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{{POV|talk=Problematic sourcing|date=October 2013}}
{{Alternative medical systems}}
{{Alternative medical systems}}
'''Anthroposophical medicine''' (or '''anthroposophic medicine''') is a form of medicine that partly complements and partly replaces mainstream medicine.<ref name=teils/> Founded in the 1920s by [[Rudolf Steiner]] (1861–1925) in conjunction with [[Ita Wegman]] (1876–1943), anthroposophical medicine draws on Steiner's [[spiritual philosophy]], which he called [[anthroposophy]].<ref name=workshop/> {{Anthroposophy}} Practitioners employ a variety of treatment techniques including massage, excercise, counselling, and the use of anthroposophic drugs.<ref name=ernstmist/>
'''Anthroposophic medicine''' is a [[complementary medicine]]<ref>Catherine Zollman, Andrew Vickers, ''ABC of Complementary Medicine'', 2008, p. 1</ref> that combines elements of conventional [[medicine]]<ref>{{cite journal|last=Rosslenbroich|first=B|coauthors=Schmidt, S. and Mathiessen, P. F.|title=Unconventional medicine in Germany: A report on the situation of research as basis for state research support|journal=Complementary Therapies in Medicine|year=1994|month=April|volume=2|issue=2|pages=61–69|doi=10.1016/0965-2299(94)90001-9}}</ref> with [[homeopathy]] and [[naturopathy]].<ref>"As an extension of Western medicine, anthroposophic medicine builds on three preexisting movements and therapeutics....natural medicine or naturopathy...homeopathy...[and] modern scientific medicine." From "Alternative Systems of Medical Practice", in [http://www.chiro.org/alt_med_abstracts/FULL/Expanding_Medical_Horizons/altsystems.htm ''Alternative medicine:expanding medical horizons : a report to the National Institutes of Health on alternative medical systems and practices in the United States. Prepared under the auspices of the Workshop on Alternative Medicine, Chantilly, Virginia September 14-16, 1992''], National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Md., 1995</ref> It is based on the [[spiritual philosophy]] of [[anthroposophy]],<ref>http://www.med.umich.edu/umim/resources/anthroposophic_medicine.htm</ref><ref name=AM/> which regards human wellness and illness as biographical events connected to the [[body]], [[mind]] and [[spirit]] of the individual. It often incorporates [[physical therapy|physical]] and [[art therapy|artistic therapies]], and biographical counselling.<ref name=WIAM>[http://web.archive.org/web/20070202085424/http:/www.anthroposophy.org.nz/Sections/Medical/AEM.htm ''What is Anthroposophically Extended Medicine?'']</ref> Anthroposophic medicine was founded in the 1920s by [[Rudolf Steiner]] in conjunction with [[Ita Wegman]].<ref name=AM/>


Anthroposophic drugs are ultra-diluted remedies, similar to those in homeopathy, and so ineffective.<ref name=krit/> People with cancer are treated with remedies made from specially-harvested [[mistletoe]]; research has found no [[Evidence-based medicine|evidence]] that this is beneficial.<ref name=ACS/>
According to its practitioners, anthroposophic medicine uses a [[holistic]] approach ("[[salutogenesis]]") that seeks to support the preconditions for [[health]] by strengthening the patient's [[physiology]] and [[individuality]], as well as addressing the specific factors that cause [[disease]]. The [[self-determination]], [[autonomy]] and [[dignity]] of patients is a central theme.<ref name=AM>Kienle, Kiene and Albonico, ''Anthroposophic Medicine'', Schattauer 2006 ISBN 3-7945-2495-0, Chapter 3 and 6</ref> Practitioners believe the therapies enhance a patient's capacities to heal.<ref name="Klotter">Klotter, Jule (May 2006). Anthroposophic Medicine. ''Townsend Letter for Doctors and Patients'', '''24'''(1):274.</ref> Conventional medical treatments, including [[surgery]] and [[Anthroposophic Pharmacy|medications]], are employed as necessary,{{when|date=September 2012}}<ref name="Klotter" /> and anthroposophical physicians must have a conventional medical education, including a degree from an established and certified medical school, as well as post-graduate study.<ref name=AM/><ref name=vR>von Rohr et al., [http://www.smw.ch/docs/pdf/2000_34/2000-34-245.PDF "Experiences in the realisation of a research project on anthroposophic medicine in patients with advanced cancer"], Schweiz Med Wochenschr 2000;130:1173–84</ref><ref>Cantor, I. S., and Rosenzweig, R. (December 1997). Anthroposophic perspectives in primary care. ''Primary Care'', '''24'''(4):867-87. PMID 9386260 [http://jdc.jefferson.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=emfp Reprint copy]</ref> There are currently anthroposophic medical practices in 80 countries worldwide.<ref name=AM/>
{{Anthroposophy}}


Anthroposophical medicine can pose a risk to health when used as a substitute for conventional medicine;<ref name=krit/> in particular, some anthroposophic doctors oppose childhood vaccination, and this has led to unnecessary outbreaks of disease.<ref name=measles/>
Skeptics, including many scientists and mainstream medical doctors, regard anthroposophic medicine as [[unscientific]],<ref>[http://www.skepdic.com/anthroposophicmedicine.html The Skeptics Dictionary]</ref> [[pseudoscience|pseudoscientific]], "a system of medicine that extends medical science into the realm of the spiritual",<ref>{{cite book| author = Michael Shermer|title = The Skeptic encyclopedia of pseudoscience, Volume 2|publisher = ABC-CLIO|pages =31–32}}</ref> and [[quackery]]<ref>{{cite journal|last=Atwood|first=Kimball C.|title=Naturopathy, Pseudoscience, and Medicine: Myths and Fallacies vs Truth|publisher=Medscape General Medicine|pmc=1140750|pmid=15208545|volume=6|issue=1|year=2004|pages=33}}</ref> due to its incorporation of objectively unverifiable ideas such as patients' "karmic destiny".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.quackwatch.org/11Ind/steiner.html|title=Rudolf Steiner's Quackery|last=Rawlings|first=Roger|publisher=[[QuackWatch]]|accessdate=10 September 2012}}</ref>


Anthroposophical medicine takes a view of the human body and its anatomy that is at odds with [[medical science]], proposing for example that the heart does not pump blood but that blood propels itself along.<ref name=Marinelli/> It also proposes that a patient's past lives may influence their illness<ref name=tot/> and that its progress is subject to karmic destiny.<ref name=deadly/> Critics, including many scientists and mainstream medical doctors, have characterized anthroposophical medicine as [[unscientific]],<ref name=rob/> [[pseudoscience|pseudoscientific]]<ref name=seop/> and "pure [[quackery]]".<ref name=thes-aberdeen/>
==Key concepts==

==Background==
{{multiple image
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|image2=Ita Wegman 1899.jpg|width2=110|alt2=Ita Wegman in 1899|caption2=Ita Wegman
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Anthroposophic medicine seeks to extend, not replace, mainstream Western medicine.<ref>Girke, Matthias "Was ist Anthroposophische Medizin?", ''Komplementäre und Integrative Medizin'', v. 49, nr. 9, 1 September 2008, pp. 10-12</ref>
Its practitioners do not regard it as an "alternative", but as an extension, to conventional [[science-based medicine]]:<ref>Gunnar Stollberg, [https://www.uni-bielefeld.de/(en)/soz/iw/pdf/stollberg.pdf ''"Heterodoxe Medizin, Weltgesellschaft und Glokalisierung: Asiatische Medizinformen in Westeuropa"'']</ref>
{{Bquote | Anthroposophic medicine is based on Steiner's concept that spiritual awareness is the foundation of individual health and of the health of society. Steiner believed that many of the oldest systems of healing, such as [[traditional Chinese medicine]], [[Ayurvedic medicine]], and [[Tibetan medicine]], were based on a spiritual perception of the world that modern science has lost. Steiner wanted medicine to get back in touch with spirituality, and at the same time keep and use wisely the gains that science and technology have made. Thus, conventional medicine needed to be extended beyond physical science to include a holistic spiritual science. | x | x |"Anthroposophic medicine", AltMD | [http://www.altmd.com/Articles/Anthroposophic-Medicine--Encyclopedia-of-Alterna]}}


===History===
Based upon the [[anthroposophy|anthroposophic]] view of the human being, the approach considers the patient's:<ref name="Klotter" />
[[File:Ita Wegman vor1900.jpg|thumb|200px|Ita Wegman, co-founder of the medical approach, before 1900 in Berlin.]]
* Physical constitution;
The first steps towards an anthroposophic approach to medicine were made before 1920, when [[homeopathic]] physicians and pharmacists began working with Rudolf Steiner, who recommended new [[Anthroposophic Pharmacy|medicinal substances]] as well as specific methods for preparing these. In 1921, Dr Ita Wegman opened the first anthroposophic medical clinic, now known as the [[Ita Wegman Clinic]],<ref>[http://www.wegmanklinik.ch Ita Wegman Klinik] (German). Accessed 2007-12-26.</ref> in [[Arlesheim]], [[Switzerland]]. Wegman was soon joined by a number of other doctors. They began to train the first anthroposophic nurses for the clinic.
* Life or [[etheric body]], sometimes considered to be analogous to [[chi]] or [[prana]];<ref name=AM>[http://www.altmd.com/Articles/Anthroposophic-Medicine--Encyclopedia-of-Alterna Anthroposophic medicine, AltMD]</ref>

* The physio-psychological organization (also called the [[astral body]]), understood as the bearer of both the emotional or psychological state ([[Affect (psychology)|affect]]), and of [[consciousness]];
At Wegman's request, Steiner regularly visited the clinic and suggested treatment regimes for particular patients. Between 1921 and 1925, he also gave several series of lectures on medicine. In 1925, Wegman and Steiner wrote the first book on the anthroposophic approach to medicine, ''Fundamentals of Therapy''.
* The '[[Id, ego and super-ego#Ego|ego]]', source of the [[self-reflection]] and [[free will]] that co-form the patient's biography.

Each of these is considered to have an influence on a patient's health.<ref name =AM/>
The clinic expanded and soon opened a branch in [[Ascona]]. Wegman lectured widely, visiting Holland and England particularly frequently, and an increasing number of doctors began to include the anthroposophic approach in their practices. A cancer clinic, the [[Lukas Clinic]],<ref>[http://www.lukasklinik.ch/cms.asp?IDN=133&H='106'&T=0&Sprache=en Lukas Clinic]. Accessed 2007-12-26.</ref> opened in Arlesheim in 1963.

In the 1990s the [[Witten/Herdecke University]] in Germany established a chair in anthroposophical medicine. The press described the appointment as a "death sentence" and the perception that pseudoscience was being taught damaged the university's reputation, bringing it close to financial collapse. It was ultimately saved by a cash injection from [[Software AG]], a technology corporation with a history of funding anthroposophic projects.<ref name=mckie>{{cite news
|newspaper=The Observer
|first1=Robin
|last1=McKie
|first2=Laura
|last2=Hartmann
|date=29 April 2012
|url=http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2012/apr/29/holistic-unit-tarnish-aberdeen-university-reputation
|title=Holistic unit will 'tarnish' Aberdeen University reputation}}</ref>

In 2006, anthroposophical medicine was practised in 80 countries.<ref name=AM>{{cite book|author1=Gunver Sophia Kienle|author2=Helmut Kiene|author3=Hans Ulrich Albonico|title=Anthroposophic Medicine: Effectiveness, Utility, Costs, Safety|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Y4B99iUJPuYC&pg=PP1|year=2006|publisher=Schattauer Verlag|isbn=978-3-7945-2495-2}}</ref>{{rs|date=October 2013}}

In 2012 the [[University of Aberdeen]] considered establishing a chair in holistic health jointly funded by Software AG, and by the Anthroposophic Health, Education and Social Care Movement, each of which would provide £1.5 million of endowment.<ref name=mckie/> [[Edzard Ernst]] commented "that any decent university should even consider an anthroposophical medicine unit seems incomprehensible. The fact that it would be backed by people who have a financial interest in this bogus approach makes it even worse".<ref name=mckie/> The University's governance and nominations committee eventually decided not to proceed with the appointment.<ref name="thes-aberdeen">{{cite journal|last=Jump|first=Paul|date=11 May 2012|title=Aberdeen decides against alternative medicine chair|journal=Times Higher Education Supplement|url=http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/419909.article}}</ref>

===Categorization and conceptual basis===
The categorization of anthroposophical medicine is complex since in part it complements conventional medicine, and in part it replaces it.<ref name=teils>{{cite journal|pmid=18540325|year=2008|last1=Ernst|first1=E|title=Anthroposophic medicine: A critical analysis|volume=150 Suppl 1|pages=1–6|journal=MMW Fortschritte der Medizin}} (''citing'' {{cite journal|doi=10.1159/000093481|title=Anthroposophische Medizin: Health Technology Assessment Bericht – Kurzfassung|year=2006|last1=Kienle|first1=Gunver S.|last2=Kiene|first2=Helmut|last3=Albonico|first3=Hans Ulrich|journal=Forschende Komplementärmedizin / Research in Complementary Medicine|volume=13|issue=2|pages=7|quote=teils ergänzend und teils ersetzend zur konventionellen Medizin}})</ref> In recent times it has been promoted as an "extension to conventional medicine".<ref name=measles/>

In 1992, a workshop on alternative medicine prepared a report for the [[NIH]] on various [[alternative medicine]]s and concluded that anthroposophical medicine, when considered as an extension to mainstream medicine, had three foundations: [[naturopathy]], [[homeopathy]], and that mainstream medicine itself.<ref name=workshop>{{cite book|author=DIANE Publishing Company|title=Alternative Medicine: Expanding Medical Horizons|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=oAkm9RGrigsC&pg=PA86|date=1 July 1995|publisher=DIANE Publishing|isbn=978-0-7881-1820-3|page=86}}</ref>

Edzard Ernst and [[Simon Singh]] call anthroposophical medicine an "entirely new school of medicine" based on Steiner's beliefs in which "imagination, inspiration and intuition" play a part. They describe it as including elements of mysticism, alchemy and homeopathy and say its therapeutic strategies are based on the notion that there is a relationship between plants, metals and human organs, and that a patient's past lives may influence their health.<ref name=tot>{{cite book|first1=Simon|last1=Singh|first2=Edzard|last2=Ernst|title=Trick or Treatment? Alternative Medicine on Trial|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=nWnR1JI7G6gC&pg=PT135|date=6 October 2009|publisher=Transworld|isbn=978-1-4090-8180-7|page=135}}</ref> According to [[Quackwatch]] illness is regarded as a "rite of passage" necessary to purge spiritual impurities carried over from past lives, according to the precepts of "karmic destiny".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.quackwatch.org/11Ind/steiner.html|title=Rudolf Steiner's Quackery|last=Rawlings|first=Roger|publisher=[[QuackWatch]]|accessdate=10 September 2012}}</ref>

[[Robert Todd Carroll]] has said that anthroposophical medicine is "even more out of touch with modern, science-based medicine than homeopathy". In Caroll's view it represents the "very opposite of science" as a result of its being based on Steiner's claims to "special powers" that enabled him to tap into occult realities and receive wisdom, rather than proceed by an empirical experimental process.<ref name=rob>{{cite web
|url=http://www.skepdic.com/anthroposophicmedicine.html
|work=The Skeptics Dictionary
|title=Anthroposophic medicine
|accessdate=October 2013
|first=Robert Todd
|last=Carroll
|date=21 May 2012}}</ref>

According to Edzard Ernst, anthroposophical medicine assumes "associations between four postulated dimensions of the human body (physical body, etheric body, astral body, and ego), plants, minerals, and the cosmos".<ref name=ernstmist>{{cite journal|doi=10.1136/bmj.39055.493958.80|title=Mistletoe as a treatment for cancer|year=2006|last1=Ernst|first1=E.|journal=BMJ|volume=333|issue=7582|pages=1282–3|pmid=17185706|pmc=1761165}}</ref> Ernst has said that anthroposophical medicine "includes some of the least plausible theories one could possibly imagine",<ref name=vatican>{{cite journal|doi=10.1111/j.2042-7166.2007.tb04893.x|title=Anthroposophic Medicine|year=2010|last1=Ernst|first1=E|journal=Focus on Alternative and Complementary Therapies|volume=12|page=66}}</ref> categorized it as "pure quackery",<ref name=thes-aberdeen/> and said that it has "has no basis in science".<ref name=mckie/>

==Methods==

Anthroposophic drugs are prepared according to ancient notions of [[alchemy]] and [[homeopathy]] which are not related to the science underlying modern [[pharmacology]]:<ref name=ernstmist/> during the preparation process, the patterns formed by crystallization are interpreted to see which "etheric force" they most nearly correspond to.<ref name=seop>{{cite book|first=Dan|last=Dugan|editor=Michael Shermer|title=Anthroposophy and Anthroposophical Medicine|work=The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Gr4snwg7iaEC&pg=PA31|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-653-8|pages=31-32}}</ref> Most anthroposophic preparations are highly diluted, like homeopathic remedies, and while this means they are completely harmless in themselves, using them in place of conventional medicine to treat serious illness risks severe adverse consequences.<ref name=krit>{{cite journal|pmid=18540325|year=2008|last1=Ernst|first1=E|title=Anthroposophic medicine: A critical analysis|volume=150 Suppl 1|pages=1–6|journal=MMW Fortschritte der Medizin}}</ref>

Edzard Ernst writes that as well as drug remedies, anthroposophical medicine also includes "art therapy, rhythmic massages, special exercises, external applications, counselling, and anthroposophic nursing".<ref name=ernstmist/>

===Immunization===
{{seealso|Vaccine controversies}}


The risks arising from using anthroposophical medicine as a substitute for real medicine are exemplified by several cases of low vaccination levels in anthroposophic schools,<ref name=krit/> since some anthroposophical doctors oppose [[immunization]].<ref name=measles>{{cite journal|pmid=21102363|year=2011|last1=Ernst|first1=E|title=Anthroposophy: A risk factor for noncompliance with measles immunization|volume=30|issue=3|pages=187–9|doi=10.1097/INF.0b013e3182024274|journal=The Pediatric infectious disease journal}}</ref> A 1999 study of children in Sweden showed that in anthroposophical schools, only 18% had received [[MMR]] vaccination, compared to a level of 93% in other schools nationally.<ref name=krit/>
In particular, anthroposophic medicine raises the question of a chronic or acute illness' significance in the biography of the patient: in what ways does the illness express, or appear as a result of, what is happening in the patient's life; and in what way does it open up or close down life paths? The events of an illness are considered to constitute decisive decision points in the patient's life: through overcoming an illness a patient may open up biographical doors and/or develop aspects of his or her being that he or she might not otherwise have achieved. The medical goal is then not necessarily to restore the previous condition of the patient, which led to the illness, but rather to achieve a new and healthier condition.<ref>{{cite book|last=Fintelmann|first=Volker|title=Intuitive Medizin - anthroposophische Medizin in der Praxis|year=2007|publisher=Hippokrates|location=Stuttgart|edition=5th|pages=72–73}}</ref> Biographical rhythms including seven-year phases of development are often considered in understanding the patient's path of life.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lievegoed|first=Bernard|title=Phases|year=1997|publisher=Sophia Books|location=Forest Row, England|isbn=1-85584-056-1}}</ref>


A 2003 report of a widespread measles outbreak around [[Coburg]] identified an anthroposophical school as the origin.<ref name=krit/> At the time the town major had condemned homeopathic doctors who had discouraged vaccination, saying "Their stronghold is the Waldorf School, which actively encourages people not to have their children vaccinated. Now we have an epidemic."<ref>{{cite news
Practitioners believe that spending time with a patient is important to discern the most important factors about the patient, and that aspects of patients' well being are not helped by the rush;<ref name="AM"/> many doctors, both anthroposophic and conventional, are critical of the stresses on the medical system today that lead to rushing patients through.<ref>Guidelines for the Clinical Use of Electronic Mail with Patients, The Practice of Informatics, Journal of the American Informatics Association, Beverley Kane, Daniel Z Sands, [http://jamia.bmj.com/content/5/1/104.abstract]</ref>
|title=Anti-vaccine town struck by measles epidemic
|newspaper=The Times
|date=6 March 2002
|page=3
|first=Alan
|last=Hall
}}</ref>


Anthroposophic doctors try to minimize the use of [[antibiotics]], [[antipyretics]], [[pharmaceutical drugs]], and [[Inoculation|vaccinations]].<ref name="AM"/> In particular, some children treated by anthroposophic doctors are vaccinated only against tetanus and polio, while for others vaccinations may be given later than recommended by health authorities.<ref name=Lancet>Alm, J. S., Swartz, J., Lilja, G., Scheynius, A., and Pershagen, G. (1999). Atopy in children of families with an anthroposophic lifestyle. ''Lancet'', '''353'''(9163):1485-8. {{DOI|10.1016/S0140-6736(98)09344-1}} PMID 10232315 [http://www.waldorflibrary.org/journal_articles/rb5103.pdf Reprint copy]</ref> Steiner believed that vaccination "interferes with karmic development and the cycles of reincarnation". When this was put into practice, it caused a [[pertussis]] outbreak in a [[Waldorf education|waldorf school]] due to a lack of [[inocculation]], causing the school to be temporarily closed.<ref>{{cite book|last=Paul A. Offit MD|first=|title=Deadly choices|isbn=9780465021499|page=xiii}}</ref>
[[Paul Offit]] writes that Steiner believed that vaccination "interferes with karmic development and the cycles of reincarnation", and that adherence to this belief this led to a 2008 [[pertussis]] outbreak in a Californian [[Waldorf education|waldorf school]], causing its temporary closure.<ref name=deadly>{{cite book|author=Paul A. Offit|title=Deadly Choices: How the Anti-Vaccine Movement Threatens Us All|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=t_poH5CczDUC&pg=PR13|year=2011|publisher=Basic Books|isbn=978-0-465-02356-1|page=13}}</ref>


===Plant-derived treatments===
To find remedies to treat a particular illness, anthroposophic medicine considers the nature of the source of the substances used. The character of a mineral, plant or animal is considered to have been formed by the substances that are most active within it. Thus this character may also reveal what the substance will accomplish when given to treat another organism. This is related to [[Samuel Hahnemann]]'s [[Doctrine of signatures]]. Willow, for example, has an unusual character:
To find remedies to treat a particular illness, physicians practising anthroposphical medicine consider the nature of the source of the substances used. The character of a mineral, plant or animal is considered to have been formed by the substances that are most active within it, such that this character may also reveal what the substance will accomplish when given to treat another organism. This is related to [[Samuel Hahnemann]]'s [[Doctrine of signatures]]. Willow, for example, is considered to have an unusual character:
{{Quote|... plants that grow near water are usually heavy, with big, dark green leaves that wilt and break easily. An exception is... the white willow, a tree that always grows near water and loves light. However, unlike other "watery" plants, the willow has fine, almost dry leaves and looks very light... Its branches are unbelievably tough. They are elastic and cannot be broken. They bend easily and form "joints" rather than break. These few signatures can give us the clue to what salix can be used for therapeutically: arthritis, deformation of joints, swollen joints...|<ref>[http://ruscombe.org/wp/anthroposophic-medicine/ ''What Is Anthroposophic Medicine?'']</ref>}}
{{Quote|... plants that grow near water are usually heavy, with big, dark green leaves that wilt and break easily. An exception is... the white willow, a tree that always grows near water and loves light. However, unlike other "watery" plants, the willow has fine, almost dry leaves and looks very light... Its branches are unbelievably tough. They are elastic and cannot be broken. They bend easily and form "joints" rather than break. These few signatures can give us the clue to what salix can be used for therapeutically: arthritis, deformation of joints, swollen joints...<ref name=rob/>}}


There is no scientific evidence that the shape of plants has ever caused a new medical property to be discovered.<ref name=Bennett>{{cite journal |last=Bennett |first=Bradley C. |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2007 |month= |title= Doctrine of Signatures: An Explanation of Medicinal Plant Discovery or Dissemination of Knowledge? |journal=Economic Botany |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=246–255 doi=10.1663/0013–0001 |url=http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?request=get-abstract&doi=10.1663%2F0013-0001(2007)61%5B246%3ADOSAEO%5D2.0.CO%3B2 |accessdate=2008-08-31 |quote= |doi=10.1663/0013-0001 }}</ref> The intent of the medical approach is to consider both the effective substances and the character (not just shape) of the mineral, plant or animal these substances are drawn from, however.<ref>[http://www.anthromed.org/Article.aspx?artpk=116 Angaben zu Pflanzeninhaltsstoffen bei Rudolf Steiner]. ''Merkurstab'' 1994; 47:561- 80</ref>
There is no scientific evidence that the shape of plants has ever caused a new medical property to be discovered.<ref name=Bennett>{{cite journal |last=Bennett |first=Bradley C. |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2007 |month= |title= Doctrine of Signatures: An Explanation of Medicinal Plant Discovery or Dissemination of Knowledge? |journal=Economic Botany |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=246–255 doi=10.1663/0013–0001 |url=http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?request=get-abstract&doi=10.1663%2F0013-0001(2007)61%5B246%3ADOSAEO%5D2.0.CO%3B2 |accessdate=2008-08-31 |quote= |doi=10.1663/0013-0001 }}</ref> The intent of the medical approach is to consider both the effective substances and the character (not just shape) of the mineral, plant or animal these substances are drawn from, however.<ref>[http://www.anthromed.org/Article.aspx?artpk=116 Angaben zu Pflanzeninhaltsstoffen bei Rudolf Steiner]. ''Merkurstab'' 1994; 47:561- 80</ref>
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===Mistletoe treatment for cancer===
===Mistletoe treatment for cancer===
{{See also|List of ineffective cancer treatments}}
{{See also|List of ineffective cancer treatments}}
The use of [[mistletoe]] extracts in the treatment of [[cancer]] was first proposed by [[Rudolf Steiner]] and developed by anthroposophic researchers;<ref>Christine Murphy, ''Iscador: Mistletoe in Cancer Therapy'', ISBN 1-930051-76-X, pp. 52-3</ref> it is now probably the best-known anthroposophic medicine.<ref name=AM/> Steiner believed the plant had to be harvested at the right time, as its medical potential was influenced by the position of the sun, moon and planets.<ref name="Olson2005">{{cite book|author=James S. Olson|title=Bathsheba's Breast: Women, Cancer, and History|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=gp9aMBieClMC&pg=PA452|accessdate=1 September 2013|date=5 January 2005|publisher=JHU Press|isbn=978-0-8018-8064-3|page=452}}</ref>
Rudolf Steiner proposed that mistletoe could cure cancer based on the observation that the plant was a parasite which eventually killed its host, so paralleling the progression of cancer.<ref name=ernstmist/> Steiner believed the plant had to be harvested at the right time, as its medical potential was influenced by the position of the sun, moon and planets.<ref name="Olson2005">{{cite book|author=James S. Olson|title=Bathsheba's Breast: Women, Cancer, and History|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=gp9aMBieClMC&pg=PA452|accessdate=1 September 2013|date=5 January 2005|publisher=JHU Press|isbn=978-0-8018-8064-3|page=452}}</ref> Some anthroposophical preparations are highly-diluted; others are made from fermented mistletoe.<ref name=ernstmist/> The most common trade names for the remedies are Iscador and Helixor.<ref name=ACS/>


According to the [[American Cancer Society]], "available evidence from well-designed clinical trials does not support claims that mistletoe can improve length or quality of life".<ref name=ACS>{{cite web
According to the [[American Cancer Society]], "available evidence from well-designed clinical trials does not support claims that mistletoe can improve length or quality of life".<ref name=ACS>{{cite web
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|title=Mistletoe}}</ref>
|title=Mistletoe}}</ref>


A 2006 study by [[Edzard Ernst]] reported that approximately 30 types of mistletoe extracts were available; and concluded that the treatment "has no proved benefit, and can cause harm".<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1136/bmj.39055.493958.80|title=Mistletoe as a treatment for cancer|year=2006|last1=Ernst|first1=E.|journal=BMJ|volume=333|issue=7582|pages=1282–3|pmid=17185706|pmc=1761165}}</ref> The most commonly used derivative is known as Iscador. Mistletoe extracts are used as an unconventional treatment for cancer patients in the [[Netherlands]] and in [[Great Britain]].<ref name=ACS/> In Germany, the treatment has been approved as [[palliative therapy]] to treat the symptoms of patients with malignant tumors.<ref name=ACS/> In the United States it is approved for clinical trial only.<ref name=NIHHC>[http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/cam/mistletoe/HealthProfessional/page6 National Institute of Health: Mistletoe, Human/Clinical Trials]</ref> Various forms of mistletoe extract are available in [[Central Europe]], where&nbsp;&ndash; a 2006 case study reports&nbsp;&ndash; it has been widely used.<ref name="bmj.com">{{cite journal|doi=10.1136/bmj.39044.460023.BE|title=Subcutaneous inflammation mimicking metastatic malignancy induced by injection of mistletoe extract|year=2006|last1=Finall|first1=A I|last2=McIntosh|first2=S A|last3=Thompson|first3=W D|journal=BMJ|volume=333|issue=7582|pages=1293–4|pmid=17185712|pmc=1761174}}</ref> There are also [[phytotherapeutic]] preparations using non-homeopathic doses of mistletoe; these should not be confused with the anthroposophic preparations.<ref name=AM>p.56</ref> Mistletoe extracts may not be distributed in or imported into the US except for the purpose of clinical research.<ref>National Cancer Institute, [http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/cam/mistletoe/HealthProfessional/page3 Mistletoe: General Information for Health Professionals]</ref>
In 2006 Edzard Ernst wrote that approximately 30 types of mistletoe extracts were available; and concluded that the treatment "has no proved benefit, and can cause harm".<ref name=ernstmist/> Mistletoe extracts are used as an unconventional treatment for cancer patients in the [[Netherlands]] and in [[Great Britain]].<ref name=ACS/> In Germany, the treatment has been approved as [[palliative therapy]] to treat the symptoms of patients with malignant tumors.<ref name=ACS/> Various forms of mistletoe extract are available in [[Central Europe]], where&nbsp;&ndash; a 2006 case study reports&nbsp;&ndash; it has been widely used.<ref name="bmj.com">{{cite journal|doi=10.1136/bmj.39044.460023.BE|title=Subcutaneous inflammation mimicking metastatic malignancy induced by injection of mistletoe extract|year=2006|last1=Finall|first1=A I|last2=McIntosh|first2=S A|last3=Thompson|first3=W D|journal=BMJ|volume=333|issue=7582|pages=1293–4|pmid=17185712|pmc=1761174}}</ref> Mistletoe extracts may not be distributed in or imported into the US except for the purpose of clinical research.<ref>{{cite web
|publisher=National Cancer Institute

|work=Mistletoe Extracts (PDQ®)
==History==
|title=Overview
[[File:Ita Wegman vor1900.jpg|thumb|200px|Ita Wegman, co-founder of the medical approach, before 1900 in Berlin.]]
|url=http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/cam/mistletoe/HealthProfessional/page1
The first steps towards an anthroposophic approach to medicine were made before 1920, when [[homeopathic]] physicians and pharmacists began working with Rudolf Steiner, who recommended new [[Anthroposophic Pharmacy|medicinal substances]] as well as specific methods for preparing these. In 1921, Dr Ita Wegman opened the first anthroposophic medical clinic, now known as the [[Ita Wegman Clinic]],<ref>[http://www.wegmanklinik.ch Ita Wegman Klinik] (German). Accessed 2007-12-26.</ref> in [[Arlesheim]], [[Switzerland]]. Wegman was soon joined by a number of other doctors. They began to train the first anthroposophic nurses for the clinic.
|date=July 2013

|accessdate=October 2013}}</ref>
At Wegman's request, Steiner regularly visited the clinic and suggested treatment regimes for particular patients. Between 1921 and 1925, he also gave several series of lectures on medicine. In 1925, Wegman and Steiner wrote the first book on the anthroposophic approach to medicine, ''Fundamentals of Therapy''.

The clinic expanded and soon opened a branch in [[Ascona]]. Wegman lectured widely, visiting Holland and England particularly frequently, and an increasing number of doctors began to include the anthroposophic approach in their practices. A cancer clinic, the [[Lukas Clinic]],<ref>[http://www.lukasklinik.ch/cms.asp?IDN=133&H='106'&T=0&Sprache=en Lukas Clinic]. Accessed 2007-12-26.</ref> opened in Arlesheim in 1963.

===Modern history and prevalence of practice===
There are about 28 anthroposophic hospitals, departments of hospitals, rehabilitation centers and sanatoria located in Germany, Switzerland, Sweden, the Netherlands, Great Britain, Italy, the USA and Brazil, as well as over 140 outpatient clinics worldwide. Four of the German and Swiss anthroposophic hospitals are state-sponsored; three are academic teaching hospitals under the aegis of nearby universities. Three European universities (Bern, Hamburg and Witten/Herdecke) have professorships in anthroposophic medicine and other universities offer courses on the field. Anthroposophic medicine is recognized in Germany as a "Special Therapy System", along with homeopathy and herbal medicine,<ref>http://www.medsektion-goetheanum.org/lang/en/?p=11</ref> under the Medicines Act and has its own committee at the Federal Institute for Drugs and Medical Devices.<ref name=AM/> Anthroposophic medical treatment has been a recognized specialty within Swiss governmental health policy since 1999.<ref>[http://www.anthrosana.ch/content/4_dialog/4_1_fragenantworten.htm Anthrosana]</ref> The International Federation of Anthroposophic Medical Associations estimates that there are currently approximately 2,000 Anthroposophic doctors worldwide. Based on the number of prescriptions it has been estimated that anthroposophic medicinal products are prescribed by more than 30,000 physicians.<ref>http://www.ivaa.info/?p=72</ref>


==See also==
==See also==
*[[Alternative cancer treatments]]
*[[Holistic health]]
*[[Holistic health]]
*[[Quackery]]


== References ==
== References ==
{{reflist|2}}
{{reflist|2}}


==Bibliography==
==Further Reading==


===Journal review articles===
===Journal review articles===
*Ernst, Edzard (2004). Anthroposophical medicine: A systematic review of randomised clinical trials. ''Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift'', '''116'''(4):128-130, ISSN 0043-5325, PMID 15038403.
*Ernst, Edzard (2004). Anthroposophical medicine: A systematic review of randomised clinical trials. ''Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift'', '''116'''(4):128-130, ISSN 0043-5325, PMID 15038403.
*Kienle, G. H., and Kiene, H. (2007). Complementary cancer therapy: A systematic review of prospective clinical trials on anthroposophic mistletoe extracts. ''European Journal of Medical Research'', '''12''':103-119, PMID 17507307. [http://wissenschaft.mistel-therapie.de/Dateien/Downloads/Studien/Kienle_2007_Mistel.pdf Reprint] (accessed 10/29/2007).
*Kienle, G. H., and Kiene, H. (2007). Complementary cancer therapy: A systematic review of prospective clinical trials on anthroposophic mistletoe extracts. ''European Journal of Medical Research'', '''12''':103-119, PMID 17507307. [http://wissenschaft.mistel-therapie.de/Dateien/Downloads/Studien/Kienle_2007_Mistel.pdf Reprint] (accessed 10/29/2007).

===Books===

*Bott, Victor, ''An Introduction to Anthroposophical Medicine'', ISBN 1-85584-177-0
*Bott, Victor, ''Spiritual Science and the Art of Healing''. ISBN 0-89281-636-8
*Denjean, Barbara and von Bonin, Dietrich, ''Anthroposophical Therapeutic Speech'' ISBN 0-86315-418-2
*Douch, Geoffrey, ''Medicine for the Whole Person: A Guide to Anthroposophical Treatment'' ISBN 0-86315-362-3
*Evans, Michael and Rodger, Iain, ''Complete Healing'' ISBN 0-88010-489-9
*Goebel, Wolfgang and Glöckler, Michaela, ''A Guide to Child Health'', ISBN 0-86315-390-9
*Hauschka, Rudolf, ''The Nature of Substance'' ISBN 1-85584-122-3
*Hauschka, Rudolf, ''Nutrition'' ISBN 1-85584-117-7
*King, Francis X., ''Rudolf Steiner and Holistic Medicine'', ISBN 0-89254-015-X.
*Leviton, Richard, ''Anthroposophic Medicine Today'' ISBN 0-88010-265-9.
*Mees, L. F. C., ''Blessed by Illness'' ISBN 0-88010-054-0
*Mees, L. F. C., ''Secrets of the Skeleton: Form in Metamorphosis'' ISBN 0-88010-087-7
*Murphy, Christine (ed.), ''Iscador: Mistletoe and Cancer Therapy'' ISBN 1-930051-76-X
*Murphy, Christine (ed.), ''Practical Home Care Medicine: A Natural Approach'' ISBN 1-930051-09-3
*Murphy, Christine, ''The Vaccination Dilemma'' ISBN 1-930051-10-7
*Renzenbrink, ''Diet and Cancer'' ISBN 0-85440-766-9
*Steiner, Rudolf and Wegman, Ita, ''Extending Practical Medicine''. ISBN 1-85584-080-4
** also published as ''Fundamentals of Therapy'', ISBN 0-7661-4688-X
*Steiner, Rudolf and Weisz, Paul B., ''Angiogenesis: Key Principles-Science-Technology-Medicine'' ISBN 0-8176-2674-3
*Wolff, Otto and Husemann, Friedrich, ''The Anthroposophic Approach to Medicine'' ISBN 0-88010-031-1.
*Wolff, Otto, ''Home Remedies: Herbal and Homeopathic Treatments for Use at Home'' ISBN 0-88010-362-0
*Zieve, Robert, ''Healthy Medicine'' ISBN 0-88010-560-7
*Zur Linden, Wilhelm, ''A Child is Born'' ISBN 1-85584-192-4


===Lectures by Rudolf Steiner===
===Lectures by Rudolf Steiner===
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*[http://www.ahasc.org.uk Anthroposophic Health and Social Care] (Great Britain and Ireland)
*[http://www.ahasc.org.uk Anthroposophic Health and Social Care] (Great Britain and Ireland)


{{Pseudoscience}}
{{Alternative medicine}}
{{Alternative medicine|state=collapsed}}
{{Anthroposophy series}}
{{Anthroposophy series}}


{{DEFAULTSORT:Anthroposophic Medicine}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Anthroposophic Medicine}}
[[Category:Alternative diagnoses]]
[[Category:Alternative medical systems]]
[[Category:Alternative medical systems]]
[[Category:Alternative medicine]]
[[Category:Anthroposophy]]
[[Category:Anthroposophy]]
[[Category:Homeopathy]]
[[Category:Homeopathy]]

Revision as of 11:39, 31 October 2013

This article is part of a series on
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Anthroposophical medicine (or anthroposophic medicine) is a form of medicine that partly complements and partly replaces mainstream medicine.[1] Founded in the 1920s by Rudolf Steiner (1861–1925) in conjunction with Ita Wegman (1876–1943), anthroposophical medicine draws on Steiner's spiritual philosophy, which he called anthroposophy.[2]

Part of a series on
Anthroposophy
General
Anthroposophically inspired work
Philosophy

Practitioners employ a variety of treatment techniques including massage, excercise, counselling, and the use of anthroposophic drugs.[3]

Anthroposophic drugs are ultra-diluted remedies, similar to those in homeopathy, and so ineffective.[4] People with cancer are treated with remedies made from specially-harvested mistletoe; research has found no evidence that this is beneficial.[5]

Anthroposophical medicine can pose a risk to health when used as a substitute for conventional medicine;[4] in particular, some anthroposophic doctors oppose childhood vaccination, and this has led to unnecessary outbreaks of disease.[6]

Anthroposophical medicine takes a view of the human body and its anatomy that is at odds with medical science, proposing for example that the heart does not pump blood but that blood propels itself along.[7] It also proposes that a patient's past lives may influence their illness[8] and that its progress is subject to karmic destiny.[9] Critics, including many scientists and mainstream medical doctors, have characterized anthroposophical medicine as unscientific,[10] pseudoscientific[11] and "pure quackery".[12]

Background

Co-founders of anthroposophic medicine
Rudolf Steiner in Berlin in 1900
Rudolf Steiner
Ita Wegman in 1899
Ita Wegman

History

Ita Wegman, co-founder of the medical approach, before 1900 in Berlin.

The first steps towards an anthroposophic approach to medicine were made before 1920, when homeopathic physicians and pharmacists began working with Rudolf Steiner, who recommended new medicinal substances as well as specific methods for preparing these. In 1921, Dr Ita Wegman opened the first anthroposophic medical clinic, now known as the Ita Wegman Clinic,[13] in Arlesheim, Switzerland. Wegman was soon joined by a number of other doctors. They began to train the first anthroposophic nurses for the clinic.

At Wegman's request, Steiner regularly visited the clinic and suggested treatment regimes for particular patients. Between 1921 and 1925, he also gave several series of lectures on medicine. In 1925, Wegman and Steiner wrote the first book on the anthroposophic approach to medicine, Fundamentals of Therapy.

The clinic expanded and soon opened a branch in Ascona. Wegman lectured widely, visiting Holland and England particularly frequently, and an increasing number of doctors began to include the anthroposophic approach in their practices. A cancer clinic, the Lukas Clinic,[14] opened in Arlesheim in 1963.

In the 1990s the Witten/Herdecke University in Germany established a chair in anthroposophical medicine. The press described the appointment as a "death sentence" and the perception that pseudoscience was being taught damaged the university's reputation, bringing it close to financial collapse. It was ultimately saved by a cash injection from Software AG, a technology corporation with a history of funding anthroposophic projects.[15]

In 2006, anthroposophical medicine was practised in 80 countries.[16][unreliable source?]

In 2012 the University of Aberdeen considered establishing a chair in holistic health jointly funded by Software AG, and by the Anthroposophic Health, Education and Social Care Movement, each of which would provide £1.5 million of endowment.[15] Edzard Ernst commented "that any decent university should even consider an anthroposophical medicine unit seems incomprehensible. The fact that it would be backed by people who have a financial interest in this bogus approach makes it even worse".[15] The University's governance and nominations committee eventually decided not to proceed with the appointment.[12]

Categorization and conceptual basis

The categorization of anthroposophical medicine is complex since in part it complements conventional medicine, and in part it replaces it.[1] In recent times it has been promoted as an "extension to conventional medicine".[6]

In 1992, a workshop on alternative medicine prepared a report for the NIH on various alternative medicines and concluded that anthroposophical medicine, when considered as an extension to mainstream medicine, had three foundations: naturopathy, homeopathy, and that mainstream medicine itself.[2]

Edzard Ernst and Simon Singh call anthroposophical medicine an "entirely new school of medicine" based on Steiner's beliefs in which "imagination, inspiration and intuition" play a part. They describe it as including elements of mysticism, alchemy and homeopathy and say its therapeutic strategies are based on the notion that there is a relationship between plants, metals and human organs, and that a patient's past lives may influence their health.[8] According to Quackwatch illness is regarded as a "rite of passage" necessary to purge spiritual impurities carried over from past lives, according to the precepts of "karmic destiny".[17]

Robert Todd Carroll has said that anthroposophical medicine is "even more out of touch with modern, science-based medicine than homeopathy". In Caroll's view it represents the "very opposite of science" as a result of its being based on Steiner's claims to "special powers" that enabled him to tap into occult realities and receive wisdom, rather than proceed by an empirical experimental process.[10]

According to Edzard Ernst, anthroposophical medicine assumes "associations between four postulated dimensions of the human body (physical body, etheric body, astral body, and ego), plants, minerals, and the cosmos".[3] Ernst has said that anthroposophical medicine "includes some of the least plausible theories one could possibly imagine",[18] categorized it as "pure quackery",[12] and said that it has "has no basis in science".[15]

Methods

Anthroposophic drugs are prepared according to ancient notions of alchemy and homeopathy which are not related to the science underlying modern pharmacology:[3] during the preparation process, the patterns formed by crystallization are interpreted to see which "etheric force" they most nearly correspond to.[11] Most anthroposophic preparations are highly diluted, like homeopathic remedies, and while this means they are completely harmless in themselves, using them in place of conventional medicine to treat serious illness risks severe adverse consequences.[4]

Edzard Ernst writes that as well as drug remedies, anthroposophical medicine also includes "art therapy, rhythmic massages, special exercises, external applications, counselling, and anthroposophic nursing".[3]

Immunization

See also: Vaccine controversies

The risks arising from using anthroposophical medicine as a substitute for real medicine are exemplified by several cases of low vaccination levels in anthroposophic schools,[4] since some anthroposophical doctors oppose immunization.[6] A 1999 study of children in Sweden showed that in anthroposophical schools, only 18% had received MMR vaccination, compared to a level of 93% in other schools nationally.[4]

A 2003 report of a widespread measles outbreak around Coburg identified an anthroposophical school as the origin.[4] At the time the town major had condemned homeopathic doctors who had discouraged vaccination, saying "Their stronghold is the Waldorf School, which actively encourages people not to have their children vaccinated. Now we have an epidemic."[19]

Paul Offit writes that Steiner believed that vaccination "interferes with karmic development and the cycles of reincarnation", and that adherence to this belief this led to a 2008 pertussis outbreak in a Californian waldorf school, causing its temporary closure.[9]

Plant-derived treatments

To find remedies to treat a particular illness, physicians practising anthroposphical medicine consider the nature of the source of the substances used. The character of a mineral, plant or animal is considered to have been formed by the substances that are most active within it, such that this character may also reveal what the substance will accomplish when given to treat another organism. This is related to Samuel Hahnemann's Doctrine of signatures. Willow, for example, is considered to have an unusual character:

... plants that grow near water are usually heavy, with big, dark green leaves that wilt and break easily. An exception is... the white willow, a tree that always grows near water and loves light. However, unlike other "watery" plants, the willow has fine, almost dry leaves and looks very light... Its branches are unbelievably tough. They are elastic and cannot be broken. They bend easily and form "joints" rather than break. These few signatures can give us the clue to what salix can be used for therapeutically: arthritis, deformation of joints, swollen joints...[10]

There is no scientific evidence that the shape of plants has ever caused a new medical property to be discovered.[20] The intent of the medical approach is to consider both the effective substances and the character (not just shape) of the mineral, plant or animal these substances are drawn from, however.[21]

Heart

Steiner described the heart as not a mechanical device in which the heartbeat can be distinguished from the blood circulation. For Steiner, the heart was a regulator of flow, flow that in the blood of the circulatory system is, as Marinelli put it, "propelled with its own biological momentum, as can be seen in the embryo, and boosts itself with induced momenta from the heart".[7]

Mistletoe treatment for cancer

See also: List of ineffective cancer treatments

Rudolf Steiner proposed that mistletoe could cure cancer based on the observation that the plant was a parasite which eventually killed its host, so paralleling the progression of cancer.[3] Steiner believed the plant had to be harvested at the right time, as its medical potential was influenced by the position of the sun, moon and planets.[22] Some anthroposophical preparations are highly-diluted; others are made from fermented mistletoe.[3] The most common trade names for the remedies are Iscador and Helixor.[5]

According to the American Cancer Society, "available evidence from well-designed clinical trials does not support claims that mistletoe can improve length or quality of life".[5]

In 2006 Edzard Ernst wrote that approximately 30 types of mistletoe extracts were available; and concluded that the treatment "has no proved benefit, and can cause harm".[3] Mistletoe extracts are used as an unconventional treatment for cancer patients in the Netherlands and in Great Britain.[5] In Germany, the treatment has been approved as palliative therapy to treat the symptoms of patients with malignant tumors.[5] Various forms of mistletoe extract are available in Central Europe, where – a 2006 case study reports – it has been widely used.[23] Mistletoe extracts may not be distributed in or imported into the US except for the purpose of clinical research.[24]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Ernst, E (2008). "Anthroposophic medicine: A critical analysis". MMW Fortschritte der Medizin. 150 Suppl 1: 1–6. PMID 18540325. (citing Kienle, Gunver S.; Kiene, Helmut; Albonico, Hans Ulrich (2006). "Anthroposophische Medizin: Health Technology Assessment Bericht – Kurzfassung". Forschende Komplementärmedizin / Research in Complementary Medicine. 13 (2): 7. doi:10.1159/000093481. teils ergänzend und teils ersetzend zur konventionellen Medizin)
  2. ^ a b DIANE Publishing Company (1 July 1995). Alternative Medicine: Expanding Medical Horizons. DIANE Publishing. p. 86. ISBN 978-0-7881-1820-3.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g Ernst, E. (2006). "Mistletoe as a treatment for cancer". BMJ. 333 (7582): 1282–3. doi:10.1136/bmj.39055.493958.80. PMC 1761165. PMID 17185706.
  4. ^ a b c d e f Ernst, E (2008). "Anthroposophic medicine: A critical analysis". MMW Fortschritte der Medizin. 150 Suppl 1: 1–6. PMID 18540325.
  5. ^ a b c d e "Mistletoe". American Cancer Society. January 2013. Retrieved September 2013. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  6. ^ a b c Ernst, E (2011). "Anthroposophy: A risk factor for noncompliance with measles immunization". The Pediatric infectious disease journal. 30 (3): 187–9. doi:10.1097/INF.0b013e3182024274. PMID 21102363.
  7. ^ a b Marinelli, R., Fuerst, B., et al. "The Heart is not a Pump: A refutation of the pressure propulsion premise of heart function", Frontier Perspectives 5(1), Fall-Winter 1995
  8. ^ a b Singh, Simon; Ernst, Edzard (6 October 2009). Trick or Treatment? Alternative Medicine on Trial. Transworld. p. 135. ISBN 978-1-4090-8180-7.
  9. ^ a b Paul A. Offit (2011). Deadly Choices: How the Anti-Vaccine Movement Threatens Us All. Basic Books. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-465-02356-1.
  10. ^ a b c Carroll, Robert Todd (21 May 2012). "Anthroposophic medicine". The Skeptics Dictionary. Retrieved October 2013. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  11. ^ a b Dugan, Dan. Michael Shermer (ed.). Anthroposophy and Anthroposophical Medicine. ABC-CLIO. pp. 31–32. ISBN 978-1-57607-653-8. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  12. ^ a b c Jump, Paul (11 May 2012). "Aberdeen decides against alternative medicine chair". Times Higher Education Supplement.
  13. ^ Ita Wegman Klinik (German). Accessed 2007-12-26.
  14. ^ Lukas Clinic. Accessed 2007-12-26.
  15. ^ a b c d McKie, Robin; Hartmann, Laura (29 April 2012). "Holistic unit will 'tarnish' Aberdeen University reputation". The Observer.
  16. ^ Gunver Sophia Kienle; Helmut Kiene; Hans Ulrich Albonico (2006). Anthroposophic Medicine: Effectiveness, Utility, Costs, Safety. Schattauer Verlag. ISBN 978-3-7945-2495-2.
  17. ^ Rawlings, Roger. "Rudolf Steiner's Quackery". QuackWatch. Retrieved 10 September 2012.
  18. ^ Ernst, E (2010). "Anthroposophic Medicine". Focus on Alternative and Complementary Therapies. 12: 66. doi:10.1111/j.2042-7166.2007.tb04893.x.
  19. ^ Hall, Alan (6 March 2002). "Anti-vaccine town struck by measles epidemic". The Times. p. 3.
  20. ^ Bennett, Bradley C. (2007). "Doctrine of Signatures: An Explanation of Medicinal Plant Discovery or Dissemination of Knowledge?". Economic Botany. 61 (3): 246–255 doi=10.1663/0013–0001. doi:10.1663/0013-0001. Retrieved 2008-08-31. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |month= and |coauthors= (help); Missing pipe in: |pages= (help)
  21. ^ Angaben zu Pflanzeninhaltsstoffen bei Rudolf Steiner. Merkurstab 1994; 47:561- 80
  22. ^ James S. Olson (5 January 2005). Bathsheba's Breast: Women, Cancer, and History. JHU Press. p. 452. ISBN 978-0-8018-8064-3. Retrieved 1 September 2013.
  23. ^ Finall, A I; McIntosh, S A; Thompson, W D (2006). "Subcutaneous inflammation mimicking metastatic malignancy induced by injection of mistletoe extract". BMJ. 333 (7582): 1293–4. doi:10.1136/bmj.39044.460023.BE. PMC 1761174. PMID 17185712.
  24. ^ "Overview". Mistletoe Extracts (PDQ®). National Cancer Institute. July 2013. Retrieved October 2013. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)

Further Reading

Journal review articles

  • Ernst, Edzard (2004). Anthroposophical medicine: A systematic review of randomised clinical trials. Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift, 116(4):128-130, ISSN 0043-5325, PMID 15038403.
  • Kienle, G. H., and Kiene, H. (2007). Complementary cancer therapy: A systematic review of prospective clinical trials on anthroposophic mistletoe extracts. European Journal of Medical Research, 12:103-119, PMID 17507307. Reprint (accessed 10/29/2007).

Lectures by Rudolf Steiner

  • Broken Vessels : The Spiritual Structure of Human Frailty, Michael Lipson (ed.). ISBN 0-88010-503-8.
  • Fundamentals of Anthroposophical Medicine, ISBN 0-936132-80-9.
  • Geographic medicine: The secret of the double. ISBN 0-936132-06-X
  • The Healing Process : Spirit, Nature & Our Bodies, Catherine E. Creeger (ed.). ISBN 0-88010-474-0
  • Introducing Anthroposophical Medicine (Foundations of Anthroposophical Medicine, v. 1). ISBN 0-88010-463-5
  • Medicine: An Introductory Reader, Andrew Maendl (ed.). ISBN 1-85584-133-9
  • Occult Physiology ISBN 1-85584-141-X
  • Pastoral Medicine: The Collegial Working of Doctors and Priests. ISBN 0-88010-253-5

External links

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anthroposophic_medicine&oldid=579598924"