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Southern Sudan
جنوب السودان
Janūb as-Sūdān
Anthem: 　South Sudan Oyee! (proposed)
Location of Southern Sudan
CapitalJuba
Official languagesArabic, English
Recognised regional languagesJuba Arabic is lingua franca around Juba. Dinka 2–3 million; other major languages are Nuer, Zande, Bari, Shilluk
Ethnic groups
Dinka, Nuer, Bari, Lotuko, Kuku, Zande, Mundari, Kakwa, Pojulu, Shilluk, Moru, Acholi, Madi, Lulubo, Lokoya, Toposa, Lango, Didinga, Murle, Anuak, Makaraka, Mundu, Jur, Kaliko, and others.
Demonym(s)South Sudanese
GovernmentAutonomous region
• President
Salva Kiir Mayardit
Riek Machar
LegislatureLegislative Assembly
Establishment
6 January 2005
Area
• Total
619,745 km2 (239,285 sq mi)
Population
• Estimate
7.5–9.7 million (2006, UNFPA)[1]
11,000,000–13,000,000 (Southern Sudan claim, 2009)[2]
• 2008 census
8,260,490 (disputed)[3]
CurrencySudanese Pound (SDG)
Time zoneUTC+3 (East Africa Time)
Calling code249
Internet TLD.sd (as part of Sudan)

Southern Sudan (Arabic: جنوب السودان, Janūb as-Sūdān) is a landlocked region south of Northern Sudan. Juba is its capital city. It is bordered by Ethiopia to the east; Kenya, Uganda, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the south; and the Central African Republic to the west. To the north lies the predominantly Arab and Muslim region directly under the control of the central government, with its capital at Khartoum. Southern Sudan includes the vast swamp region of the Sudd formed by the White Nile, locally called the Bahr al Jebel.

The region's autonomous status is a condition of a peace agreement between the Sudan People's Liberation Army/Movement (SPLA/M) and the Government of Sudan represented by the National Congress Party ending the Second Sudanese Civil War. The conflict was Africa's longest-running civil war.[4][5]

A referendum on independence for Southern Sudan was held in January 2011, with 98.83% of the electorate opting for secession. The President of Sudan, Omar al-Bashir, accepted the results and issued a Republican Decree confirming the outcome of the referendum.[6] Southern Sudan is expected to become an independent country on 9 July 2011.[7] Upon independence, the country is expected to be named Republic of South Sudan. [8]

In April 2011, President Omar Al-Bashir stated that he would not recognize the independence of South Sudan if its government claim the Abyei region, which is part of South Kurdfan State in North Sudan. The two sides clashed over the region in May, which resulted in its seizure by the north.[9]

History

There is little documentation of the history of the southern provinces until the beginning of Egyptian rule of North Sudan in the early 1820s and its subsequent extension into the south. Information before that time is based largely on oral history. According to these traditions, the Nilotic peoples—the Dinka, Nuer, Shilluk, and others—first entered southern Sudan sometime around the 10th century. During the period from the 15th century to the 19th century, tribal migrations, largely from the area of Bahr el Ghazal, brought these peoples to their modern locations. The non-Nilotic Azande people, who entered southern Sudan in the 16th century, established the region's largest state. The Azande are the third largest nationality in Southern Sudan. They are found in Maridi, Yambio and Tambura districts in the tropical rain forest belt of western Equatoria and Bahr el Ghazal. In the 18th century, the Avungara people entered and quickly imposed their authority over the Azande. Avungara power remained largely unchallenged until the arrival of the British at the end of the 19th century.[10] Geographical barriers protected the southerners from Islam's advance, enabling them to retain their social and cultural heritage and their political and religious institutions.

The Azande have had difficult relations with the neighbours namely the Moro, Mundu, Pöjulu and the small groups in Bahr el Ghazal due to their expansionist policy of King Gbudwe in the 18th century. The Azande fought the French and the Belgians, the Mahdist to maintain their independence. Egypt, under the rule of Khedive Isma'il Pasha, first attempted to colonise the region in the 1870s, establishing the province of Equatoria in the southern portion. Egypt's first governor was Samuel Baker, commissioned in 1869, followed by Charles George Gordon in 1874 and by Emin Pasha in 1878. The Mahdist Revolt of the 1880s destabilised the nascent province, and Equatoria ceased to exist as an Egyptian outpost in 1889. Important settlements in Equatoria included Lado, Gondokoro, Dufile and Wadelai. In 1947, British hopes to join the southern part of Sudan with Uganda were dashed by the Juba Conference, to unify northern and southern Sudan.

It is estimated that the Southern region has a population of 8 million,[11] but given the lack of a census in several decades, this estimate may be severely distorted. The economy is predominantly rural and relies chiefly on subsistence farming.[11] At the beginning of 2005, the economy began a transition from this rural dominance and urban areas within Southern Sudan have seen extensive development. The region has been negatively affected by two civil wars since Sudanese independence – the Sudanese government fought the Anyanya rebel army from 1955 to 1972 in the First Sudanese Civil War and then SPLA/M in the Second Sudanese Civil War for almost twenty-one years after the founding of SPLA/M in 1983 – resulting in serious neglect, lack of infrastructural development, and major destruction and displacement. More than 2.5 million people have been killed, and more than 5 million have become externally displaced while others have been internally displaced, becoming refugees as a result of the civil war and war-related impacts.

Referendum for independence (2011)

Main article: Southern Sudanese independence referendum, 2011

From 9–15 January 2011 people from South Sudan voted on whether they should break away from Sudan and declare independence. On 30 January 2011, the results had shown that 98.83% of the population had voted for independence from Sudan.[12] It is expected that a formal declaration of independence will be made on 9 July finally ensuring that South Sudan will become an independent state, although certain disputes still remain such as sharing of the oil revenues as an estimated 80% of the oil in the nation is from South Sudan, which would represent amazing economic potential for one of the world's most deprived areas. The region of Abyei still remains disputed and a separate referendum is due to be held in Abyei on whether they want to join North or South Sudan.[13]

Rebellions

The SPLA is at war with at least seven armed groups.[14] According to UN figures, the various conflicts affect nine of its ten states, with tens of thousands displaced.[14] The fighters accuse the government of plotting to stay in power indefinitely, not fairly representing and supporting all tribal groups while neglecting development in rural areas.[14][15]

In the SPLA/M's attempt to disarms rebellions among the Shilluk and Murle, they have burned scores of villages, raped hundreds of women and girls and killed an untold number of civilians.[16] Civilians alleging torture claim fingernails been torn out, burning plastic bags dripped on children to make their parents hand over weapons and villagers burned alive in their huts if rebels were suspected of spending the night there.[16] In May 2011, The SPLA set fire to over 7000 homes in Unity State.[17] The UN reports many of these violations and the frustrated director of one Juba-based international aid agency calls them "human rights abuses off the Richter scale".[16] In 2010, the CIA issued a warning that "Over the next five years,...a new mass killing or genocide is most likely to occur in southern Sudan."[16]

South Kordofan conflict

Main article: South Kordofan conflict

On June 6, 2011 armed conflict broke out between the forces of Northern and Southern Sudan, ahead of the scheduled independence of the South on July 9. This followed an agreement for both sides to withdraw from Abyei.

Government

Main article: Politics of Southern Sudan
Salva Kiir Mayardit, First elected President of Southern Sudan

Aside from the Interim National Constitution of the Republic of Sudan,[18] the Interim Constitution of Southern Sudan of 2005 is the supreme law[19] of Southern Sudan. The Constitution establishes an autonomous Government of Southern Sudan headed by a President who is Head of Government and Commander-in-Chief of the Sudan People's Liberation Army. John Garang, the founder of the SPLA/M was the first President until his death on 30 July 2005. Salva Kiir Mayardit, his deputy, was sworn in as First Vice President of Sudan and President of the Government of Southern Sudan on 11 August 2005. Riek Machar replaced him as Vice-President. Legislative power is vested in the government and the unicameral Southern Sudan Legislative Assembly. The Constitution also provides for an independent judiciary, the highest organ being the Supreme Court.

Defence Paper on defence processes was initiated in 2007 by (late) Minister for SPLA Affairs Gen. Dominic Dim Deng and produced a draft in 2008, declaring that Southern Sudan should eventually maintain land, air, and riverine forces.[20]

Developing state capacity

The post-conflict environment is important to understanding the Government of Southern Sudan's ability to function and successfully implement its policies. One area the Government of South Sudan has had significant success in building its own capacity is in developing an integrated system for planning and budget preparation.[21] This has been achieved through the strong and determined leadership of the Ministry of Finance, the strong technical leadership and support of that same ministry and making these goals relevant to local capacity.[21] The results have been that the government has been better able to manage the financial aspects of its functions and projects, and increases in the expertise of its staff in crucial skills, such as basic IT.[21] However, there are a significant number of post-referendum challenges to state building that will need to be sequentially overcome, most notably corruption. Many high level members of the government, dominated by the SPLM, have amassed huge amounts of wealth in neighboring countries such as Kenya and Uganda. President Salva Kiir has repeatedly affirmed his intent to eradicate the practice; however, little has been done and no one has yet been prosecuted[citation needed].

Country naming

Upon independence, the country will be named South Sudan (Republic of South Sudan)[22] "out of familiarity and convenience", according to members of a steering committee on post-independence governing. Other names that had been considered were Azania, Nile Republic, Kush Republic (referring to the ancient and biblical kingdom) and Juwama, after Juba, Wau and Malakal, three major cities.[23]

Foreign relations

Countries that have announced their intention to recognize Southern Sudan after it formally declares independence in July.

Some states have announced that they intend to recognize South Sudan upon independence. Sudan has announced that it plans to open an embassy in Juba upon independence,[24] and Egypt has announced it intends to be the second state to recognize the south.[25] The United Kingdom plans to open an embassy in South Sudan too.[26] Four of the five permanent United Nations Security Council member states are to recognize South Sudan. The following states have announced the intent to recognize South Sudan upon independence:

Countries opposing the independence:

States and counties

Main article: States of South Sudan
Abyei
  South Kurdufan and Blue Nile (to hold "popular consultations" in 2011)

The Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) defines Southern Sudan as three southern provinces (Bahr el Ghazal, Equatoria, and Upper Nile) of the Southern Sudan Autonomous Region, leaving out Nuba Mountains, Abyei and Blue Nile. Nuba Mountains (South Kurdufan as a whole) and Blue Nile are required to hold "popular consultations".

Southern Sudan is composed of the following states:

The ten states are further subdivided into 86 counties.

Geography

Flora and fauna

Surveys since 2007 by the Wildlife Conservation Society uncovered one of the largest animal migrations in South Sudan and suggest the scale may exceed that of Tanzania's Serengeti.[50] Boma National Park, west of the Ethiopian border, as well as the Sudd wetland and Southern National Park near the border with Congo, provided habitat for large populations of kob and topis (two types of antelope), buffalo, elephants, giraffes, Hartebeests (another antelope), and lions. Southern Sudan's forest reserves also provided habitat for bongo (also an antelope), giant forest hogs, Red River Hogs, forest elephants, chimpanzees, and forest monkeys.

The surveys revealed that significant, though diminished wildlife populations still exist, and that, astonishingly, the huge migration of 1.3 million antelopes in the southeast is substantially intact. Today the region is sparsely populated with only 7 million people spread across the vast floodplain of the Nile River.

In 2006 the president of Southern Sudan announced that the region would do everything possible to protect and propagate its flora and fauna, and seek to reduce the effects of wildfires, waste dumping, and water pollution. At the same time, large multinational companies are poised to extract natural resources in Southern Sudan on a wide scale, posing threats to the nation's remarkable wildlife and their habitats.

Southern Sudan’s wildlife habitats include grasslands, high-altitude plateaus and escarpments, wooded and grassy savannahs, floodplains, and wetlands. Associated wildlife species include the endemic white-eared kob and Nile Lechwe, as well as elephants, giraffes, Common Eland, Giant Eland, oryx, lions, African Wild Dogs, Cape Buffalo, and topi (locally called tiang). Little is currently known about the white-eared kob and tiang, whose magnificent migrations were legendary before the civil war. The Boma-Jonglei Landscape region encompasses Boma National Park, broad pasturelands and floodplains, Bandingilo National Park, and the Sudd, a vast area of swamp and seasonally flooded grasslands that includes the Zeraf Wildlife Reserve.

Demographics

Language

Southern Sudan is composed of more than 200 ethnic groups and is, along with the adjacent Nuba Hills, one of the most linguistically diverse regions of Africa. However, many of the languages are quite small, with only a few thousand speakers.

The official languages are Arabic and English (upon independence only English will retain the status of official language[51]). Colloquial Arabic is spoken widely, though Juba Arabic, a pidgin, is spoken around the capital. The most populous language by native speakers is Dinka, a dialect continuum spoken by 2–3 million people. Dinka is a Western Nilotic language; closely related to Southern Sudan's second most populous language, Nuer, and a bit more distant is Shilluk. Major Eastern Nilotic languages are Bari and Otuho. Besides the Nilotic family, Zande, Southern Sudan's third most populous language, is Ubangian. Jur Modo is of the Bongo-Bagirmi family.[needs copy edit]

Population

2008 census

The "Fifth Population and Housing Census of Sudan", of Sudan as a whole, was conducted in April 2008. However the census results of Southern Sudan were rejected by Southern Sudanese officials as reportedly "the central bureau of statistics in Khartoum refused to share the national Sudan census raw data with southern Sudan centre for census, statistic and evaluation."[52] The census showed the Southern Sudan population to be 8.26 million,[3][53] however President Salva Kiir had "suspected figures were being deflated in some regions and inflated in others, and that made the final tally "unacceptable"."[54] He also claimed the Southern Sudanese population to really be one-third of Sudan, while the census showed it to be only 22%.[53] Many Southern Sudanese were also said to not have been counted "due to bad weather, poor communication and transportation networks, and some areas were unreachable, while many Southern Sudanese remained in exile in neighbouring countries, leading to 'unacceptable results', according [to] southern Sudanese authorities."[54] The chief American technical adviser for the census in the South said the census-takers probably reached 89% of the population.[55]

2009 census

In 2009 Sudan started a new Southern Sudanese census ahead of the 2011 independence referendum, which is said to also include the Southern Sudanese diaspora. However this initiative was criticised as it was to leave out countries with a high share of the Southern Sudanese diaspora, and rather count countries where the diaspora share was low.[56]

IDPs and returnees

One of the most significant challenges facing Southern Sudan is the integration of internally displaced persons (IDPs) who have returned since the 2005 Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) and others who are continuing to return.[57] Over 2 million people IDPs have so far returned and 200,000 more refugees, which has not only placed strain on basic services (such as heath, education and water), but also led to other fundamental challenges: unemployment, language barriers (many speak only English and no Arabic and visa versa) and conflict over land.[57] Conflict over land is particularly complex as over years of conflict and forced migration, some land abandoned or illegally seized has been occupied by new owners who cannot return the land to former owners who are now returning.[58] Many have occupied land after having been themselves forced out of their former land and have been settled in their new homes for significant periods of time.[58] Property rights are also difficult to prove when entire communities have been displaced and traditional methods for proving land rights are no longer possible.[58] Even if returnees are able to claim back former property, the community will have changed and returnees may find themselves socially excluded.[58] Inevitably, many returnees are not returning to former homes and instead are migrating to Juba, where they hope to find employment, increased security and access to services, though these aspirations, however, are rarely realised.[59] Further concerns are arising as the 1.5 million Southern Sudanese still resident in Khartoum may now seek to return after independence.[59]

Religion

Scholarly[60][61][62] and U.S. Department of State sources[11] state that a majority of southern Sudanese maintain traditional/indigenous beliefs with those following Christianity in a minority (albeit an influential one). However, some news organizations claim a Christian majority[63][64][65] and the US Episcopal Church claims the existence of large numbers of Anglican adherents from the Episcopal Church of the Sudan: 2 million members in 2005,[66] 4 million, or almost half of the nation's population, in 2011.[67] Animist beliefs are often blended with Christian beliefs.[citation needed]

According to the Federal Research Division of the US Library of Congress: "In the early 1990s possibly no more than 10 percent of southern Sudan's population was Christian".[68]

Economy

Sudan also exports timber to the international market. Some of the states with the best known teaks and natural trees for timber are Western Equatoria and Central Equatoria. One of the major natural features of the Southern Sudan is the River Nile whose many tributaries have sources in the country. The region also contains many natural resources such as petroleum, iron ore, copper, chromium ore, zinc, tungsten, mica, silver, gold, and hydropower. The country's economy, as in many other developing countries, is heavily dependent on agriculture. Some of the agricultural produce include cotton, groundnuts (peanuts), sorghum, millet, wheat, gum arabic, sugarcane, cassava (tapioca), mangos, papaya, bananas, sweet potatoes, and sesame. In Central Equatoria some teak plantations are at Kegulu, the other, oldest planted forest reserves are Kawale, Lijo, Loka West and Nuni. Western Equatoria timber resources include Mvuba trees at Zamoi.

Loka teaks is the largest teak plantation in Africa.

Oil

Southern Sudan produces 85% of Sudanese oil output. The oil revenues according to the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA), are to be split equally for the duration of the agreement period. Oil revenues constitute more than 98% of the semi-autonomous government of Southern Sudan's budget.[69] The oil and other mineral resources can be found throughout Southern Sudan, but the Bentiu is commonly known as being especially rich in oil, while Jonglei, Warap and Lakes states have potential reserves.

In recent years, a significant amount of foreign-based oil drilling has begun in Southern Sudan, raising the land's geopolitical profile. Khartoum has partitioned much of Sudan into blocks, with about 85% of the oil coming from the South. Blocks 1, 2, and 4 are controlled by the largest overseas consortium, the Greater Nile Petroleum Operating Company (GNPOC). GNPOC is composed of the following players: China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC, People's Republic of China), with a 40% stake; Petronas (Malaysia), with 30%; Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (India), with 25%; and Sudapet of the central Sudan government with 5%.[70]

The other producing blocks in the South are blocks 3 and 7 in Eastern Upper Nile. These blocks are controlled by Petrodar which is 41% owned by CNPC, 40% by Petronas, 8% by Sudapet, 6% by Sinopec Corp and 5% by Al Thani.[70]

Another major block in the South, called Block B by Khartoum, is claimed by several players. Total of France was awarded the concession for the 90,000 square kilometre block in the 1980s but has since done limited work invoking "force majeure". Various elements of the SPLM handed out the block or parts thereof to other parties of Southern Sudan. Several of these pre-Naivasha deals were rejected when the SPLM/A leader Dr. John Garang de Mabior lost power.

The wealth-sharing section of the CPA states that all agreements signed prior to the CPA would hold; they would not be subject to review by the National Petroleum Commission (NPC), a commission set up by the CPA and composed of both Khartoum and Southerners and co-chaired by both President al-Bashir of Khartoum and President Kiir of Southern Sudan. However, the CPA does not specify who could sign those pre-CPA agreements.

Games and sports

Southern Sudan is notable for the popularity of many traditional and modern games and sports, particularly wrestling and mock battles. The traditional sports were mainly played after the harvest seasons to celebrate the harvests and finish the farming seasons. The wrestlers were generally strong, well-trained young men. During the matches, they smeared themselves with ochre – perhaps to enhance the grip or heighten their perception. The matches attracted large numbers of spectators who sang, played drums and danced in support of their favourite wrestlers. Though these were perceived as competition, they were primarily for entertainment. At the conclusion, people feasted and generally made merry.

In the modern era, Southern Sudanese have excelled in international sports. Luol Deng is a basketball star with the Chicago Bulls in the National Basketball Association. Other leading international basketball players from Southern Sudan have included Ajou Deng, Kueth Duany, Deng Gai, Ater Majok, and the late Manute Bol.

Majak Daw is on track to become the first Sudanese-born professional Australian rules football player, having been signed to the North Melbourne Kangaroos in the AFL in late 2009.[71]

Association football is also becoming popular in Southern Sudan, and there are many initiatives by the Government of Southern Sudan and other partners to promote the sport and improve the level of play. One of these initiatives is South Sudan Youth Sports Association (SSYSA). SSYSA is already holding football clinics in Konyokonyo and Muniki areas of Juba in which young boys are coached. It is envisaged that superior players will emerge from these dusty make-shift football fields in both the short and long term. In recognition of these efforts with youth football, the country recently hosted the CECAFA youth football competitions. Barely a month earlier, it had also hosted the larger East African Schools Sports tournaments.

Humanitarian situation

Southern Sudan is acknowledged to have some of the worst health indicators in the world.[17][72][73] The under-five infant mortality rate is 112 per 1,000, whilst maternal mortality is the highest in the world at 2,053.9 per 100,000 live births.[73] In 2004, there were only three surgeons serving southern Sudan, with three proper hospitals, and in some areas there was just one doctor for every 500,000 people.[17]

The epidemiology of HIV/AIDS in the Southern Sudan is poorly documented but the prevalence is thought to be around 3.1%.[74]

At the time of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement of 2005, humanitarian needs in Southern Sudan were massive. However, humanitarian organizations under the leadership of the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) managed to ensure sufficient funding to bring relief to the local populations. Along with recovery and development aid, humanitarian projects were included in the 2007 Work Plan of the United Nations and partners. More than 90% of the population of South Sudan live on less than $1 a day, despite the GDP per capita of the entirety of Sudan being $1200.[75]

In 2007, the OCHA (under the leadership of Éliane Duthoit) decreased its involvement in Southern Sudan, as humanitarian needs gradually diminished, slowly but markedly turning over control to the recovery and development activities of NGOs and community-based organisations.[76]

See also

References

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  66. ^ "How many Anglicans are there in the Anglican Church in North America?"
  67. ^ Episcopal News Service 3 March 2011
  68. ^ Sudan: A Country Study Federal Research Division, Library of Congress – Chapter 2, Ethnicity, Regionalism and Ethnicity
  69. ^ Hamilton, Rebecca "Awaiting Independence Vote, Southern Sudan Has High Hopes", Washington Post, Nov. 28, 2010, via Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting.
  70. ^ a b "The 'Big 4' – How oil revenues are connected to Khartoum" Amnesty International Retrieved 8 December 2010
  71. ^ Lavell, Steve "North punts on a touch of Majak" AFL.com.au 15 December 2009 Retrieved 5 April 2011
  72. ^ Moszynski, Peter (23 July 2005). Conference plans rebuilding of South Sudan's health service. BMJ.
  73. ^ a b Southern Sudan Household Health Survey (SHHS) December 2007. [South Sudan Medical Journal].
  74. ^ Hakim, James (August 2009). HIV/AIDS: an update on Epidemiology, Prevention and Treatment. [South Sudan Medical Journal.
  75. ^ Support freedom for Southern Sudan and fight for workers' unity against imperialism. Sean Ambler. League for the Fifth International. 10 January 2011.
  76. ^ SUDAN: Peace bolsters food security in the south. IRIN. 18 April 2007.

Further reading

  • Biel, Melha Rout (2007). South Sudan after the Comprehensive Peace Agreement. Jena: Netzbandt Verlag. ISBN 9783937884011.
  • Tvedt, Terje (2004). South Sudan. An Annotated Bibliography. (2 vols), 2nd. ed., I.B. Tauris: London/New York
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