António de Oliveira Salazar
António de Oliveira Salazar | |
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![]() António de Oliveira Salazar in 1940 | |
![]() President of Portugal Acting | |
In office 18 April 1951 – 21 July 1951 | |
Preceded by | Óscar Carmona |
Succeeded by | Francisco Craveiro Lopes |
Head of Government of Portugal | |
In office 5 July 1932 – 25 September 1968 | |
President | Óscar Carmona Francisco Craveiro Lopes Américo Tomás |
Preceded by | Domingos Oliveira |
Succeeded by | Marcelo Caetano |
Minister of Defence | |
In office 13 April 1961 – 4 December 1962 | |
Preceded by | Júlio Botelho Moniz |
Succeeded by | Gomes de Araújo |
Minister of War Acting | |
In office 11 May 1936 – 6 September 1944 | |
Preceded by | Abílio Passos e Sousa |
Succeeded by | Fernando dos Santos Costa |
In office 5 July 1932 – 6 July 1932 | |
Preceded by | António Lopes Mateus |
Succeeded by | Daniel Rodrigues de Sousa |
Minister of Foreign Affairs Acting | |
In office 6 November 1936 – 4 February 1944 | |
Preceded by | Armindo Monteiro |
Succeeded by | José Caeiro da Mata |
Minister of Finance | |
In office 28 April 1928 – 28 August 1940 | |
Prime Minister | José Vicente de Freitas Artur Ivens Ferraz Domingos Oliveira |
Preceded by | José Vicente de Freitas |
Succeeded by | João Lumbrales |
In office 3 June 1926 – 19 June 1926 | |
Prime Minister | José Mendes Cabeçadas |
Preceded by | José Mendes Cabeçadas |
Succeeded by | Câmara de Melo Cabral |
Minister of the Navy Acting | |
In office 30 January 1939 – 2 February 1939 | |
Preceded by | Manuel Ortins de Bettencourt |
Succeeded by | Manuel Ortins de Bettencourt |
In office 25 January 1936 – 5 February 1936 | |
Preceded by | Manuel Ortins de Bettencourt |
Succeeded by | Manuel Ortins de Bettencourt |
Minister of the Colonies Acting | |
In office 3 November 1930 – 6 November 1930 | |
Prime Minister | Domingos Oliveira |
Preceded by | Eduardo Marques |
Succeeded by | Eduardo Marques |
In office 21 January 1930 – 20 July 1930 | |
Prime Minister | Domingos Oliveira |
Preceded by | Eduardo Marques |
Succeeded by | Eduardo Marques |
Personal details | |
Born | Vimieiro, Santa Comba Dão, Portugal | 28 April 1889
Died | 27 July 1970 Lisbon, Portugal | (aged 81)
Political party | Academic Centre of Christian Democracy (Before 1930) National Union (1930–1970) |
Spouse | None |
Alma mater | University of Coimbra |
Profession | Professor |
Signature | ![]() |
António de Oliveira Salazar GCSE, GCIC, GCTE, GColIH (Portuguese pronunciation: [ɐ̃ˈtɔniu dɨ oliˈvɐjɾɐ sɐlɐˈzaɾ]; 28 April 1889 – 27 July 1970) was a Portuguese statesman and economist who served as Prime Minister of Portugal for 36 years, from 1932 to 1968. He was Portugal's virtual dictator, in the manner of Spain's Francisco Franco and Italy's Benito Mussolini. Salazar founded and led the Estado Novo ('New State'), the corporatist authoritarian government that presided over and controlled Portugal until 1974.
Salazar had experienced living in the nation under the chaotic Portuguese First Republic (1910–1926), described as a period of 'continual anarchy, government corruption, rioting and pillage, assassinations, arbitrary imprisonment and religious persecution'. After the 28 May 1926 coup d'état, with President Óscar Carmona's support, Salazar was eventually persuaded to accept a political charge, although he was reluctant throughout. His Estado Novo would come to allow him vast power over Portugal. Opposed to communism, socialism, anarchism and liberalism, Salazar's rule was corporatist, authoritarian, conservative and nationalist in nature.
Salazar handled the regime and the nation's stability by tightening his rule. He used police, censorship and suppression to counter disorder and opposition, especially that related to the communist movement. He supported Francisco Franco in the 1930s against the left-wing groups. Salazar was widely praised for astutely keeping Portugal neutral during World War II, effectively saving the country from probable devastation and allowing European refugees a sanctuary. His territorial policy envisaged continuing to develop Portugal as a pluricontinental nation, under the doctrine of lusotropicalism, with the Portuguese territories of the time, including Angola and Mozambique, as extending and being an equal part of Portugal's original land, which served as their source of civilization. Salazar wanted Portugal to be relevant internationally. Through his government's policy, the country came to be welcomed and recognised in the international community, participating comprehensively in several organisations, such as the North Atlantic Alliance (NATO). Having a background in law, finance and economic policy, Salazar guided Portugal to variable economic growth, which was ultimately unprecedented, and increased literacy levels. The New State favoured Catholicism and Salazar advocated for it. He argued the role of the Church was social, not political, and enabled the Concordat of 1940.
Some historians prioritise Salazar's securing of the regime and nation's stability. Nonetheless, taken separately, his character and work devoted to his country were widely well-regarded. Salazar is described as a scholar who was humble, respectful, ascetic, incorruptible and at the same time, intellectually brilliant and gifted. Salazar was hardworking and judged by many commentators to have the right intent.[1][2] He lived a life of simplicity, dying relatively poor after 40 years of public service in politics. Today, Salazar remains a controversial figure. His Estado Novo persisted under the direction of Marcelo Caetano, who had a major supportive role in the regime. It was then superseded by the Carnation Revolution and resulting turmoil.
Background
Family
Salazar was born in Vimieiro, near Santa Comba Dão (Viseu District), to a family of modest income.[3] His father, a small landowner, had started as an agricultural labourer and became the manager for a family of rural landowners of the region of Santa Comba Dão, the Perestrelos, who possessed lands and other assets scattered between Viseu and Coimbra.[4] He had four older sisters, and was the only male child of two fifth cousins, António de Oliveira (17 January 1839 – 28 September 1932) and wife Maria do Resgate Salazar (23 October 1845 – 17 November 1926).[3] His older sisters were Maria do Resgate Salazar de Oliveira, an elementary school teacher; Elisa Salazar de Oliveira; Maria Leopoldina Salazar de Oliveira; and Laura Salazar de Oliveira, who in 1887 married Abel Pais de Sousa, brother of Mário Pais de Sousa who served as Salazar's Interior Minister.
Education
Salazar attended his small village's primary school and later went to Viseu’s. Aged 11, he won a free place at Viseu’s seminary, where he studied for eight years, from 1900 to 1908.[5] Salazar considered becoming a priest, but like many who entered the seminary very young, he decided, after receiving minor holy orders, not to proceed to the priesthood.[5] He went to Coimbra in 1910, during the first years of the Portuguese First Republic, to study law at the University of Coimbra.[6] During these student years in Coimbra, he developed a particular interest for finance, becoming a law graduate with distinction and specializing in finance and economic policy at the Law School. In 1914, he graduated with 19 points out of 20,[7] and in the meanwhile, became an assistant professor of economic policy at the Law School. In 1917, he became the regent of economic policy and finance by appointment of the professor José Alberto dos Reis. In the following year, Salazar was awarded his doctorate.[8][7]
Politics and Estado Novo
Background
Salazar was twenty-one years old when the First Portuguese Republic was instituted with the revolution of 5 October 1910 and the fall of the monarchy. The First Republic preceded the Estado Novo, spanning a complex 16-year period between 1910 and 1926.
The Republic has been described as 'continual anarchy, government corruption, rioting and pillage, assassinations, arbitrary imprisonment and religious persecution'.[9] It had eight Presidents, 44 cabinet reorganisations and 21 revolutions.[10] The first government of the Republic lasted less than 10 weeks and the longest-ruling lasted little over a year. Revolution in Portugal became a byword in Europe. The cost of living increased twenty-fivefold, while the currency fell to a 1⁄33 part of its gold value. Portugal's public finances and the economy in general entered a critical phase, having been under imminent threat of default since at least the 1890s.[11][12] The gaps between the rich and the poor continued to widen. The regime led Portugal to enter World War I in 1916, aggravating the perilous state of affairs in the country. Concurrently, the Catholic Church was hounded by the anti-clerical Freemasons of the Republic, and political assassination and terrorism became general. Between 1920 and 1925, according to official police figures, 325 bombs burst in the streets of Lisbon.[13] The British diplomat Sir George Rendell described the 'political background as anything but deplorable... very different from the orderly, prosperous and well-managed country that it later became under the government of Senhor Salazar'.[14] As in fact, Salazar would have this setting in mind when he later ruled Portugal.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/12_de_Fev._1917_Joshua_Benoliel.jpg/160px-12_de_Fev._1917_Joshua_Benoliel.jpg)
In July 1940, LIFE magazine featured an article on Portugal, and, referring to its recent chaotic history, asserted that 'anyone who saw Portugal 15 years ago might well have said it deserved to die. It was atrociously governed, bankrupt, squalid, ridden with disease and poverty. It was such a mess that the League of Nations coined a word to describe the absolute low in national welfare: "Portuguesé". Then the Army overthrew the Republic which had brought the country to this sorry pass'. LIFE added that ruling Portugal was difficult and explained how Salazar 'found a country in chaos and poverty' and then reformed it.[11][a]
The nation rose against such continual chaos with the bloodless 28 May 1926 coup d'état, reflecting widespread public dissatisfaction and general erosion of support for republican ideas. The revolution was widely popular among all civilian classes, with the Republic having no support.[15] At the time, the prevailing view in Portugal was that political parties were elements of division and parliamentarianism was in crisis. This led to general support, or at least tolerance, of an authoritarian regime.[16] The new Portuguese anti-parliamentarism was a reaction to previous experience with the system. Liberalism and Parliamentarism may have worked in Great Britain and the United States, but the Portuguese argued that liberalism was inappropriate in their nation and culture.[17]
Early path
As a young man, Salazar's involvement in politics stemmed from his Catholic views, which were aroused by the new anti-clerical Portuguese First Republic. He became a member of the non-politically affiliated Catholic movement Centro Académico de Democracia Cristã (Academic Centre for Christian Democracy).[18] Salazar rejected the monarchists because of the doctrines of Pope Leo. He was a frequent contributor to journals[b] concerned with social studies.[19] Local press described him as 'one of the most powerful minds of the new generation'.[7]
In 1921, Salazar was persuaded to stand as a candidate for election to parliament, though he did so reluctantly. He appeared once in the chamber and never returned, being struck by the disorder and futileness. Salazar was convinced that liberal individualism had led to fragmentation of society and a perversion of the democratic process.[20]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Desfile_de_tropas_28_de_Maio_1926.jpg/220px-Desfile_de_tropas_28_de_Maio_1926.jpg)
After the 28 May 1926 coup d'état, Salazar briefly joined José Mendes Cabeçadas's government as Minister of Finance. On June 11, a small group of officers drove from Lisbon to Santa Comba Dão to persuade him to be Minister of Finance. Salazar spent five days in Lisbon. The conditions he proposed to control spending were refused, he quickly resigned, and in two hours he was on a train back to Coimbra University, explaining that since disputes and social disorder existed in the government, he could not do his work properly.[21]
Several times between 1926 and 1928, Salazar turned down appointment to the finance ministry. He pleaded ill-health, devotion to his aged parents and a preference for the academic cloisters. He finally agreed to became the 81st Finance Minister on 26 April 1928, after the republican and Freemason Óscar Carmona was elected president. However, before accepting the position, he personally secured from Carmona a categorical assurance that as finance minister he would have a free hand to veto expenditure in all government departments, not just his own. Salazar was the financial czar virtually from the day he took office.
In July 1929, Salazar again presented his resignation. His friend Mario de Figueiredo, Minister of Justice, passed new legislation that facilitated the organisation of religious processions. The new law outraged the republicans, triggered a cabinet crisis, and Figueiredo threaten to resign. Salazar advised Figueiredo against resigning, but told his friend he would join him in his decision. Figueiredo resigned, and Salazar – at that time hospitalised due to a broken leg – followed suit on 3 July. Carmona went personally to the hospital on the 4th and asked Salazar to change his mind. Prime minister José Vicente de Freitas, disagreeing with Carmona's actions, left the cabinet. Salazar remained in the cabinet as Minister of Finance, but with additional powers.[22]
On July 5 1932, President Carmona appointed Salazar as the 101st Prime Minister. Like any effective politician, Salazar began to operate close to the mainstream of political sentiment in his country.[23] The authoritarian government consisted of a right-wing coalition, and he was able to co-opt the moderates of each political current, while fighting the extremists using censorship and repression. Those perceived to be genuine fascists were jailed or exiled.[24] Conservative Catholics were Salazar's earliest and most loyal supporters, but conservative republicans who could not be co-opted became his most dangerous opponents during the early period. They attempted several coups, but never presented a united front, consequently these attempts were easily repressed. Never a true monarchist, Salazar nevertheless gained most of the monarchists' support, as the exiled deposed king was given a state funeral at the time of his death. The National Syndicalists were torn between supporting the regime and denouncing it as bourgeois. They were given enough symbolic concessions to win over the moderates, and the rest were repressed by the political police. They were to be silenced shortly after 1933, as Salazar attempted to prevent the rise of National Socialism in Portugal.
Salazar's rise to power was due to the public image he cultivated as an honest and effective Finance Minister, President Carmona's strong support, and shrewd political positioning. Within one year, armed with special powers, Salazar balanced the budget and stabilised Portugal's currency. Restoring order to the national accounts, enforcing austerity and red-penciling waste, Salazar produced the first of many budgetary surpluses, an unparalleled novelty in Portugal.[25]
Formation of the Estado Novo
A new constitution was drafted by a group of lawyers, businessmen, clerics and university professors, with Salazar being the leading spirit and Marcelo Caetano also having a major role.[26] The constitution created the Estado Novo, in theory a corporatist state representing interest groups rather than individuals. He wanted a system in which the people would be represented through corporations, rather than through divisive parties, and where national interest is given priority over sectional claims. Salazar thought that the party system had failed irrevocably in Portugal.[27] The legislature, called the National Assembly, was restricted to members of the UN, a single party. It could initiate legislation, but only concerning matters that did not require government expenditures.[28] The parallel Corporatist Chamber included representatives of municipalities, religious, cultural and professional groups and of the official workers' syndicates that replaced free trade unions.[28] The men who came to power in the Estado Novo were genuinely concerned with the poverty and backwardness of their nation, divorcing themselves from Anglo-American political influences while developing a new indigenous political model and alleviating the miserable living conditions of both rural and urban poor.[29]
The new constitution introduced by Salazar established an anti-parliamentarian and authoritarian government that would last four decades. The president was to be elected by popular vote for a seven years period. On paper, the new document vested sweeping, almost dictatorial powers in the hands of the president, including the power to appoint and dismiss the prime minister.[30] The president was elevated to a position of preeminence as the 'balance wheel', defender, and ultimate arbiter of national politics.[30] However, President Carmona had allowed Salazar more or less a free hand since appointing him prime minister and continued to do so; Carmona and his successors would largely be figureheads. In fact, Salazar’s position was one of power, not just because of the constitution, but also because of his character: domineering, absolutist, ambitious, hardworking and intellectually brilliant.[31]
Salazar's regime was rigidly authoritarian. He based his political philosophy around a close interpretation of the Catholic social doctrine, much like the contemporary regime of Engelbert Dollfuss in Austria.[32] The economic system, known as corporatism, was based on a similar interpretation of the papal encyclicals Rerum novarum (Leo XIII, 1891)[33] and Quadragesimo anno (Pius XI, 1931),[33] which were meant to prevent class struggle and transform economic concerns secondary to social values. Rerum novarum argued that, like the family, labor associations were part of the natural order. The rights of men to organise into trade unions and to engage in labor activities were thus inherent and could not be denied by employers or the state. Quadragesimo anno had provided the blue print for the erection of the corporatist system.[34]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Uni%C3%A3o_Nacional.png/200px-Uni%C3%A3o_Nacional.png)
The year 1933 marked a watershed in Portuguese history. Under Salazar’s supervision, Teotónio Pereira, the Sub-Secretary of State of Corporations and Social Welfare, reporting directly to Salazar, enacted extensive legislation that shaped the corporatist structure and initiated a comprehensive social welfare system.[35] This system was equally anti-capitalist and anti-socialist. The corporatisation of the working class was accompanied by strict legislation regulating business. Workers organisations were subordinated to state control but granted a legitimacy that they had never enjoyed and made beneficiaries of a variety of new social programs.[36] Nevertheless, it is important to note that even in the enthusiastic early years, corporatist agencies were not at the centre of power and therefore corporatism was not the true base of the whole system.[37]
In 1934, Salazar exiled Francisco Rolão Preto, purging the leadership of the Portuguese National Syndicalists, also called the camisas azuis ('Blue Shirts'). Salazar denounced the National Syndicalists as 'inspired by certain foreign models' and their 'exaltation of youth, and the cult of force through direct action, the principle of the superiority of state political power in social life, [and] the propensity for organising masses behind a single leader' as fundamental differences between fascism and the Catholic corporatism of the Estado Novo. Salazar's own party, the National Union, was formed as a subservient umbrella organisation to support the regime itself, and therefore did not have its own philosophy. At the time, many European countries feared the destructive potential of communism. Salazar not only forbade Marxist parties, but also revolutionary fascist-syndicalist parties. One overriding criticism of his regime is that stability was bought and maintained at the expense of suppression of human rights and liberties.[28]
The Estado Novo has been described by the American socialist author David L. Raby as a far-right leaning regime of para-fascist inspiration, although general labeling of Portugal as fascist declined after the defeat of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy in World War II.[38] The corporatist state had some similarities to Mussolini’s fascism, but considerable differences in its moral approach to governing.[39] Although Salazar admired Mussolini and was influenced by his carta del lavoro published in 1927,[26] he distanced himself and criticised fascist dictatorship as he considered it to be pagan Caesarism that tended towards a state that recognises neither legal nor moral limits. Salazar also considered there to be pagan elements in German Nazism, seeing these as repugnant. Later, before World War II, Salazar would come to declare: 'We are opposed to all forms of Internationalism, Communism, Socialism, Syndicalism and everything that may divide or minimise, or break up the family. We are against class warfare, irreligion and disloyalty to one’s country; against serfdom, a materialistic conception of life, and might over right.'[40]
The corporatist constitution was approved in a national plebiscite, on 19 March 1933.[30][41] A draft had been published one year before and the public was invited to state any objections in the press.[41] These tended to stay in the realm of generalities and only a handful of people, less than 6,000, voted against) the new constitution.[41] With its passage, women were allowed to vote for the first time in Portugal and given a voice in the National Assembly.[42] Secondary education was a requirement for their suffrage, while men needed only to be able to read and write.
According to American scholar J. Wiarda, despite certain problems and continued poverty in many sectors, the consensus among historians and economists is that Salazar in the 1930s brought remarkable improvements in the economic sphere, public works, social services and governmental honesty, efficiency and stability.[43][44]
Securing the regime
With the chaos of the First Republic in mind, stability could not be risked and Salazar responded by tightly securing his regime. He relied on the secret police, first the PVDE (Polícia de Vigilância e de Defesa do Estado – 'State Defence and Surveillance Police'), modelled on the Gestapo and set up in 1933. The PIDE (Polícia Internacional e de Defesa do Estado) was established in 1945 and lasted until 1969 (from there to 1974, under Marcelo Caetano, it was the DGS - Direcção Geral de Segurança, 'General Security Directorate'). The secret police was not just to protect national security in a typical modern sense, but also to suppress the regime's political opponents, especially those related to the international communist movement or the USSR, which was seen by the regime as a menace to Portugal. The PIDE was efficient, and less overtly brutal than its predecessor and the foreign police forces it was modeled after.
The Spanish Civil War, which began in July 1936, was the ostensible reason for the radicalisation of the regime. Internally, the regime had to face a monarchist revolt in 1935, a threatened leftist coup in 1936 and several bombs and conspiracies in 1936 and 1937, including an attempt to assassinate Salazar in 1937. At the same time, Spanish Republican agents were active in Lisbon and Spanish troops were deployed on Portugal’s vulnerable border, severely threatening Portuguese sovereignty.[45]
Spanish Civil War
In the beginning of the Spanish Civil War, Salazar took up additional portfolios as minister of war and minister of foreign affairs, while retaining direction of the Ministry of Finance, thus concentrating even more power in his hands.[45]
Salazar supported Francisco Franco and the Nationalists in their fight against the left-wing groups of the Spanish Republic. The Nationalists lacked ports early on, so Salazar's Portugal helped them receive armaments shipments from abroad – including ordnance when certain Nationalist forces virtually ran out of ammunition. Consequently, the Nationalists called Lisbon 'the port of Castile'.[46] Later, Franco spoke in glowing terms of Salazar, in an interview in the Le Figaro newspaper: 'The most complete statesman, the one most worthy of respect, that I have known is Salazar. I regard him as an extraordinary personality for his intelligence, his political sense and his humility. His only defect is probably his modesty.'[47]
On 9 September 1936, the crews of two naval Portuguese vessels, connected with the Communist Party, attempted to desert to Spanish Republican forces fighting in Spain. Salazar ordered the ships to be destroyed by gunfire.[45] The following day loyalty oaths become mandatory for all of members of the civil service and censorship was severely tightened. Every government functionary was forced to declare that he repudiated communism. The anti-Communist crusade served to root out communism, but also democratic opposition.[45] Salazar established prison camps for opponents of the Estado Novo, including Tarrafal in the Cape Verde Islands. Prisoners included anarchists, communists, anti-colonial agitators and guerrillas from Portugal's African colonies. People were held for many years and some died in prison.
In January 1938, Salazar appointed Pedro Teotónio Pereira as special liaison of the Portuguese government to Franco's government, where he achieved immense prestige and influence.[48] In April 1938, Teotónio Pereira officially become a full-rank Portuguese ambassador to Spain, where he remained throughout World War II.[49]
Just a few days before the end of the Spanish Civil War, on 17 March 1939, Portugal and Spain signed the Treaty of Friendship and Non-Aggression (the Iberian Pact), marking the beginning of a new phase in Iberian relations, in which the meetings between Franco and Salazar played a fundamental part.[50] The pact proved to be a decisive instrument in keeping the Iberian Peninsula out of Hitler’s continental system.[51]
Assassination attempt
The radicalism of the regime drew opposition. Emídio Santana, founder of the Metallurgists National Union (Sindicato Nacional dos Metalúrgicos) and an anarcho-syndicalist who was involved in clandestine activities against the dictatorship, attempted to assassinate Salazar on 4 July 1937. Salazar was on his way to Mass at a private chapel in a friend's house, in the Barbosa du Bocage Avenue in Lisbon. As he stepped out of his Buick limousine, a bomb hidden in an iron case exploded only 3 metres (10 ft) away. The blast left Salazar untouched, but his chauffeur was rendered deaf. A year later, the bishops of the country argued in a collective letter that it was an 'act of God' that had preserved Salazar's life. The official car was replaced by an armoured Chrysler Imperial.[52] Sought by the PIDE, Emídio Santana fled to Britain, where he was arrested by British police and returned to Portugal. He was then sentenced to 16 years in prison.[53]
Maintaining the regime
Despite the regime's use of censorship and suppression (conducted by the PVDE), in July 1940, LIFE magazine spoke of Salazar and his Portugal with approbation, describing him as a 'a benevolent ruler' and adding that 'unambitious, Salazar took the dictatorship by Army request and holds it by popular will. (...) The Salazar dictatorship is easygoing and paternalistic, with wide freedom of speech allowed to its enemies. (...) Friends of democracy may deplore Salazar the dictator but they cannot deny that under the Republic Portugal made an unholy mess of itself and Salazar pulled it out.'[11][a]
In October 1945, Salazar, hoping to improve the image of the regime in Western circles, announced a liberalisation program designed to restore civil rights that had been suppressed during the Spanish Civil War and World War II. The measures included parliamentary elections, a general political amnesty, restoration of freedom of the press, curtailment of legal repression and a commitment to introduce the right of habeas corpus. The regime started to organise itself around a broad coalition, the Movement of Democratic Unity (MUD), ranging from ultra-Catholics and fringe elements of the extreme right to the Portuguese Communist Party. Initially, the MUD was controlled by the moderate opposition, but it soon became strongly influenced by the Communist Party, which controlled its youth wing. In the leadership were several communists, among them Octávio Pato, Salgado Zenha, Mário Soares, Júlio Pomar and Mário Sacramento.[54] This influence led to the MUD being outlawed by the government in 1948, after several waves of suppression. Restrictions that had been temporarily lifted were then increasingly reinstated.
As the Cold War started, Salazar’s Estado Novo remained unmistakably authoritarian. Salazar had been able to hold onto power by virtue of the public's recollection of the chaos that had characterised Portuguese life before 1926. However, by the 1950s, a new generation emerged which had no collective memory of the previous state. The clearest sign of this came in the 1958 presidential election. Most neutral observers believed the democratic opposition's candidate, Humberto Delgado, would have defeated the regime's candidate, Americo Thomaz, had the election been conducted fairly. Delgado, an emotional, quixotic, former government collaborator had stated that if elected, he would dismiss Salazar – the president's power to dismiss the prime minister was theoretically the only check on Salazar's power. Delgado was able to rally support from a wide range of the opposition. Among his supporters were some controversial figures, namely the press campaign manager Francisco Rolão Preto, a former Nazi sympathiser and former leader of the Blue Shirts, who had been exiled by Salazar in the 1930s.[55] An official announcement stated that Delgado received one-fourth of the votes, in total approximately a million. The following year in 1959, 70-year-old Salazar, alarmed by the episode, changed the election of the President to a selection by the two parliamentary bodies, both under his control. Delgado was expelled from the Portuguese military, and took refuge in the Brazilian embassy before going into exile. Much of his banishment was spent in Brazil and later in Algeria, as a guest of Ben Bella. Later, in 1965, he was lured into an ambush by the regime's secret police, the PIDE, near the border town of Olivenza. Delgado and his Brazilian secretary Arajaryr Moreira de Campos were killed while trying to clandestinely enter Portugal. An official statement claimed that Delgado was shot and killed in self-defence, despite Delgado being unarmed and his secretary strangled.[56]
In the 1960s, Salazar's opposition to decolonisation and gradual freedom of the press created friction with the Franco dictatorship.
In 1968, Salazar suffered a brain hemorrhage when he fell in a bathtub.[57] As he was expected to die shortly after his fall, President Thomaz replaced him with Marcelo Caetano. Despite the injury, Salazar lived for another two years. When he unexpectedly recovered lucidity, his intimates did not tell him he had been removed from power, instead allowing him to 'rule' in privacy until his death in July 1970.[58] The regime persisted under the direction of Caetano, his longtime aide as well as a well-reputed scholar of the University of Lisbon Law School, statesman and distinguished member of the regime who co-wrote the Constitution of 1933.
The Estado Novo would eventually fall on 25 April 1974 with the Carnation Revolution. The country would then experience a turbulent period of provisional governments and a nearly disintegrated state reminiscent of the First Republic, a condition that the Estado Novo had so assiduously attempted to avoid. Historian Kenneth Maxwell considers that, for many reasons, Portugal, in its transition from authoritarian rule to a more democratic government, was closer to Nicaragua than it was to any other South American nation.[59] During the final months of Franco's dictatorship, which had survived to this point, Spain considered invading Portugal to check the perceived threat of communism caused by the Carnation Revolution.[60]
World War II
Salazar had lived during the hard times of World War I, in which Portugal participated, occurring in the chaotic period of the First Republic. World War II happened while he was in power. Salazar was widely praised for keeping Portugal neutral during the Second World War, effectively saving the country from probable devastation and allowing European refugees a sanctuary. From the war's very beginning in 1939, Salazar was convinced that Britain would suffer injury but remain undefeated, that the US would step in and that the Allies would win. The American journalist Henry J. Taylor commented: 'I found not another continental European leader who then agreed with him'.[61]
Neutrality
Salazar’s dislike of the Nazi regime in Germany and its imperial ambitions was tempered only by his view of the German Reich as a bastion against the spread of communism. He had favoured the Spanish nationalist cause, fearing a communist invasion of Portugal, yet he was uneasy at the prospect of a Spanish government bolstered by strong ties with the Axis.[62] Salazar's policy of neutrality for Portugal in World War II thus included a strategic component. The country still held overseas territories that, because of their poor economic development, could not adequately defend themselves from military attack. Siding with the Axis would have brought Portugal into conflict with Britain, likely resulting in the loss of its colonies, while siding with the Allies risked the security of the home country on the mainland. As the price to pay for remaining neutral, Portugal continued to export tungsten and other commodities to both the Axis (via Switzerland, partly) and the Allied countries.[63][64]
Upon the start of World War II in 1939, the Portuguese Government announced, on 1 September, that the 600-year-old Anglo-Portuguese Alliance remained intact, but that since the British did not seek Portuguese assistance, Portugal was free to remain neutral in the war and would do so. In an aide-mémoire of 5 September 1939, the British Government confirmed the understanding.
Responses
British strategists regarded Portuguese non-belligerency as 'essential to keep Spain from entering the war on the side of the Axis'.[65] Britain recognised Salazar's important role on 15 May 1940, when Douglas Veale, Registrar of the University of Oxford, informed Salazar that the University's Hebdomadal Council had 'unanimously decided at its meeting last Monday, to invite you [Salazar] to accept the Honorary Degree of Doctor of Civil Law'.[66][67] In July 1940, LIFE magazine covered Portugal in a feature article, praising Salazar's overall work and the direction he had given the country. However, commenting that 'this year [of 1940], for [the] first time in centuries, Portugal is important to America. It is the funnel through which pour all the exchanges – of people and messages and diplomacy – between America and Europe. The war, by cutting the lines of intercourse to Northern Europe, has made Portugal what [one might say] geography intended – not a faraway corner of Europe but its front door.'[11][a] In September 1940, Winston Churchill wrote to Salazar congratulating him for his policy of keeping Portugal out of the war, avowing that 'as so often before during the many centuries of the Anglo-Portuguese alliance, British and Portuguese interests are identical on this vital question.'[66] Sir Samuel Hoare, 1st Viscount Templewood, the British Ambassador in Madrid from 1940 to 1944, recognised Salazar's crucial role in keeping Iberia neutral during World War II, and lauded him for it. Hoare further added that 'Salazar detested Hitler and all his works', as his corporative state was fundamentally different from the state as conceived by Nazism or Fascism, with Salazar never leaving a doubt of his desire for a Nazi defeat.[c] Historian Carlton Hayes, a pioneering specialist on the study of nationalism, was the American Ambassador in Spain during the war. He met Salazar in person and also praised him, expressing a similar opinion to Hoare's in his book Wartime Mission in Spain.[d] Hayes well appreciated Portugal's endeavours to form a truly neutral peninsular bloc with Spain, an immeasurable contribution – at a time when the British and the United States had much less influence – towards counteracting the propaganda and appeals of the Axis. Later in the book, Hayes wrote of Portugal's role in supporting the thousands of French military refugees who, in 1943, tried to get from Spain to North Africa in order to join the Allied forces there.[70] During the war, Salazar steered Portugal on a middle course, but nevertheless provided aid to the Allies. In November 1943, the British Ambassador in Lisbon, Sir Ronald Campbell, wrote, paraphrasing Salazar, that 'strict neutrality was the price the allies paid for strategic benefits accruing from Portugal's neutrality and that if her neutrality instead of being strict had been more benevolent in our favour Spain would inevitably have thrown herself body and soul into the arms of Germany. If this had happened the Peninsula would have been occupied and then North Africa, with the result that the whole course of the war would have been altered to the advantage of the Axis.'[71]
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Campbell saw Salazar as fundamentally loyal to the Anglo-Portuguese Alliance and stated that 'he [Salazar] would answer the call if it were made on grounds of dire necessity'. When in August 1943 the British requested military base facilities in the Azores, invoking the alliance, Salazar responded favorably and quickly:[72] Portugal allowed these bases, letting the British use the Azorean ports of Horta (on the island of Faial) and Ponta Delgada (on the island of São Miguel), and the airfields of Lagens Field (on Terceira Island) and Santana Field (on São Miguel Island).[72] From November 1943, when the British gained use of the Azores, to June 1945, 8,689 U.S. aircraft departed from the Lajes base in the Azores, including 1,200 B-17 and B-24 bomber aircraft ferried across the Atlantic. Cargo aircraft carried vital personnel and equipment to North Africa, to the United Kingdom and – after the Allies gained a foothold in Western Europe – to Orly Field near Paris. Flights returning from Europe carried wounded servicemen. Medical personnel at Lajes handled approximately 30,000 air evacuations en route to the United States for medical care and rehabilitation. The Lajes Field in the Azores reduced flying time between the United States and North Africa from 70 hours to 40, a considerable reduction that enabled aircraft to make almost twice as many crossings, clearly demonstrating the geographic value of the Azores during the war. The British diplomat Sir George Rendell stated that the Portuguese Republican Government of Bernardino Machado was 'far more difficult to deal with as an ally during the First War than the infinitely better Government of Salazar was as a neutral in the Second.'[14]
Refugees
The main reason for the neutrality of Portugal in World War II was strategic, and within the compass of the overall objectives of the Anglo-Portuguese Alliance. This modest but complex role allowed Portugal to rescue a large number of war refugees.[65]
Portugal's official nationalism was not grounded in race or biology. In 1934, Salazar made it clear that Portuguese nationalism did not include pagan anti-human ideals that glorified a single race. In 1937, he published a book called Como se Levanta um Estado ('How to Raise a State'), in which he criticised the philosophical ideals behind the Nuremberg laws.[73] Finally, in 1938, Salazar sent a telegram to the Portuguese Embassy in Berlin, ordering that it should be made clear to the German Reich that Portuguese law did not allow any distinction based on race, and that therefore, Portuguese Jewish citizens could not be discriminated against.[74] In the previous year, Adolfo Benarus, Honorary Chairman of COMASSIS[e] and a leader of the Lisbon’s Jewish Community, had published a book wherein he rejoiced that there was no anti-Semitism in Portugal.[75] In 2011, Avraham Milgram, Yad Vashem historian, said that modern anti-Semitism failed 'to establish even a toehold in Portugal',[76] while it grew virulently elsewhere in early 20th century Europe.
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At the beginning of the war, due to imminent attacks by Nazi Germany, Gibraltar’s civilian population was evacuated. At that time, Portuguese Madeira agreed to host about 2,500 Gibraltarian refugees, mostly women and children, who arrived at Funchal between July 21st and August 13th, 1940, and remained there until the end of the war.[77]
Portugal, particularly Lisbon, was one of the last European exit points to the U.S.,[f] and a huge number of refugees found shelter in Portugal. The Portuguese consul general in Bordeaux, Aristides de Sousa Mendes, helped several. According to the testimony of one of Sousa Mendes’ sons, Salazar lost political trust in Sousa Mendes and stripped the diplomat of his title, subsequently ordering that no one in Portugal show him any charity.[78] However, Sousa Mendes never actually lost his title, as he was still listed annually in the Portuguese Diplomatic Yearbook until 1954[79] and, after a one-year punishment with half-pay, continued to receive an adequate salary, that was later even increased.[80][81] Sousa Mendes' actions were not unique. Issuing visas in contravention of instructions was widespread at Portuguese consulates all over Europe,[82] although some cases were supported by Salazar. The Portuguese Ambassador in Budapest, Carlos Sampaio Garrido helped an estimated 1,000 Hungarian Jews in 1944. Along with Carlos de Liz-Texeira Branquinho, they rented houses and apartments to shelter and protect refugees from deportation and murder. On 28 April 1944, the Hungarian Gestapo raided the Ambassador's home, arresting his guests. The Ambassador, who physically resisted the police, was also arrested, but managed to have his guests released on the grounds of extraterritoriality of diplomatic legations.[83] In 2010, Garrido was recognised as Righteous Among the Nations by Yad Vashem. Other Portuguese who deserve credit for saving Jews during the war are Professor Francisco Paula Leite Pinto and Moisés Bensabat Amzalak. A devoted Jew, and a supporter of Salazar, Amzalak headed the Lisbon Jewish community for 52 years, from 1926 until 1978.
Large numbers of political dissidents, including Abwehr personnel, sought refuge in Portugal after the plot of 20 July 1944. Until late 1942, immigration was very restricted. In cases where they suspected refugees would not simply pass through Portugal in transit to their destination but intended to remain in the country, the consulates would need to get a previous authorization from Lisbon. Such were the cases of foreigners of indefinite or contested nationality, the stateless, Russians or Jews expelled from their countries of origin.[84] These refugees, in transit through Lisbon on their way to the Americas, were allowed to use the country as an escape route.
The number of refugees who escaped through Portugal during the war has been estimated to range from a few hundred thousand to one million; impressive numbers considering the size of the country’s population of about 6 million at that time.[85] After the war, Portugal kept on welcoming and supporting refugees. Perhaps the most touching story is the one of 5,500 Austrian children, most of them orphans, that from 1947 to 1952, in an operation organised by Caritas Portugal, were transported by train from Vienna to Lisbon and then sent to the foster care of Portuguese families all over the country.[86]
Colonial policies
During the last years of the monarchy and of the First Republic in Portugal, an attempt was made to obtain actual control over the claimed African possessions. One reason the government may have taken Portugal into World War I was the defence of the African empire, considered a part of the national identity.
Salazar briefly served as minister of colonies before assuming the premiership, and in that capacity he prepared the Colonial Act of 1930,[87] centralising the administration of the overseas territories in his own system and proclaiming the need to bring indigenous peoples into western civilization and the Portuguese nation. Assimilation was the main objective, except for the colonies of Cape Verde (seen as an extension of Portugal), India and Macau (seen as having their own forms of ‘civilisation’). As it had been before Salazar's tenure in the office, a clear legal distinction continued to be made between indigenous and the remaining other citizens – the latter being mostly Europeans, some Creole elites and a few black Africans. A special statute was given to native communities, accommodating their tribal traditions, while in theory establishing a framework that would allow natives to be gradually assimilated and brought into the fullness of Portuguese culture and citizenship. In 1961, with less than one per cent of the African population having been assimilated, the system was abolished and citizenship was granted to all Africans.[88]
Despite the fact that many authors credit Salazar for fostering the growth of a new, responsible, incorruptible and wholly committed generation of colonial servants, in 1947, Captain Henrique Galvão, a Portuguese parliamentarian, submitted a report disclosing the situation of forced labor and precarious health services in Portuguese colonies in Africa. The natives, it said, were simply regarded as beasts of burden. Galvão’s courageous report eventually led to his downfall and in 1952 he was arrested for subversive activities.[89] Although the Estatuto do Indigenato ('Indigenous Statute') set standards for indigenes to obtain Portuguese citizenship until it was abolished in 1961, the conditions of the native populations of the colonies were still harsh and they suffered inferior legal status under its policies.[90][91] Under the Colonial Act African Natives could be forced to work. By requiring all African men to pay a tax in Portuguese currency the government created a situation in which a large percentage of men in any given year could only earn the specie needed to pay the tax by going to work for a colonial employer. In practice this enabled settlers to use forced labor on a massive scale, frequently leading to horrific abuse.
Supporting a civilising mission colonial policy, Salazar adopted Gilberto Freyre's notion of Lusotropicalism, maintaining that since Portugal had been a multicultural, multiracial and pluricontinental nation since the 15th century, if the country were to be dismembered by losing its overseas territories, that would spell the end of Portuguese independence.[92] In geopolitical terms, no critical mass would then be available to guarantee self-sufficiency to the Portuguese State. Salazar had strongly resisted Freyre's ideas throughout the 1930s, partly because Freyre claimed the Portuguese were more prone than other European nations to miscegenation, and only adopted Lusotropicalism after sponsoring Freyre on a visit to Portugal and its colonies in 1951-2. Freyre's work 'Aventura e Rotina' was a result of this trip.
By 1945, Portugal had an extensive colonial Empire, encompassing the Cape Verde Islands, São Tomé e Príncipe, Angola (including Cabinda), Portuguese Guinea, and Mozambique in Africa; Goa, Damão (including Dadra and Nagar Haveli), and Diu in India (the Portuguese India); Macau in China; and Portuguese Timor in Southeast Asia.
Salazar, while refusing personally to be intimidated by the United States, wanted Portugal to be relevant internationally, and the country's overseas colonies made that possible. The colonies were in disarray after the war, but Salazar, a fierce integralist, was determined to retain control. The overseas provinces were a continual source of trouble, as well as of wealth for Portugal, especially during the Portuguese Colonial War. Portugal became increasingly isolated on the world stage as other European nations with African colonies gradually granted them independence. Salazar's reluctance to travel abroad, his increasing determination not to grant independence to the colonies and to stand against the 'winds of change' announced by the British in their move to give up their major colonies, and his refusal to grasp the impossibility of his regime outliving him, marked the final years of his tenure. 'Proudly alone' was the motto of his final decade. For the Portuguese ruling regime, the overseas empire was a matter of national identity.[93]
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In this particular case, with the exception of the Portuguese Communist Party, backed as it was by the Soviet Union, most of Salazar’s political opponents also favoured colonialist policies. Such was the case with João Lopes Soares (father of Mário Soares), who had been minister of colonies, and General Norton de Matos, the leader of the opposition supported by Mário Soares. Norton de Matos, who had been governor-general of Angola during the First Republic, published a book in 1953 titled África Nossa (Our Africa) wherein he defended colonialist policies far more aggressive than those of Salazar and supported the idea of massive territorial occupation by Portuguese white settlers.[94]
In the 1960s, armed revolutionary movements and scattered guerrilla activity had reached Mozambique, Angola, and Portuguese Guinea. Except in Portuguese Guinea, the Portuguese army and naval forces were able to effectively suppress most of these insurgencies through a well-planned counter-insurgency campaign using light infantry, militia, and special operations forces. Most of the world ostracised the Portuguese government because of its colonial policy, especially the newly independent African nations. Later, despite tentative overtures towards an opening of the regime, Marcelo Caetano balked at ending the colonial war, notwithstanding the condemnation of most of the international community.
The Carnation Revolution brought retreat from the colonies and acceptance of their independence, the subsequent power vacuum leading to the inception of newly independent communist states in 1975, notably the People's Republic of Angola and the People's Republic of Mozambique), which promptly began to expel all their white Portuguese citizens, [95][96] As a result, over a million Portuguese became destitute refugees — the retornados.
Goa dispute
Goa was the first (1961) colony to be lost. A brief conflict drew a mixture of worldwide praise and condemnation. In India, the action was seen as a liberation of territory historically Indian by its geographical position, while Portugal viewed it as an aggression against its national soil and its own citizens.
After India gained independence on 15 August 1947, the British and the French vacated their colonial possessions in India. Subsequently, Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru initiated proceedings to find a diplomatic solution to the Goa problem. The Portuguese had been in Goa for 451 years, since 1510, while independent India had only just been established. Nehru argued that the Goans were Indians by every standard and that Goa was a colony ruthlessly administered by a racist, fascist and colonial regime, 'just a pimple on the face of India', in his famous phrase. Salazar maintained that despite Goa's location and Portugal's political system, it was a province of Portugal as integral to his nation as the Algarve. Salazar further asserted that: Goans nowhere considered or called themselves Indians but rather deemed themselves to be Portuguese of Goa; Goans were represented in the Portuguese legislature and some even served in the Portuguese cabinet; and finally, Goans had become ministers, provincial governors and ambassadors, and had risen to the highest levels of administration in Portuguese universities; thus they were de facto citizens of Portugal. The Goans had Portuguese citizenship with full rights, having access to all governmental posts, carrying out all functions and earning their living throughout the Portuguese territory. Salazar also insisted that to confer on the Indian Union the political representation of the geographic expression, 'India', was to undermine the very basis of the independent existence of Pakistan, if not of Ceylon and Burma, for all of these states could then be held to be illegitimate encroachments on the territory of the Union.[97] Throughout the debate between Salazar and Nehru, Goans seem to have been apathetic regarding either position,[98] and there were no signs in Goa of discontentment with the Portuguese regime.[99] Reports from 'Times' correspondents suggested that not only were the residents of Goa unexcited by the prospect of Indian sovereignty, but that even the diaspora was less energised than the Indian government was prone to suggest.[99]
With an Indian military operation imminent, Salazar ordered Governor General Manuel Vassalo e Silva to fight to the last man, and adopt a scorched earth policy.[100] Eventually, India launched Operation Vijay in December 1961 to evict Portugal from Goa, Daman and Diu. 31 Portuguese soldiers were killed in action and a Portuguese Navy frigate NRP Alfonso de Albuquerque was destroyed, before General Vassalo e Silva surrendered. Salazar forced the General into exile for disobeying his order to fight to the last man and for surrendering to the Indian Army.
Statements deploring India's resort to force in Goa, Daman, and Diu were made by governmental leaders and official spokesmen in many countries, including the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Pakistan, France, the Netherlands, Spain, and Western Germany. On the other hand, full support for the Indian action was expressed by the Soviet Union and all Soviet-bloc countries, Yugoslavia, the Arab States, Ghana, Ceylon, and Indonesia. Adlai Stevenson, the American Ambassador to the United Nations, stated 'we are confronted by the shocking news that the Indian Minister of Defence Mr. Krishna Menon, so well known in these halls for his advice on peace and his tireless enjoinders to everyone else to seek the way of compromise, was on the borders of Goa inspecting his troops at the zero hour of invasion.' Stevenson further accused India of violation of one of the most basic principles of the U.N. Charter, stated in Article 2. On the other hand Valerian Zorin, the Soviet Ambassador to the United Nations, maintained that the Goan question was wholly within India's domestic jurisdiction and could not be considered by the security Council.[101]
The integration of Goa with India could only reduce the local standards of living in the former colony. During the years that followed, multitudinous complaints poured out of Goa. There were wholesale confiscations of land, journalists were under pressure and the cost of living doubled within three years.[102] In January 1967, when the only opinion poll in the country was conducted in Goa by the Indian government, Goans overwhelmingly decided against the merger of Goa into Maharashtra, and it eventually became the 25th independent state of India on 30 May 1987. In 2014, Goa was ranked as the richest state in India with an income per capita of almost three times that of the average for the country as a whole.
Rhodesia aid
Salazar was a close friend of Rhodesian Prime Minister Ian Smith. After Rhodesia proclaimed its Unilateral Declaration of Independence from Britain, though not officially recognising the new Rhodesian state, Portugal supported it economically and militarily through neighbouring Portuguese Mozambique until 1975. That year the Mozambican Liberation Front took over following negotiations with the new Portuguese regime installed by the Carnation Revolution. Ian Smith later wrote in his The Great Betrayal, that had Salazar lasted longer than he did, the Rhodesian government would have survived to the present day, ruled by a moderate black majority government under the name of 'Zimbabwe-Rhodesia'.[93]
International relations
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Salazar wanted Portugal to be relevant internationally. Under his government's policy, the country came to be welcomed and recognised in the international community.
In the context of World War II, the British diplomat Sir George Rendell stated that the Portuguese Republican Government of Bernardino Machado was 'far more difficult to deal with as an Ally during the First War than the infinitely better Government of Salazar was as a neutral in the Second',[14] hinting at Salazar's approach to international relations or general governing. Despite the authoritarian character of the regime, Portugal did not experience the same levels of international isolation as Spain following World War II. Under Salazar, Portugal, unlike Spain, was accepted into the Marshall Plan (1947-1948), for the aid it gave to the Allies during the final stages of the war. Further unlike Spain, it was one of the 12 founding members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) in 1949, reflecting Portugal's role as an ally against communism during the Cold War, despite being the only non democratic founder. Moreover, in 1950, Portugal joined the European Payments Union and participated in the founding of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) in 1960 and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development in 1961. Portugal's membership and participation in the EFTA is regarded as highly satisfactory at virtually all levels. It joined the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade in 1962, and finally, not long after Salazar's death in 1970, Portugal signed a free trade agreement with the European Economic Community in 1972, still under the auspices of the Estado Novo.[103]
Education and literacy rates
Salazar has traditionally been widely accused of negatively influencing the level of education and instruction in Portugal for ideological and political reasons. Although the militants of the First Republic elected education as one of their finest banners, the evidence shows that the more democratic First Republic was substantially less successful than the authoritarian Estado Novo in expanding elementary education. Under the First Republic, literacy levels in children aged 7 to 14 registered a modest increase from 26 per cent in 1911 to 33 per cent in 1930. Under the Estado Novo, they increased to 56 per cent in 1940, 77 per cent in 1950 and 97 per cent in 1960.[104] In July 1940, LIFE magazine featured an article on Portugal, praising how the country had progressed since Salazar's tenure, among various aspects, claiming 'schools are better since Salazar took over'.[11][a]
In 1949, Egas Moniz, a Portuguese physician who developed the cerebral angiography and leucotomy, received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Even now, the only Portuguese recipient of a Nobel in sciences.
In the 1960s, Portugal made public education available for all children between the ages of six and twelve, founded universities in the overseas provinces of Angola and Mozambique (the University of Luanda and the University of Lourenço Marques during the period of Adriano Moreira as Minister of the Overseas Provinces), recognised the Portuguese Catholic University in 1971, and by 1973 a wave of new state-run universities were founded across mainland Portugal (the Minho University, the New University of Lisbon, the University of Évora, and the University of Aveiro). In addition, the long established Lisbon and Coimbra universities were highly expanded and modernised. New buildings and campuses were constructed, like the Cidade Universitária (Lisbon) and the Alta Universitária (Coimbra).
The last two decades of the Estado Novo, from the 1960s to the 1974 Carnation Revolution, during Salazar's final years and Marcelo Caetano's administration that followed in late 1968, were marked by strong investment in secondary and university education, which experienced one of the fastest growth rates of Portuguese education in history.
Economic policies
After the politically unstable and financially chaotic years of the Portuguese First Republic, financial stability was Salazar's highest priority.[105] His first incursions into Portuguese politics, as a member of the cabinet, were during the Ditadura Nacional, when Portugal's public finances and the economy in general were in a critical state, with an imminent threat of default since at least the 1890s.[11][12] After Salazar became Prime Minister, he instituted numerous taxes to balance the Portuguese budget and pay external debts. Salazar's first years were marked by the Great Depression and the World War. The first era of his rule was thus an economic program based on the policies of autarky and interventionism, which were popular in the 1930s as a response to the Great Depression.[106] Under Salazar, the Portuguese budget went from insolvency to showing a substantial surplus every year from 1928. Portugal’s credit worthiness rose in foreign markets and the external floating debt was completely paid. Despite Salazar's best efforts, and despite a three per cent average growth between 1928 and 1938,[107] Portugal remained largely underdeveloped, its population relatively poor and with low education attainment when compared to the rest of Europe.
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Portuguese right leaning or conservative scholars like Jaime Nogueira Pinto[108] and Rui Ramos,[109] claim his early reforms and policies allowed political and financial stability and therefore social order and economic growth. In March 1935, Times Magazine asserted that 'it is impossible to deny that the economic improvement recorded in Portugal since 1928 is not only without parallel anywhere else in the world, but is an achievement for which history can show but few precedents'.[12] In July 1940, LIFE magazine featured an article on Salazar's tenure manifesting praise and referring how he had 'balanced the budget', among other aspects.[11][a]
Historians like leftist politician Fernando Rosas, claim that Salazar's policies from the 1930s to the 1950s led to economic and social stagnation and rampant emigration, turning Portugal into one of the poorest countries in Europe, one that was also thwarted by scoring lower on literacy than its peers of the Northern Hemisphere. From the 1950s, the picture changed, recognising 'that industrial growth throughout the 1950s and 1960s was generally quite positive and, given Portugal's basic problems, could probably have only been improved slightly by a more creatively liberal regime'.[110] Throughout the 1950s, Salazar maintained the same import substitution approach to economic policy that had ensured Portugal's neutral status during World War II. From 1950 until Salazar's death, Portugal saw its GDP per capita increase at an annual average rate of 5.66 per cent. The rise of the new technocrats in the early 1960s, with a background in economics and technical-industrial know-how, led to a new period of economic fostering, with Portugal as an attractive country for international investment. Industrial development and economic growth would continue throughout the 1960s. During Salazar's tenure, Portugal participated in the founding of the European Free Trade Association in 1960 and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development in 1961. This marked the initiation of Salazar's more outward-looking economic policy. Portugal's membership and participation in the EFTA is regarded as highly satisfactory at virtually all levels. Portuguese foreign trade increased by 52 per cent in exports and 40 per cent in imports. The economic growth and levels of capital formation from 1960 to 1973 were characterised by an unparalleled robust annual growth rates of GDP (6.9 per cent), industrial production (9 per cent), private consumption (6.5 per cent) and gross fixed capital formation (7.8 per cent).[111]
Despite the effects of an expensive war effort in African territories against guerrilla groups, Portuguese economic growth from 1960 to 1973 under the Estado Novo created an opportunity for real integration with the developed economies of Western Europe. In 1960, Portugal's per capita GDP was only 38 per cent of the European Community (EC-12) average; by the end of Salazar's period, in 1968, it had risen to 48 per cent; and in 1973, under the leadership of Marcelo Caetano, Portugal's per capita GDP had reached 56.4 per cent of the EC-12 average.[112] Through emigration, trade, tourism and foreign investment, individuals and firms changed their patterns of production and consumption, bringing about a structural transformation. Simultaneously, the increasing complexity of a growing economy raised new technical and organisational challenges, stimulating the formation of modern professional and management teams.[113][114]
The 40 years of financial stability and growth under the Estado Novo were followed by economic turmoil and decrease, severe crisis and deteriorating finances, reminiscent of the First Republic that it had so much attempted to avoid. These are attributed to the aftermath of the Carnation Revolution that ended the regime in 1974 and the nationalization spree in 1975. From 1974 through 2014, Portugal experienced 25 governments in 40 years of democracy. Despite these 40 years of balanced public budgeting, the Portuguese economy returned to a poor state, having problems with external debt, finances and budget. Portugal has since had three economic programs, seeking international financial aid by the IMF. In 1977-78, Portugal requested assistance to mitigate deficits and sharp increases in unemployment. In 1983, Portugal requested again IMF support to cope with a recession, high interest rates abroad, trade imbalances, and high deficits. In 2009 Portugal's budget deficit hit a record 9.3 per cent of GDP. In 2011, the Portuguese economy collapsed sparking a sharp rise in borrowing costs, forcing Lisbon to seek a bailout. Portugal then agreed a three-year, 78-billion-euro ($116 billion) bailout with the European Union and IMF. In 2013, Portugal recorded all-time high debt levels, 129 per cent of the country's GDP.
Religious policies
After a century and a half of Masonic domination, and sixteen years of atheistic and antichristian revolution, for forty years Portugal would be governed by a man that had been educated at a catholic seminar, had received minor orders, and had considered becoming a priest.[5]
Before accepting becoming minister of finance Salazar had been connected with several catholic movements and had developed a very close friendship with Manuel Gonçalves Cerejeira who in 1929 would become Cardinal-patriarchate of Lisbon. During their university years at Coimbra they shared a house, an old convent (“Os Grilos”).[115]
In July 1929, with Salazar acting as minister of finance, the government, dominated by freemasons, revoked a law that that facilitated the organisation of religious processions, Salazar presented his written resignation to the Prime Minister saying: “Your Excellency knows that I never asked for anything that might improve the legal status of Catholics” carefully avoiding adding more problems to an already troubled nation but he could not accept the “violation of rights already conceded by law or by former government to Catholics or the Church in Portugal.” [22]
Despite his identification with the Catholic lobby before coming to power and the fact that he based his political philosophy around a close interpretation of the Catholic social doctrine, he did nothing directly for religion in the initial phase of his rule. He wanted to avoid the divisionism of the First Republic and he knew that a significant part of the political elite was still anticlerical. Church and State remained apart. [116] No attempt was made to establish a theocratic policy. The Church’s lost property was never restored.[116]
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In 1932 Salazar declared the Catholic political party (Centro Católico) to be unnecessary, as would be all political parties, now abolished in Portugal and “invited” its members to join the União Nacional. The role of the Church should be social and not political, he argued. As a reaction Cardinal-Patriarch Cerejeira founded Acção Católica in 1933 and continued to agitate for political power until 1934, when Pope Pius XI told Cerejeira that he should focus on social, not political, issues. In the 1933 Constitution, Article 45 provided for freedom of public and private worship for all religions, together with the right to establish Church organizations and associations in accordance with the norms of the law and order.[116]
Salazar based his political theory on the doctrines of the Popes and throughout the 1930s achieved great prestige in the Catholic world. In 1936 the episcopate expressed its full support for the regime in a Carta Pastoral, reaffirmed the following year by the head of the Portuguese Catholic Church. According to LIFE magazine in an article of 1940, he was 'hailed by Rome as the perfect Catholic statesman'.[11][a] Pope Pius XII. Pius said, "I bless him with all my heart, and I cherish the most ardent desire that he be able to complete successfully his work of national restoration, both spiritual and material".[117] And in 1938Fordham University, a university founded by the Catholic Diocese of New York, granted Salazar the Honorary Doctorate of Law. Salazar wanted the reinstate the Church to her proper place but also wanted the Church to know her place and keep it. He made it clear when he declared “The State will abstain from dealing in politics with the Church and feels sure that the Church will refrain from any political action.”[118][119]
In May 1940 a Concordat between the Portuguese state and the Vatican was signed.[120] There were difficulties in the negotiations which preceded the signing of the Concordat, demonstrating both how eager the Church remained to re-establish its influence, and how equally determined Salazar was to prevent any religious intervention within the political sphere, the exclusive preserve of the State. The legislation of the parliamentary republic was not fundamentally altered: religious teaching in schools remained voluntary ; civil marriages and civil divorce were retained and religious oaths were not reestablished. The Bishops were to be appointed by the Holy See but final nomination required the government’s approval. The clergy were subject to military service but in the form of pastoral care to the armed forces and, in time of war, also to the medical units. [118] The Church could establish and maintain private schools, but they would be subject to state supervision. The Catholic religion and morality were to be taught in public schools unless parents had requested the contrary. [118] However, Catholics who celebrated canonical marriages were not allowed to obtain a civil divorce. The law said that "It is understood that by the very fact of the celebration of a canonical marriage, the spouses renounce the legal right to ask for a divorce." Despite this prohibition, by 1960 nearly 91 percent of all marriages in the country were canonical marriages.[121]
Pinto and Rezola argue that a key strategy Salazar used to stabilise his regime, was to come to terms with the Catholic Church through the concordat. Anti-clericalism would be discouraged and the Church would have an honored and central position in Portuguese life. The Church agreed to stay out of politics, but it did operate numerous social groups for adults and youth. The Church role became a major pillar of the New State’s "limited pluralism."[122][123]
Despite this landmark agreement, Church-state relations and inter-Church relations in Portugal grew tense through the 1940s. Some prominent oppositionist priests, like Abel Varzim and Joaquim Alves Correia, openly supported the MUD in 1945 and the granting of more social rights to the workers. Abel Varzim, who had been a supporter of the regime, attacked Salazar and his claims of the Catholicism of the corporatist state, arguing that the regime was not true to Catholic social teaching as the people suffered in poverty. Varzim's newspaper, "The Worker" ("O Trabalhador"), was closed in 1948.[124] In his personal diary he wrote: "o estado-salazar é quem manda na igreja" ("In Portugal the Salazar-State rules the church"). Joaquim Alves Correia was forced into exile in the United States, where he died in 1951. The opposition candidate in the 1958 presidential election, Humberto Delgado, a Roman Catholic and a dissident of the regime, quoted Pope Pius XII to show how the social policies of the regime were against the social teachings of the Church. That same year, in July 1958, Salazar suffered a severe blow from the bishop of Porto, Dom António Ferreira Gomes, who wrote a critical letter to the Council President criticizing the restrictions on human rights and denouncing the harshness of Portugal's poverty. It was time, he said, for the Church to come out of the catacombs and speak her mind.[119] Salazar was furious. The Bishop was not formerly exiled, but he decided to leave the country and it appears that Lisbon made it clear to Rome that the Bishop's presence in Portugal would not be appropriate.[119]
After the Second Vatican Council, a large number of Catholics became active in the democratic opposition.[125]The outbreak of the colonial wars in Angola, Guinea and Mozambique – in March 1961, January 1963 and September 1964 respectively – exacerbated the divisions within the Catholic sector along progressive and traditionalist lines. The Pope's decision to travel to Bombay in December 1964 to take part in the Eucharistic Congress represented for the Portuguese head of government – who saw in India little more than the illegal occupier of Goa since December 1961 – no less than a direct affront to the nation as a whole. On 21 October 1964, the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Franco Nogueira, officially defined the visit as an agravo gratuito.
Directly linked with the Pope’s visit to India, a second event of significant importance preceded the Pope’s visit to Portugal: the attribution of the Rosa de Ouro to the Fátima sanctuary on 13 May 1965. Paul VI officially announced his intention to take part in the Fiftieth Anniversary celebrations of the first reported Fátima apparition – also the twenty-fifth of the consecration of the world to the Immaculate Heart of Mary by Pius XII – during his General Audience of 3 May 1967. From the very start, he made every effort to remove any political significance from his visit. It was effectively limited to a single day in Fatima, not Lisbon, and the Pope made use of Monte Real airbase instead of Lisbon airport, which would have given a far more official nature to the pilgrimage. Salazar and te regime tried to gain political dividends from the Pope's visit and although Salazar persistently claimed to maintain a strict regime of separation between Church and State, he did not hesitate to order the passing of a Decree-Law on 9 May declaring the 13 May 1967 a national bank holiday.[g] Moreover, the regime sought to further associate itself with the Pope’s visit by issuing an amnesty decree on 13 May 1967.[h]
Religions other than the Catholic faith had little or no expression in Portugal. Throughout the period of Salazar's Estado Novo there was no question of discrimination against the Jewish and Protestant minorities, and the ecumenical movement flourished.[125]
Writings
The Portuguese literary historian, António José Saraiva, a communist and a fierce lifelong political opponent of Salazar, claimed that one who reads Salazar’s 'Speeches and Notes' is overwhelmed by the clarity and conciseness of style, the most perfect and captivating doctrinal prose that exists in Portuguese, underscored by a powerful emotional rhythm. According to this scholar, Salazar's prose deserves a prominent place in the history of Portuguese literature, and only political barriers have deprived it of the place. Saraiva says it is written with the clarity of the great prose of the 17th century, cleansed of all the distractions and sloppiness that often obscures the prose of the Portuguese scholars.[126][127][128]
Salazar had books published, namely Como se Levanta um Estado ('How to Raise a State'), in which he criticised the philosophical ideals behind the Nuremberg laws,[129] and Como se Reergue um Estado ('How to Re-erect a State').
Character and work
Individually in terms of character and work devoted to his country, Salazar was well-regarded, having received general praise and approval in these individual aspects.
Perception
![]() |
Local press described a young Salazar as 'one of the most powerful minds of the new generation'.[7]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Foto_3_Visita_Salazar_obras_Ponte_Coimbra015.jpg/220px-Foto_3_Visita_Salazar_obras_Ponte_Coimbra015.jpg)
Francisco Franco spoke in glowing terms of Salazar, in an interview in the Le Figaro newspaper: 'The most complete statesman, the one most worthy of respect, that I have known is Salazar. I regard him as an extraordinary personality for his intelligence, his political sense and his humility. His only defect is probably his modesty.'[47] This was, however, in response to Salazar helping his cause, which, in turn, was meant to prevent Portugal from communism and the chaos of the First Republic.
In July 1940, LIFE magazine expressed high regard for Salazar and his Portugal. LIFE called Salazar 'a benevolent ruler', 'by far the world's best dictator, he [Salazar] is also the greatest Portuguese since Prince Henry the Navigator', adding that 'the dictator has built the nation'. LIFE explained that 'most of what is good in modern Portugal can be credited to Dr. Antonio de Oliveira Salazar (...) The dictator is everything that most Portuguese are not–calm, silent, ascetic, Puritanical, a glutton for work, cool to women. He found a country in chaos and poverty. He has balanced the budget, built roads and schools, torn down slums, cut the death rate and enormously raised Portuguese self-esteem.'[11][a]
Sir Samuel Hoare, 1st Viscount Templewood, the British Ambassador in Madrid from 1940 to 1944, recognised Salazar's crucial role in keeping Iberia neutral during World War II, and lauded him. Hoare asserted that, in his 30 years of political life, he had met most of the leading statesmen of Europe, and regarded Salazar very high among those. Salazar was to him a learned and impressive thinker, part professor, part priest, part recluse of unshakable beliefs. He regarded him as ascetic, concentrated on serving his country, with an encyclopedic knowledge of Europe and indifferent to ostentation, luxury or personal gains. Hoare strongly believed in Salazar as 'being a man of one idea – the good of his country', not wanting to endanger the work of national regeneration to which he had devoted the whole of his public life.[68]
Historian Carlton Hayes, a pioneering specialist on the study of nationalism, was the American Ambassador in Spain during World War II. He met Salazar in person and shared a similar opinion in his book Wartime Mission in Spain. Hayes wrote that Salazar 'didn't look like a regular dictator. Rather, he appeared a modest, quiet, and highly intelligent gentleman and scholar (…) literally dragged from a professorial chair of political economy in the venerable University of Coimbra a dozen years previously in order to straighten out Portugal's finances, and that his almost miraculous success in this respect had led to the thrusting upon him of other major functions, including those of Foreign Minister and constitution-maker.'[69][70]
The Portuguese literary historian, António José Saraiva, a communist and a fierce lifelong political opponent of Salazar, claimed that 'Salazar was, undoubtedly, one of the most remarkable men in the history of Portugal and possessed a quality that remarkable men not always have: the right intention.'[130]
Historian Neill Lochery claims Salazar was one of the most gifted men of his generation and hugely dedicated to his job and country.[131]
In 2006 and 2007 two public opinion television shows were subject to controversy. Salazar was elected the 'Greatest Portuguese Ever' with 41 per cent of votes on the show Os Grandes Portugueses ('The Greatest Portuguese') from the RTP1 channel.[132][133] He was presented by the scholar Jaime Nogueira Pinto, who confessed being confronted with some 'reactions of perplexity, surprise, aggressiveness and even hostility' after having accepted the task.[108] Salazar was also declared 'Worst Portuguese Ever' on a public poll organized by the satirical debate program Eixo do Mal ('Axis of Evil') from the channel SIC Notícias. However, in the official poll results for both of the two rounds that this later program hosted, Mário Soares, a major opponent of Salazar and his regime, was the one the public had voted has 'Worst Portuguese Ever'.[134][135][136] This led to viewers manifesting concerns for the reliability and seriousness of this show, but with the controversy also spanning concerns to the poll of the 'Greatest Portuguese' show, to which Mário Soares called of 'a total nonsense from start to end'.[137] Years previously, a survey from the channel SIC had also revealed Salazar as the 'The Greatest Portuguese Figure of the 20th Century'.
Awards and honours
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Lisboa_e_ponte_25_de_Abril_a_partir_do_miradouro_de_Santo_Amaro_%2822_Junho_2011%29.jpg/255px-Lisboa_e_ponte_25_de_Abril_a_partir_do_miradouro_de_Santo_Amaro_%2822_Junho_2011%29.jpg)
Salazar was conferred with the following academic distinctions.
- Oxford University, 1939, Honorary Degree of Doctor of Civil Law.
- Fordham University, 1938, Honorary Doctorate of Law.[138]
Salazar was made member of the following Portuguese Orders.[139]
- Grand Cross of the Order of St. James of the Sword (15 April 1929)
- Grand Cross of the Order of the Colonial Empire (21 April 1932)
- Grand Cross of the Order of the Tower and Sword (28 May 1932, first civilian to receive such honor)[140]
- Grand Collar of the Order of Infante D. Henrique (4 October 1968)
He also received several other similar distinctions from countries including France, Germany, Belgium, Poland, Romania and Spain.[141][142]
The 'Bridge across the Tagus' connecting Lisbon to Almada was named Bridge Salazar upon completion. Built by the Estado Novo 6 months ahead of schedule and under budget, it was the 5th longest suspension bridge in the world and the longest outside of USA. It was then renamed '25th of April Bridge'. Stadium Salazar, a noteworthy multi-purpose stadium built in Mozambique during the Estado Novo, was named after Salazar. With 1975's new government it began to degrade. It was renamed Stadium of Machava.[143] Many places across the country (streets, avenues, squares) were named after Salazar. They were renamed since 1974, specially in district capitals. Around 20 localities still reference Salazar today.[144] There are also some azulejos with quotes of Salazar.
In popular culture, Salazar's Cake (Bolo de Salazar) is the name given to a cake that Salazar used to eat sometimes. It is cheap and simple, perhaps with similarities to sponge cake.
A wine brand called Terras de Salazar ('Lands of Salazar') was approved in 2011 by the national institute. It never reached the market due to the owner's economic troubles.[145] In 2012, the City Council of Salazar's hometown Santa Comba Dão announced a brand called 'Memories of Salazar' for a range of regional products, notably wine. It was rejected by the same institute for offensiveness and the possibility of public disorder. The Mayor claimed the refusal was ridiculous and will not give up or drop the name 'Salazar' from future brand name proposals. He is considering submitting 'Vineyards of Salazar', as 'memories' of the regime could be one reason to add to the refusal.[146]
The brand Salazar - O Obreiro da Pátria ('Salazar - Fatherland's Workman') is registered and runs the website www.oliveirasalazar.org, an archive of various documents related to Salazar.
Death
In 1968, Salazar suffered a brain hemorrhage. Most sources maintain that it occurred when he fell from a chair in his summer house. In February 2009 though, there were anonymous witnesses who confessed, after some research about Salazar's best-kept secrets, that he had fallen in a bath instead of from a chair.[147] As he was expected to die shortly after his fall, President Thomaz replaced him with Marcello Caetano. Despite the injury, Salazar lived for a further two years. When he unexpectedly recovered lucidity, his intimates did not tell him he had been removed from power, instead allowing him to 'rule' in privacy until his death in July 1970.[148] Tens of thousands paid their last respects at the funeral and the Requiem Mass that took place at the Jerónimos Monastery and at the passage of the special train that carried the coffin to his hometown of Vimieiro near Santa Comba Dão, where he was buried according to his wishes in his native soil, in a plain ordinary grave. As a symbolic display of his views of Portugal and the colonial empire, there is well-known footage of several members of the Mocidade Portuguesa, of both African and European ethnicity, paying homage at his funeral.
Notes, references and sources
Notes
- ^ a b c d e f g Life's full article, Portugal: The War Has Made It Europe's Front Door, can be accessed online for a further understanding.
- ^ Especially the weekly O Imparcial, directed by his friend and later Cardinal Patriarch of Lisbon, Manuel Gonçalves Cerejeira.[19]
- ^ Hoare asserted that, in his 30 years of political life, he had met most of the leading statesmen of Europe, and regarded Salazar very highly among those. Salazar was to him a learned and impressive thinker, part professor, part priest, part recluse of unshakable beliefs in the principles of European civilization. He regarded him as ascetic, concentrated on serving his country, with an encyclopedic knowledge of Europe and indifferent to ostentation, luxury or personal gains. Hoare strongly believed in Salazar as 'being a man of one idea – the good of his country' not wanting to endanger the work of national regeneration to which he had devoted the whole of his public life.'[68]
- ^ Hayes wrote of Salazar, claiming he 'didn't look like a regular dictator. Rather, he appeared a modest, quiet, and highly intelligent gentleman and scholar (…) literally dragged from a professorial chair of political economy in the venerable University of Coimbra a dozen years previously in order to straighten out Portugal's finances, and that his almost miraculous success in this respect had led to the thrusting upon him of other major functions, including those of Foreign Minister and constitution-maker.'[69][70]
- ^ Portuguese Committee for the Assistance of Jewish Refugees in Portugal (COMASSIS), which was led by Augusto d´Esaguy and Elias Baruel, having Moses Amzalak and Adolfo Benarus as its honorary chairmen.
- ^ In the film Casablanca, Ingrid Bergman and her husband headed to Lisbon in one of the most memorable movie scenes. Star-crossed Humphrey Bogart and Ingrid Bergman part as he sends her off into the foggy night to join her husband on a flight from Casablanca. Bogart (Rick) sacrifices the life they might have had together to ensure her safety.
- ^ When in 1982 Pope John Paul II visited Portugal a bank holiday was also declared - Decreto Lei 142/82, de 26 de Abril
- ^ After the end of the Estado Novo, similar amnesties were granted during other Papal visits to Portugal in 1976, 1982 and 1991.
References
- ^ Derrick 1938.
- ^ Egerton 1943.
- ^ a b Kay 1970, pp. 10–11.
- ^ Meneses 2009, p. 12.
- ^ a b c Kay 1970, p. 11.
- ^ Kay 1970, p. 12.
- ^ a b c d Kay 1970, p. 24.
- ^ Template:Pt icon António de Oliveira Salazar, HistóriaDePortugalinfo
- ^ Hugh Kay, Salazar and Modern Portugal, Eyre & Spottiswoode (London), 1970, p. 26
- ^ Wiarda 1977, p. 46.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i "Portugal: The War Has Made It Europe's Front Door". LIFE. 29 July 1940. Retrieved 30 April 2015.
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(help) - ^ a b c Derrick 1938, p. 39.
- ^ Derrick 1938, pp. 38–44.
- ^ a b c Rendel 1957, p. 37.
- ^ Wiarda 1977, p. 47,92.
- ^ Duthel, Heinz Duthel (2014). Global Secret and Intelligence Services III: Hidden Systems that deliver Unforgettable Customer Service. BoD – Books on Demand. p. 33. ISBN 9783738607840.
{{cite book}}
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(help) - ^ Wiarda 1977, p. 82.
- ^ Meneses 2009, p. 14.
- ^ a b Kay 1970, p. 23.
- ^ Kay 1970, p. 32.
- ^ Kay 1970, p. 38.
- ^ a b Menezes 2009, p. 64.
- ^ Wiarda 1977, p. 80.
- ^ Wiarda 1977, p. 79.
- ^ Wiarda 1977, p. 94.
- ^ a b Wiarda 1977, p. 98.
- ^ Kay 1970, p. 53.
- ^ a b c Kay 1970, p. 55.
- ^ Wiarda 1977, p. 88.
- ^ a b c Wiarda 1977, p. 100.
- ^ Wiarda 1977, p. 101.
- ^ Meneses 2009, p. 162.
- ^ a b Kay 1970, p. 63.
- ^ Wiarda 1977, p. 97.
- ^ Wiarda 1977, p. 109.
- ^ Wiarda 1977, p. 132.
- ^ Wiarda 1977, p. 155.
- ^ David L. Raby, Fascism and Resistance in Portugal: Communists, Liberals and Military Dissidents in the Opposition to Salazar, 1941–1974
- ^ Kay 1970, pp. 50–51.
- ^ Kay 1970, p. 68.
- ^ a b c Kay 1970, p. 49.
- ^ Áurea Adão and José Remédios, "The educational narrativity in the first period of Oliveira Salazar’s government. Women’s voices in the National Assembly (1935–1945)," History of Education (2005) 34#5 pp 547-559.
- ^ Wiarda 1977, p. 156.
- ^ See other comments for the 1930s achievements in Time Magazine 1935, LIFE magazine 1940, and books from: Derrick 'The Portugal Of Salazar', William C. Atkinson 'The Political Structure of the Portuguese New State pp.346 - 354', Jacques Ploncard d'Assac 'Salazar', Freppel Cotta 'Economic Planning in Corporative Portugal'.
- ^ a b c d Wiarda 1997, p. 160.
- ^ Beevor, Antony. The Spanish Civil War. p. 97. ISBN 0-911745-11-4
- ^ a b Lochery 2011, p. 19.
- ^ Hoare 1946, p. 45.
- ^ Kay 1970, p. 117.
- ^ Maria Inácia Rezola, "The Franco--Salazar Meetings: Foreign policy and Iberian relations during the Dictatorships (1942-1963)" E-Journal of Portuguese History (2008) 6#2 pp 1-11. online
- ^ Hoare 1946, p. 58.
- ^ Template:Pt icon Agência Lusa, Único atentado contra o ditador Oliveira Salazar foi há 70 anos, in Destak.pt
- ^ "Emídio Santana". Arquivo Nacional Torre do Tombo. Retrieved 15 October 2013.
- ^ Rosas, Fernando (dir.) (1995). Revista História (History Magazine) - Number 8 (New Series)
- ^ Costa Pinto, António (2000). The Blue Shirts - Portuguese Fascists and the New State. Social Science Monographs, Boulder - Distributed by Columbia University Press, NY. ISBN 978-0880339827.
- ^ Meneses 2009, pp. 584–586.
- ^ 'Salazar fell in a bathtub, not from a chair' (Portuguese language)
- ^ Meneses, Filipe de. Salazar: A Political Biography. pp. 608–609. ISBN 978-1-929631-90-2
- ^ Maxwell, Kenneth (1986) 'Regime Overthrow and the Prospects for Democratic Transition in Portugal' in Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Prospects for Democracy, ed. Guillermo O’Donnell, Philippe C. Schmitter, and Laurence Whitehead (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins), p. 113
- ^ Govan, Fiona (2008). "Gen Franco wanted to declare war on Portugal". The Telegraph. Madrid. Retrieved 28 April 2015.
- ^ Henry Jay Taylor, Milwaukee Sentinel, 2 October 1968, as cited in
- ^ Kay 1970, pp. 121–122.
- ^ The Price of Neutrality: Portugal, the Wolfram Question, and World War II Douglas L. Wheeler Luso-Brazilian Review Vol. 23, No. 1 (Summer, 1986), pp. 107-127 Published by: University of Wisconsin Press Article Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3513391
- ^ Wilson, Robert (3 December 2011). "The Capital of Intrigue in a World at War". The Wall Street Journal. New York. Retrieved 9 December 2011.
- ^ a b Leite 1998, pp. 185–199.
- ^ a b Meneses 2009, p. 240.
- ^ "Oxford In Portugal 1941". British Pathé. 1941. Retrieved 7 June 2014.
- ^ a b Hoare 1946, pp. 124–125.
- ^ a b Hayes 1945, p. 36.
- ^ a b c Hayes 1945, p. 119.
- ^ Leite, 'Document 2: Telegram From Sir Ronald Campbell'
- ^ a b Kay 1970, p. 123. Cite error: The named reference "FOOTNOTEKay1970123" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ Salazar, António de Oliveira – 'Como se Levanta um Estado', ISBN 9789899537705
- ^ Dez anos de Politica Externa, Vol 1, pag 137. Edicao Imprensa Nacional 1961
- ^ Benarus, Adolfo – 'O Antisemitismo' - 1937 ( Lisboa : Sociedade Nacional de Tipografia)
- ^ Milgram 2011, p. 11.
- ^ Mascarenhas, Alice (9 January 2013). "Madeira Gold Medal of Merit for Louis". Gibraltar Chronicle The Independent Daily. Retrieved 17 April 2014.
- ^ [1] Words of Remembrance by one of his sons, Luis Felipe], at sousamendesfoundation.org
- ^ Portuguese Diplomatic Yearbook, 1954
- ^ Afonso p. 257
- ^ Several secondary and primary published sources mention that Mendes was receiving a salary. Secondary: Afonso p.257, Lochery p. 49, Wheeler p.128, and Primary: a) Sousa Mendes Personal File, online archive, Portuguese Ministry of Finance b) A letter that Sousa Mendes wrote to the Portuguese Bar Association, Ordem dos Advogados - Secretaria do Conselho Geral, Lisboa, Cota - Processo nº 10/1931 Date 1946.04.29 in which he says that he is receiving a monthly salary of 1,593 Portuguese Escudos. Fralon also mentions that in 1950 Mendes wrote to his twin saying the following 'Pedro Nuno [his son], Maria Adelaide [his daughter in law] and their children [his grand-children] are in financial straits. My salary has been used up to pay for their outings' p. 133.
- ^ Milgram 2011, p. 89.
- ^ Milgram 2011, p. 264.
- ^ Spared Lives, The Action of Three Portuguese Diplomats in World War II – Documentary e-book edited by the Raoul Wallenberg Foundation
- ^ Neil Lochery estimates a high end number of one million.
- ^ Sobral, Claudia (2013). "Depois da guerra, o paraíso era Portugal". Público (in Portuguese). Portugal. Retrieved 19 April 2014.
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suggested) (help) - ^ Colonial Act, original text, in Portuguese, in Diário do Governo.
- ^ Kay 1970, pp. 212–215.
- ^ Kay 1970, p. 215.
- ^ Armando Marques Guedes; María José Lopes; Stephen Ellis (2007). State and traditional law in Angola and Mozambique. Almedina. p. 60.
- ^ Bernard A. Cook (2001). Europe Since 1945: An Encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis. pp. 1033–1034. ISBN 978-0-8153-4058-4.
- ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20120511081547/http://site.miguelvaledealmeida.net/wp-content/uploads/portugals-colonial-complex.pdf
- ^ a b Heinz Duthel (23 July 2008). Global Secret and Intelligence Service - III. Lulu.com. p. 33. ISBN 978-1-4092-1090-0. Cite error: The named reference "Duthel2008" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ Norton de Matos, José (1953). África Nossa: O que Queremos e o que não Queremos nas Nossas Terras de África (in Portuguese). Oporto: Marânus. ASIN B004PVOVDW.
{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|trans_title=
(help) - ^ "Flight from Angola". The Economist. London. 16 August 1975.
- ^ "Dismantling the Portuguese Empire". Time. New York. 7 July 1975.
- ^ "Goa and the Indian Union". Foreign Affairs. 1 April 1956. Retrieved 2 June 2014.
- ^ Bravo, Philip (1998). "The Case of Goa: History, Rhetoric and Nationalism". Past Imperfect. 7. University of Alberta. Retrieved 2 June 2014.
- ^ a b Kay 1970, p. 305.
- ^ "Ancient Goan History - GOACOM - GOA - INDIA - INFORMATION AND SERVICES IN GOA. Goa News, Goa Konkani News, Goa Sunaparant News, Goan Konakani News, Goa Video News, Goa Yellow Pages". GOACOM. 4 April 1916. Retrieved 4 September 2013.
- ^ "India, Portugal, Indian, Page 18659" (PDF). Keesing's Record of World Events. March 1962. Retrieved 2 June 2014.
- ^ Kay 1970, p. 326.
- ^ Nicolau Andresen, "The Salazar Regime and European Integration, 1947-1972," European Review of History (2007) 14#2 pp 195-214.
- ^ CANDEIAS, António; SIMOES, Eduarda (1999). "Alfabetização e escola em Portugal no século XX: Censos Nacionais e estudos de caso". Aná. Psicológica [online]. (in Portuguese). 17 (1): 163–194. Retrieved 10 May 2014.
- ^ Template:Pt icon Oliveira Salazar, 'Salazar é assim novamente convidado a integrar o Governo, mas, desta feita, impõe as suas condições: por um lado, e como técnico de Finanças, exige o exame de todas as iniciativas que impliquem receitas e despesas', Infopédia (Porto Editora)
- ^ Mattoso, José; Rosas, Fernando (1994). História de Portugal: o Estado Novo (in Portuguese). Vol. VII. Lisbon: Estampa. p. 251. ISBN 9723310864.
{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|trans_title=
(help) - ^ Mattoso, José; Rosas, Fernando (1994). História de Portugal: o Estado Novo (in Portuguese). Vol. VII. Lisbon: Estampa. p. 268. ISBN 9723310864.
{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|trans_title=
(help) - ^ a b Template:Pt icon Grandes Portugueses – Entender Salazar e o Estado Novo on YouTube, Jaime Nogueira Pinto in the The Greatest Portuguese
- ^ História de Portugal. A luta de facções entre os salazaristas 'Até os americanos já o tinham abandonado, temendo "recriar o caos que existia em Portugal antes de Salazar tomar o poder".', from História de Portugal (2009), Rui Ramos, Bernardo de Vasconcelos e Sousa, and Nuno Gonçalo Monteiro, Esfera dos Livros, cited in ionline.pt
- ^ "Historian Stanley Payne on Fernando Rosas works and Anne Pitcher's works". Retrieved 15 November 2014.
- ^ Mattoso, José; Rosas, Fernando (1994). História de Portugal: o Estado Novo (in Portuguese). Vol. VII. Lisbon: Estampa. p. 474. ISBN 9723310864.
{{cite book}}
: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|trans_title=
(help) - ^ Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation, Juan José Linz http://books.google.com/books?id=TqRn1lAypsgC&pg=PA128&dq=Financial+crisis+1974+Portugal#PPA129,M1
- ^ [2], Joaquim da Costa Leite (Aveiro University) – Instituições, Gestão e Crescimento Económico: Portugal, 1950–1973
- ^ Template:Pt icon Fundação da SEDES – As primeiras motivações, 'Nos anos 60 e até 1973 teve lugar, provavelmente, o mais rápido período de crescimento económico da nossa História, traduzido na industrialização, na expansão do turismo, no comércio com a EFTA, no desenvolvimento dos sectores financeiros, investimento estrangeiro e grandes projectos de infra-estruturas. Em consequência, os indicadores de rendimentos e consumo acompanham essa evolução, reforçados ainda pelas remessas de emigrantes.', SEDES
- ^ Menezes 2009, p. 19.
- ^ a b c Kay 1970, p. 359.
- ^ Cited from The Whole Truth About Fatima, Vol. II, p. 412.
- ^ a b c Egerton 1943, p. 301.
- ^ a b c Kay 1970, pp. 359–360.
- ^ Full text Salazar's concordat (1940) available online in this link:[3]
- ^ Fundação Francisco Manuel dos Santos: Statistical date can be found in the following link: [4]
- ^ António Costa and Maria Inácia Rezola, "Political Catholicism, Crisis of Democracy and Salazar's New State in Portugal," Totalitarian Movements & Political Religions (2007) 8#2 pp 353-368.
- ^ Tom Gallacher, "Portugal," in Tom Buchanan and Martin Conway, eds, Political Catholicism in Europe, 1918–1965 (Oxford University Press, 1996).
- ^ Menezes 2009, p. 327.
- ^ a b Kay 1970, p. 362.
- ^ António José Saraiva (22 April 1989). "Salazarismo". Revista Expresso (in Portuguese). IV (22). Lisbon: Expresso: 15.
...a sua prosa digna de entrar na história da literatura portuguesa.
- ^ João Medina (2000). Salazar, Hitler e Franco: estudos sobre Salazar e a ditadura (in Portuguese). Livros Horizonte. p. 245. ISBN 978-972-24-1074-8.
- ^ James A. Moncure (July 1992). Research guide to European historical biography, 1450-present. Beacham Pub. p. 1734. ISBN 978-0-933833-28-9.
- ^ Salazar, António de Oliveira – 'Como se Levanta um Estado', ISBN 9789899537705
- ^ Saraiva, António José, Expresso journal of 22 April 1989. In Portuguese: 'Salazar foi, sem dúvida, um dos homens mais notáveis da História de Portugal e possuía uma qualidade que os homens notáveis nem sempre possuem: a recta intenção.'
- ^ Lochery 2011, pp. 14–15.
- ^ "GRANDES PORTUGUESES - Informação - Especializada - RTP". Archived from the original on 16 February 2014. Retrieved 3 May 2015.
- ^ [5] Technically correct poll made by the TV station RTP and Eurosondagem, following the victory of Salazar in its television show 'Os Grandes portugueses', at www.rtp.pt
- ^ Official Blog, Poll. "O Pior Português de Sempre". Retrieved 3 May 2015.
- ^ Official poll results for the first part, started on 2006-12-01, votação
- ^ Official poll results for the final round, started on 2007-02-05, votação
- ^ "Mário Soares: Programa «Grandes Portugueses» é um disparate Cultura : TV e Cinema Diário Digital". Diário Digital / Lusa. Retrieved 3 May 2015.
- ^ Newspaper Archive of Southern Cross, June 30 1938, Page 8/24
- ^ http://www.ordens.presidencia.pt/?idc=153
- ^ Meneses, Filipe. Salazar: A Political Biography. Enigma Books. pp. 76 and 77.
- ^ "SALAZAR - O Obreiro da Pátria". Retrieved 26 April 2015.
- ^ "CAT_58_4 - 2C58_4S_Lotes962a1048.pdf" (PDF). Cabral Moncada Leilões. Retrieved 26 April 2015.
- ^ "Clube Ferroviário de Moçambique - Estádio da Machava (antigo Salazar)". Retrieved 26 April 2015.
- ^ "Salazar "sobrevive" na toponímia nacional em 20 localidades portuguesas - PÚBLICO". PÚBLICO, Comunicação Social. 24 April 2009. Retrieved 26 April 2015.
- ^ "INPI autorizou vinho com o nome de Salazar - Especiais - DN". Diário de Notícias. 29 November 2012. Retrieved 26 April 2015.
- ^ Ribeiro, Graça Barbosa (28 November 2012). "Santa Comba Dão queria lançar vinho «Memórias de Salazar» mas marca foi chumbada". PÚBLICO, Comunicação Social. Retrieved 26 April 2015.
- ^ 'Salazar fell in a bathtub, not from a chair' (Portuguese language)
- ^ Meneses 2009, pp. 608–609.
Sources
- Derrick, Michael; R.J. Stove, (1938). The Portugal of Salazar. New York: Campion Books, Ltd.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - Egerton, F. Clement C. Egerton (1943). Salazar, Rebuilder of Portugal. London: Hodder & Stoughton.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Hayes, Carlton J.H. (1945). Wartime mission in Spain, 1942-1945. Macmillan Company 1st Edition. ISBN 9781121497245.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Hoare, Samuel (1946). Ambassador on Special Mission. UK: Collins; First Edition. pp. 124 and 125.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - Kay, Hugh (1970). Salazar and Modern Portugal. NY, USA: Hawthorn Books.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Leite, Joaquim da Costa (1998). "Neutrality by Agreement: Portugal and the British Alliance in World War II". 14 (1). American University International Law Review: 185–199. Retrieved 19 March 2014.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help); Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Lochery, Neill (2011). Lisbon: War in the Shadows of the City of Light, 1939-1945. United States: PublicAffairs; 1 edition. p. 345. ISBN 9781586488796.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Meneses, Filipe (2009). Salazar: A Political Biography. Enigma Books; 1 edition. p. 544. ISBN 978-1929631902.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Milgram, Avraham (2011). Portugal, Salazar, and the Jews. Yad Vashem. p. 324. ISBN 9789653083875.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Milgram, Avraham (1999). "Portugal, the Consuls, and the Jewish Refugees,1938-1941" (PDF). XXVII. Shoah Resource Center, The International School for Holocaust Studies: 123–156. Retrieved 19 March 2014.
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(help); Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Nogueira, Franco (1977–1985), Salazar: estudo biográfico, 6 vol.
- A mocidade e os princípios, 1889–1928 (3. ed. com estudo prévio pelo Joaquim Veríssimo Serrão). Vol. 1 (3a ed. ed.). Porto [Portugal]: Civilização Editora. 2000 [1977]. ISBN 972-26-1839-3.
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:|edition=
has extra text (help); Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Os tempos áureos, 1928–1936 (2. ed.). Vol. 2. Porto: Livraria Civilização. 1977. ISBN 972-26-1840-7.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - As grandes crises, 1936–1945. Vol. 3 (5a ed. ed.). Porto: Livraria Civilização. 1978. ISBN 972-26-1843-1.
{{cite book}}
:|edition=
has extra text (help); Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - O ataque, 1945–1958. Vol. 4 (4a ed. ed.). Porto: Livraria Civilização. 1980. ISBN 972-26-1844-X.
{{cite book}}
:|edition=
has extra text (help); Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - A resistência, 1958–1964. Vol. 5 (4. ed. ed.). Porto: Livraria Civilização. 1984. ISBN 972-26-1841-5.
{{cite book}}
:|edition=
has extra text (help); Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - O último combate (1964–1970). Vol. 6. Porto [Portugal]: Civilização Editora. 1985.
{{cite book}}
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(help)
- A mocidade e os princípios, 1889–1928 (3. ed. com estudo prévio pelo Joaquim Veríssimo Serrão). Vol. 1 (3a ed. ed.). Porto [Portugal]: Civilização Editora. 2000 [1977]. ISBN 972-26-1839-3.
- Pereira, Pedro Teotónio (1987). Correspondência de Pedro Teotónio Pereira Oliveira Salazar (in Portuguese). Presidência do Conselho de Ministros. Comissão do Livro Negro sobre o Regime Fascista.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Pimentel, Irene; Ninhos, Claudia (2013). Salazar, Portugal e o Holocausto (in Portuguese). Lisbon. p. 908. ISBN 9789896442217.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Rendel, Sir George (1957). The Sword and the Olive - Recollections of Diplomacy and Foreign Service 1913-1954 (First ed.). John Murray. ASIN B000UVRG60.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Wheeler, Douglas L. (1983). "In the Service of Order: The Portuguese Political Police and the British, German and Spanish Intelligence, 1932-1945". Journal of Contemporary History. 18 (1). Sage Publications, Ltd.: 1–25. doi:10.1177/002200948301800101. Retrieved 10 May 2014.
- Wiarda, Howard J. (1977). Corporatism and Development: The Portuguese Experience (First ed.). Univ of Massachusetts Press. ISBN 0870232215.
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See also
Further reading
- Baklanoff, Eric N. "The Political Economy of Portugal's Later 'Estado Novo': A Critique of the Stagnation Thesis." Luso-Brazilian Review (1992): 1-17. in JSTOR
- Graham, Lawrence S., and Harry M. Makler. Contemporary Portugal: the revolution and its antecedents (U of Texas Press, 1979)
- Hamann, Kerstin, and Paul Christopher Manuel. "Regime changes and civil society in twentieth-century Portugal." South European Society and Politics 4.1 (1999): 71-96.
- Kay, Hugh. Salazar and modern Portugal (1970)
- de Meneses, Filipe. Salazar: A Political Biography (2009)
- Payne, Stanley G. A History of Spain and Portugal (2 vol 1973) full text online vol 2 after 1700; standard scholarly history; chapter 27 pp 663-83
- Pimentel, Irene. "Women's Organizations and Imperial Ideology under the Estado Novo." Portuguese Studies (2002): 121-131. in JSTOR
- Pitcher, M. Anne. Politics in the Portuguese Empire: the State, industry, and cotton, 1926-1974 ( Oxford University Press, 1993)
- Stoer, Stephen R., and Roger Dale. "Education, state, and society in Portugal, 1926-1981." Comparative Education Review (1987): 400-418. in JSTOR
- Weber, Ronald. The Lisbon Route: Entry and Escape in Nazi Europe (2011).
- West, S. George. 'The Present Situation in Portugal', International Affairs (1938) 17#2 pp. 211–232 in JSTOR.
- Wright, George (1997). The destruction of a nation: United States' policy towards Angola since 1945. London: Pluto Press. ISBN 0-7453-1029-X.
Historiography
- Ribeiro De Meneses, Filipe. Slander, Ideological Differences, or Academic Debate? The "Verão Quente" of 2012 and the State of Portuguese Historiography, E-Journal of Portuguese History (2012), 10#1 pp 62-77. Online.
Primary sources
- Salazar, António de Oliveira (1939). Doctrine and action: Internal and foreign policy of the new Portugal, 1928-1939. London: Faber and Faber. ASIN B00086D6V6.
- In Portuguese
- Coelho, Eduardo Coelho; António Macieira (1995). Salazar, o fim e a morte: história de uma mistificação ; inclui os textos inéditos do Prof. Eduardo Coelho 'Salazar e o seu médico' e 'Salazar visto pelo seu médico' (1. ed. ed.). Lisboa: Publ. Dom Quixote. ISBN 972-20-1272-X.
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External links
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