seleccionados de la población nacida en México residente en Estados Unidos de América, 1970 a 2000.
  20. ^ Población emigrante a Estados Unidos de América por entidad federativa según sexo, 2000.
  21. ^ Distribución porcentual de la población emigrante a Estados Unidos de América por tamaño de la localidad de residencia para cada sexo, 1990 a 1995 y 1995 a 2000.
  22. ^ Población migrante de retorno de Estados Unidos de América por entidad federativa según sexo, 2000
  23. ^ a b II Conteo de población y vivienda 2005
  24. ^ a b CONAPO Áreas Metropolitanas
  25. ^ a b Síntesis de resultados 2005
  26. ^ Volumen y porcentaje de la población según profese alguna religión y tipo de religión, 1950 a 2000
  27. ^ Church attendance in Latin America
  28. ^ a b Población de 5 años y más por entidad federativa, sexo y religión y su distribución según grupos quinquenales de edad.
  29. ^ Tasa de crecimiento media anual de la población según credo religioso para cada período decenal, 1950 a 2000
  30. ^ Tasa de crecimiento media anual de la población, 1950 a 2005
  31. ^ Constitución Nacional de la República Argentina
  32. ^ Bonilla et al, Admixture analysis of a rural population of the state of Guerrero, Mexico, Am J Phys Anthropol, 2005
  33. ^ "POBLACIÓN DE 5 AÑOS Y MÁS POR ENTIDAD FEDERATIVA, SEXO Y GRUPOS LENGUA INDÍGENA QUINQUENALES DE EDAD, Y SU DISTRIBUCIÓN SEGÚN CONDICIÓN DE HABLA INDÍGENA Y HABLA ESPAÑOLA" (PDF). INEGI, México. Retrieved 2007-12-13.
  34. ^ a b The World Factbook, CIA
  35. ^ CDI
  36. ^ Encyclopedia Britannica.
  37. ^ a b Los Extranjeros en México, La inmigración y el gobierno ¿Tolerancia o intolerancia religiosa?
  38. ^ Refugiados españoles en México
  39. ^ Nexos entre los cripto-judios coloniales y contemporáneos
  40. ^ Menonitas en México
  41. ^ El dialecto veneto de Chipilo
  42. ^ Filipinos in Mexican History
  43. ^ a b Artículo 30. Constitución Política de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos.
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