Ontario Highway 401

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"Highway 401" redirects here. For other uses, see List of highways numbered 401.

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Provincial Highway 401, also known by its official name of the Macdonald–Cartier Freeway and colloquially as the four-oh-one,[1] is a freeway in the Canadian province of Ontario. It is the longest of the 400-Series highways, stretching 815.0 kilometres (506.4 mi) from Windsor to the Quebec border, the busiest highway in North America,[2] and one of the widest and busiest in the world.[3] Together with Quebec Autoroute 20, it forms the transportation backbone of the Quebec City – Windsor Corridor, along which over half of Canada's population resides.

Three highways were renumbered "Highway 401" in 1952: the 11.8 km (7.3 mi) Toronto Bypass between Weston Road and Highway 11 (Yonge Street); Highway 2A for 54.7 km (34.0 mi) between West Hill in Scarborough, and Newcastle, east of Oshawa; and the 41.2 km (25.6 mi) Highway 2S between Gananoque and Butternut Bay, west of Brockville, now known as the Thousand Islands Parkway. It became fully navigable from Windsor to the Quebec border by 1964. In 1965, the highway was given a second designation, the Macdonald–Cartier Freeway, in honour of the fathers of confederation. In 1968, the Gananoque–Brockville section was bypassed, and the final intersection grade-separated near Kingston, making Highway 401 a freeway for its entire 542 mi (872 km) length. On August 24, 2007, the portion of the highway between Trenton and the Don Valley Parkway in Toronto was designated as the Highway of Heroes, as the road is travelled by fallen Canadian soldiers from the Canadian Forces Base to the coroners office in Toronto.

The entire route is maintained by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario (MTO) and patrolled by the Ontario Provincial Police. It has a posted speed limit of 100 kilometres per hour (62 mph) throughout its length.

Route description

Highway 401 is an 815-kilometre (506 mi) span of asphalt and concrete, stretch across Southwestern, Central, and Eastern Ontario. In foresight of its potential use, most of the freeway occupies only a portion of the 91.4 m (300 ft) right-of-way purchased by the original planners.[4] The 401 is one of the world's busiest highways,[3] with an estimated annual average daily traffic (AADT) count of 431,900 in Toronto between Weston Road and Highway 400, as of 2006.[5] This makes it the busiest roadway in North America, surpassing the Santa Monica Freeway in Los Angeles, Interstate 10 (I-10) in Houston, and I-75 in Atlanta.[6] The just-in-time inventory systems of the highly integrated auto industry of Michigan and Ontario have contributed to the highway's status as the busiest truck route in the world,[7] carrying 60% of vehicular trade between Canada and the US.[6]

"Several adjacent bridge passing over a valley on an overcast winter day. Snow covers half of the ground, grass the rest. A strip of trees stands in front of the foremost bridge, the concrete bridge supports towering overhead."
The four-structured Hogg's Hollow bridge over the Don Valley in Toronto is the busiest multi-structure bridge in North America, surpassing the Brooklyn Bridge.

Highway 401 also features the busiest multi-structure bridge in North America, located at Hogg's Hollow in Toronto.[7] The four bridges, two for each direction carrying the collector and express lanes, carried an average of 373,700 vehicles over them daily in 2006.[5] The 401 is one of the major backbones in a series of highways in the Great Lakes region, connecting the populous Quebec City–Windsor corridor with Michigan, New York, and central Ontario's cottage country.[8] It is the principal connection between Toronto and Montreal, becoming Autoroute 20 at the Quebec border.[9]

Southwestern Ontario

The border crossing at Windsor and Detroit is the busiest trade crossing in the world,[7] although the 401 itself does not physically extend the last few kilometres into Detroit.[note 1][10] A proposed Windsor–Detroit border crossing may result in Highway 401 connecting directly to the border by 2013.[11] At present, Highway 401 begins at Huron Church Road (formerly Highway 3), with four lanes diverging north. At Dougall Avenue, the highway veers east, becoming six lanes, and exits Windsor.[12] From here, the 401 more or less parallels the former route of Highway 98 to Tilbury. From Tilbury to London, the highway reverts to four lanes and mostly follows lot lines laid between concession roads, a plan carried out to avoid damage to agricultural lands along many sections of the highway.[13] Because to the lack of engagement due of the flat and straight lengths of highway,[14] the section of the 401 from Windsor to London, especially west of Tilbury, has become known for several deadly car accidents and pile ups that have occurred over the years, earning it the nickname Carnage Alley.[15] As the highway approaches London, Highway 402 joins it,[12] and the 401 once again widens to six lanes.[16]

"A photograph taken driving down a highway on a foggy day. The highways passes over several humps in a roller-coaster like fashion before disappearing over one hump. It is straight throughout the photo. The setting is rural, with some trees interspersed among large fields, resembling a classic interpretation of the English countryside."
Highway 401 between London and Ingersoll features undulating terrain, but remains straight and generally unengaging.

The section from London to Woodstock follows somewhat parallel to Highway 2, but on the south side of the Thames River. While the topography becomes less flat through this section, the highway remains mostly straight and relatively unaltered by time. To the south of Woodstock, the 401 curves northeast and Highway 403 diverges from it, continuing eastward. Highway 401 winds its way towards Kitchener and Cambridge, where it converges with the Highway 8, and returns to its eastward orientation. Parts of the highway between Woodstock and Kitchener / Cambridge remain four laned, with additional lanes currently under construction.[17] East of Cambridge, the highway meanders towards Milton and the Greater Toronto Area.

Greater Toronto Area

"A black and white photo showcasing a wide highway as seen from a bridge above it. Several dozen cars can be seen driving along the highway, blurred by the speed they are travelling at."
Highway 401 through Toronto ranges from 12 to 18 lanes wide. Note also the resurfacing of the highway on the left side.

As Highway 401 approaches the Greater Toronto Area (GTA), it descends the Niagara Escarpment to the west of Milton.[18] After passing though the town, it enters the western side of the Greenbelt, a zone of land around Toronto protected from development. After this 10 km (6.2 mi) gap, the highway enters the urban sprawl of the Greater Toronto Area. For nearly 90 km (56 mi), the highway is essentially urban, passing through only a few short breaks on its journey from Mississauga to Oshawa.

As the 401 approaches the large Highway 403 / Highway 410 junction in the centre of Mississauga, it blossoms in width into a express-collector setup (also referred to as the core-collector system), a concept borrowed from the Dan Ryan Expressway in Chicago.[4] This section of the 401 serves to interconnect the freeways in the area, and is 18 lanes wide to promote an uninterrupted traffic flow between them, as well as Toronto's international airport, which lies immediately to the north of the 401. Progressing eastward, the collectors diverge to Highway 427, and eight lanes are carried beneath the spaghetti junction. The highway curves northeast and follows alongside a hydro corridor to Highway 409, which merges alongside the core lanes to become the collector lanes. The highway returns to its eastward journey through Toronto, now carrying fourteen lanes of traffic on four separate carriageways.

"A video camera mounted on a tall cement pole which is mounted on the side of a roadway. The camera is not pointing at the roadway visible at the bottom-right of the picture, but to the left."
Traffic cameras are mounted at every exit within Toronto, and form one part of the COMPASS system.

To manage traffic through this heavily travelled section of the freeway, Highway 401 was equipped with COMPASS in early 1991.[19] Using a combination of closed-circuit television cameras, vehicle detection loops and LED changeable message signs, COMPASS allows the MTO Traffic Operations Centre to obtain a real-time assessment of traffic conditions and alert drivers of collisions, congestion and construction.[20] The system currently stretches from the Highway 403 and 410 interchange in Mississauga to Harwood Avenue in Ajax.[21]

Through most of the day, the 401 is gridlocked in this section, with over 430,000 cars passing between Weston Road and Highway 400.[5] In spite of this, it is still the primary commuting route in Toronto. Over 50% of vehicles bound for downtown Toronto make use of the 401 in their travels.[22]

East of Highway 400, the 401 approaches Yorkdale Mall, Canada's first indoor shopping centre. Twelve lanes pass beneath the sprawling Allen Road interchange, which includes a pair of subway tracks passing over the highway. Further east, the highway crosses Hoggs Hollow over the West Don River and passes Yonge Street in the centre of Toronto. After passing through a predominantly residential area, the 401 crosses the East Don River and climbs toward the Don Valley Parkway, which provides access to downtown, and Highway 404 northward.

Past Highway 404, the highway continues through mostly residential areas within Scarborough. At McCowan Road it passes to the north of the Scarborough Town Centre, another large mall. The highway continues east through suburban Toronto, finally reaching the Rouge Valley on the city's eastern edge, and crossing into Pickering.

"A traffic jam on a 14-lane freeway, taken from a highway overpass on a clear day. The highway disappears into the distance, surrounded by suburban development on either side."
Despite its width, gridlock at rush hour is commonplace along Highway 401 in Toronto.

At Pickering, the highway once again meets with Highway 2, which parallels the route to the Quebec border. As the highway approaches Brock Road in the heart of Pickering, the collectors and express lanes converge, narrowing fourteen lanes to ten, divided only at the centre. It remains this width into Ajax, before narrowing back to six lanes at Salem Road.

The 401 through Whitby and Oshawa features several structures dating to the construction of the highway in the 1940s. Several of these structures are planned for demololition, including the former CN overpass, either due to their age, or to prepare for the planned widening of Highway 401 through this area. At Harmony Road, the suburban surroundings vanish, and are quickly replaced by agriculture. The highway swings south of Bowmanville, and towards Highway 35 and Highway 115.

Eastern Ontario

East of Highway 35 and Highway 115 to Port Hope, the 401 passes through a mix of agricultural land and forests, maintaining a straight course. As the highway passes through Cobourg, it narrows to four lanes and enters the Canadian Shield, an ancient, rocky geological formation. The terrain becomes undulating, and the highway veers around hills and through valleys along the shores of Lake Ontario. At Trenton, the highway crosses the Trent Canal, and leaves the Shield, returning to an agricultural setting eastward to Kingston. The Kingston portion of the 401, named the Kingston-Bypass originally, was one of the first sections of the highway completed.[23]

"A four lane freeway spills down a bumpy slope on a clear winter day, with little visible snow on the ground. In the background, the highway passes beneath a arched bridge, and curves left out of the frame. In the foreground, several orange signs indicated the presence of construction. The highway is being used by mostly truck and bus traffic, and is not especially busy."
Highway 401 within Kingston. This section is in the precess of being widened to six lanes.

East of Kingston, the highway continues through a dominantly agricultural area alongside the Saint Lawrence River to Gananoque, where it splits with the Thousand Islands Parkway. The parkway, once four-lanes for its entire length, was the previous alignment of Highway 401, running along the shores of the river. However, due to numerous at-grade intersections, the parkway was bypassed in 1968. The current Highway 401 follows parallel to the parkway, but several kilometres from the river in a heavily forested area. The Canadian Shield returns through this section of the highway. The highway rejoins the Thousand Islands Parkway immediately southwest of Brockville, now heading northeast.

The remainder of the length of the 401 follows parallel to Highway 2 along the shore of the Saint Lawrence River within the National Capital Region. Northeast of Brockville is the intersection with Highway 416, which heads north towards Ottawa. At the Quebec border, Highway 401 becomes Autoroute 20 and continues to Montreal.

History

Predecessors

Main articles: Lake Shore Road, The Middle Road, Highway 2, and Highway 2A

Highway 401's history predates its designation by over two decades. As automobile use in southern Ontario grew in the early twentieth century, road design and construction went through phases. In January 1914, a cement road known as the Toronto–Hamilton Highway was proposed.[24] The highway was chosen to run along the macadamized old Lake Shore Road, instead of Dundas Street to the north, due to the numerous hills encountered along Dundas Street which would have increased the cost of the road without improving accessibility. Middle Road, a dirt lane named because of its position between the two, was not considered since Lake Shore and Dundas were both overcrowded and in need of serious repairs.[25] By November of that year, the proposal was approved,[26] and work began quickly to construct the road known today as Lake Shore Boulevard and Lakeshore Road from Toronto to Hamilton. The road was finished by 1917, 18 feet (5.5 m) in width and nearly 40 mi (64 km) long, becoming the first concrete road in Ontario, as well as one of the longest stretches of concrete road between two cities in the world.[27] The highway became the favourite drive of many motorists, and it quickly became a tradition for many families to drive it every Sunday.[28]

"A black and white photo of a rural area. A divided road (divided by a grass centre with trees) is paved and runs from the right into the background, with several cars visible in the distance. Several tall conifers dominate the foreground."
Middle Road in 1937, east of present day Erin Mills Parkway, looking east towards Toronto.

Over the next decade, vehicle usage increased monumentally, and even by 1920 the Lake Shore Road was once again bumper to bumper on weekends.[29] In response, the Department of Highways once again sought out improving another road between Toronto and Hamilton. Middle Road, a continuation of Queen Street west of the Humber River, was chosen to avoid delays on Dundas or Lake Shore. The road was to be more than twice the width of the Lake Shore Road, at 40 ft (12 m), and would carry two lanes of traffic in either direction.[30] Construction on what was then known as the Queen Street Extension between Highway 10 and Highway 27 began in early 1931,[31] and between Highway 27 and the Humber River on November 1, 1931.[32]

Before the highway could be completed, the 1934 provincial elections brought Mitchell Hepburn into office as premier and Thomas McQuesten was appointed the new minister of the Department of Highways.[33] McQuesten in turn appointed Robert Melville Smith as deputy minister. Smith, inspired by the German Autobahns—new "dual-lane divided highways", separated by a depressed grass centre crossing short distances between major cities—modified the design for Ontario roads,[34] and McQuesten ordered that the Middle Road be changed into this new form of highway.[35][36][37] A right-of-way of 132 ft (40 m) was purchased along the Middle Road and construction began to convert the existing sections to a divided highway, as well as on Canada's first cloverleaf interchange at Highway 10.[30]

"A highway passes beneath the camera, and continues straight into the horizon. It is surrounded by forests on either side, and contains no guardrail to separate opposite flows of traffic."
The former Highway 2A near Highland Creek, aside from a resurfaced pavement, has not been altered since it opened in 1947.

Beginning in 1935, McQuesten applied the concept of a second roadway to several projects along Highway 2:[33] a 4 mi (6.4 km) stretch west of Brockville,[38][39] a 4.5 km (2.8 mi) stretch from Woodstock eastward[38] and a section between Birchmount Road and east of Morningside Avenue in Scarborough Township.[39] When widening in Scarborough reached the Highland Creek ravine in 1936, east of Morningside, the Department of Highways began construction on a new bridge over the large valley, bypassing the former alignment around West Hill.[40] From here the highway was constructed along a new alignment to Oshawa, avoiding construction on the congested Highway Two.[4] As grading and bridge construction neared completion between Highland Creek and Ritson Road in September 1939, World War 2 broke out, and gradually money was syphoned from highway construction to aid in the war effort.[33]

At the same time, between September 6–8, 1939, the Ontario Good Roads Association Conference was held at Bigwin Inn, near Huntsville,[41] drawing highway engineers from throughout North America to discuss the new concept of "Dual Highways". On the first day of the convention, McQuesten announced his vision of the freeway: an uninterrupted drive through the scenic regions of Ontario, discouraging local business and local traffic from accessing the highway except at infrequent controlled-access points.[42] It was quickly announced in the days thereafter that this concept would be applied to a new "trans-provincial expressway", running from Windsor to the Quebec border.[43]

They are designed for sustained speed, with the best alignments, fewest curves and least grades possible and by-passing centres of population.

Thomas McQueston[42]

Highway engineers evaluated various factors such as grading, curve radius, the narrow median, etc., used along the Middle Road (which was inaugurated on June 3 as The Queen Elizabeth Way),[44] and began to plan the course of a new dual highway mostly parallel Highway 2, with precedence to areas most hampered by congestion. Unlike the Queen Elizabeth Way (QEW), this highway would not be built along an existing road, but instead on a new right-of-way, avoiding the need to provide an alternative means of access to properties.[33][42]

Along with immense improvements of machinery and construction techniques over its six year course, the war provided ample opportunity for planners to conduct a large-scale origin–destination survey of 375,000 drivers, asking what their preferred route would be to get to where they needed to go. Using this information, a course was plotted from Windsor to Quebec, bypassing all towns along the way.[4][45]

Highway 2S, for Scenic, was the first completed section of new roadway. Built to connect with the Thousand Islands Bridge at Ivy Lea, and opened as a gravel road in late 1941 or early 1942,[46] the road followed the shore of the St. Lawrence River, and connected with the western end of the twinned Highway 2 west of Brockville.[12] While initially gravel, and today only a two lane road, it was a fully paved four lane roadway by the end of the decade.[47][48][49]

Following the war, construction resumed on roadways throughout Ontario. The expressway between Highland Creek and Oshawa was completed in December 1947,[4] while other sections remained on the back burner. The Toronto–Barrie Highway was the primary focus of the Department of Highways at the time, and the onset of the Korean War in 1949 continued to stall the building of highways. Despite the delays, highway minister George Doucette officially announced the plans for construction of the new trans-provincial expressway in 1950, with the Toronto to Oshawa expressway serving as a model for the design.[33]

Work on the most important link, the Toronto Bypass, began in 1951,[33] but it would not open with that name.

Highway 401

"A long exposure of a highway taken from the side of it. The highway stretches from the upper-right corner to the lower-left. Streams of light show the movement of cars along the highway. Tall poles support lights atop them, which glow brilliantly. Many buildings and lights are visible in the distance, including the CN Tower."
Highway 401 illuminated at night.

In July 1952 (possibly July 1, the same day Highway 400 was numbered)[50] the Highland Creek to Oshawa expressway, as well as its new extension to Newcastle and Highway 2S were designated Highway 401,[4] a move scorned by one critic.[51] That same year, construction wrapped up on the first section of the Toronto Bypass between Weston Road and Yonge Street. Extensions east and west began in 1953, and while the eastern extension to Bayview Avenue would open just a year later, the western extension was delayed by Hurricane Hazel's arrival on October 15, 1954, which all but destroyed the new bridge over the Humber River. The new bridge would open almost nine months later on July 8, 1955.[52] The entire bypass, including the widening of Highway 27 into an expressway south of the 401[53] was completed in 1956.[4] Upon its opening, the bypass was described by one reporter as "a motorists dream" providing "some of the most soothing scenery in the Metropolitan area." The reporter continued, with regard to the eastern section through Scarborough, that it "winds smoothly through pastures across streams and rivers, and beside green thickets. It seems a long way from the big city."[4] This would not remain the case for long.

By this point, the word had spread that Ontario was building a 500 mile road without a single traffic light. The story was published in several major newspapers around the continent,[54][55][56] and the results spoke for themselves. By 1959, the bypass was a lineup of cars, as 85,000 drivers crowded the roadway, designed to handle 48,000 vehicles, on a daily basis.[4] The convenience of a road to get across the city sparked the suburban shift in Toronto, and continues to be a driving force of suburban sprawl today.[50]

Highway 401 colour coded by the years each section opened to traffic

Meanwhile, beyond Toronto, work was underway to construct the 401 like a patchwork quilt, focusing on congested areas first.[33] Construction west from Highway 27 began in late 1954,[23] as well as on the Kingston Bypass in Eastern Ontario.[57] Work began to connect the latter with the Scenic Highway in 1955.[23] By 1956, construction began on the segment between Highway 4 in London and Highway 2 in Woodstock, as well as on the section between Windsor and Tilbury.[58]

By the end of 1960, the Toronto section of the 401 was extended both eastwards and westwards; first, to the east between Newcastle and Port Hope by mid-year, then later to the west between Highway 25 in Milton and Highway 8 south of Kitchener.[59] By mid 1961, the section between Brighton and Marysville had been opened.[60] The gap to the east of it, from Highway 28 in Port Hope to Highway 30 in Brighton was opened on July 20, 1961.[61]

A blue plaque on a stone wall. The plaque has a yellow border, and is mostly rectangular in shape, with the long end oriented horizontally. However, the top side has a camel hump in the centre, with a circle centred at the top of the hump. Inside the circle is an Ontario coat-of-arms. The plaque reads:THE MACDONALD CARTIER FREEWAY This plaque commemorates the completion of the Maconald-Cartier Freeway (Highway 401), the longest freeway operated without tolls by a single highway authority in North America. Covering 510 miles between Windsor on the United States border and the Ontario-Quebec boundary, it serves the richest economic reigion in Canada. In January, 1965, it was named by The Honourable John P. Robarts, Prime Minister of Ontario, in honour of the two founding architects of the Confederation of Canada, Sir John A. Macdonald and Sir Georges Etienne Cartier. This site is located on the last section of construction, consisting of 15 miles between Ivy Lea and Highway 2, which was completed on October 11, 1968.
Highway 401 was completed in 1968. This plaque near Brockville commemorates the official opening of the highway.

The gaps between Woodstock and Kitchener, and between Tilbury and London were completed in late 1961 and 1963, respectively, while the gap between Marysville and Kingston was opened by 1962.[60] The final sections from west of Cornwall to Lancaster were opened in 1963 and 1964.[60][62] Finally, on October 11, 1968, the Thousand Islands Bypass opened.[4] This final piece was commemorated with a plaque to signify the "completion" of the 401. While the highway was now "finished", the construction would not cease.

Back in Toronto, engineers and surveyors were examining the four lane bypass, while planners set about designing a way to handle the commuter highway. In 1963, transportation minister Charles MacNaughton, announced the widening of Highway 401 in Toronto from four to a minimum of twelve lanes between Islington Avenue and Markham Road. The design was taken from the Dan Ryan Expressway in Chicago, which was widened into a collector-express system around the same time.[4] Construction began immediately, and while the plan initially called for it to wrap up in 1967, it would last for nearly a decade. The system was completed in 1972 along with the Highway 27 bypass north of the 401. It included the reconstruction of all interchanges along its length into the Parclo A4, as well as a continuous lighting system.[33]

In January 1965, the Premier of Ontario John Robarts designated Highway 401 the Macdonald–Cartier Freeway, to honour both Sir John A. Macdonald and Sir George-Étienne Cartier, two of Canada's Fathers of Confederation.[4] Unlike other names applied to the freeway since this time, the Macdonald–Cartier Freeway designation covers the entire length of Highway 401.

In the seventies, Highway 401 was widened to six lanes in Durham, but otherwise saw little improvements.[33] The eighties saw more sections widened, as well as a new eighteen-lane collector-express system within Mississauga between Highway 403 and Highway 427. Plans were made to extend the eastern system from Neilson Road to Brock Road in Pickering in the late eighties,[63] and took over a decade to reach fruition by 2000.[64][65] This was followed shortly thereafter by the widening of the highway through Ajax, and a new interchange at Pickering Beach Road (renamed Salem Road) and Stevenson Road.[66]

The nineties also saw the first step in widening the highway to six lanes from Toronto to London. A project in the mid-nineties brought the highway up to a minimum of six lanes between Highway 8 in Kitchener and Highway 35 / 115 in Newcastle.[67] While other projects prepared sections for eventual widening.[68]

In 1993, the stretch of Highway 401 eastbound near Milton and westbound near Whitby had chevrons painted in each lane in an effort to reduce tailgating, a concept borrowed from France and Britain. Signs advised motorists to keep at least two chevrons apart, in essence warning them not to follow too closely.[69] Some of these chevrons remain intact in the westbound lanes in Whitby, though the signs stating their use have since been removed.[70]

Beginning in 1998, several projects were initiated on Highway 401 within Toronto. This included the addition of one lane through the Highway 427 interchange in 2005, as well as the resurfacing of the pavement.[71]

"Driving down a wide highway during the day. Infront are two signs mounted on an overhead lattice. The left sign marks the upcoming end of a lane. In the distance, several highway lanes converge, leaving a large dirt median in the centre."
Highway 401 at Nielson Road in 1989. For two decades this marked the eastbound end of the collector-express system. By 1999, it was extended as far as Brock Road in Pickering. Another extension as far as Whitby is in the planning stages.

Advantage: I-75

Between June 1990 and 1998, Highway 401 and Interstate 75 were used for a pilot project named Advantage I-75 to test out the reliability and versatility of an automated tracking system for transport trucks, termed MACS for Mainline Automated Clearance System, which would allow a truck to travel from Florida to Ontario without a second inspection.[72] MACS was initially tested out at two truck inspection stations in Kentucky, and with transponders installed in 220 trucks. Exact time, date, location, weight, and axle data were logged as a truck approached an equipped station.[73] Following initial tests, MACS was deployed at every inspection station along I-75 from Miami to Detroit and along Highway 401 from Windsor to Belleville in 1994.[72] The project demonstrated the effectiveness of electronic systems in enforcing freight restrictions without delaying vehicles, while alleviating security fears that such systems could be easily compromised. The concept has since been applied to many parts of Canada, including Highway 407's electronic tolling system.[74]

"Carnage Alley"

Around the same time, the section of Highway 401 between Windsor and London became known as Carnage Alley, a reference to the numerous accidents that occurred over that stretch of the highway through out the nineties.[33] Various other names, including The Killer Highway circulated for a time,[75] before Carnage Alley became prominent following an 87-vehicle pile-up on September 3, 1999, the worst in Canadian history.[76]

"A black and white photo showcasing a wide highway as seen from a bridge above it. Several dozen cars can be seen driving along the highway, blurred by the speed they are travelling at."
Highway 401 through Toronto ranges from 12 to 18 lanes wide. Note also the resurfacing of the highway on the left side.

Only a few days prior, then Transportation Minister David Turnbull had deemed the killer highway "pleasant" to drive.[77] On the morning of September 3, the local weather station reported clear conditions due to a malfunction,[76] while a thick layer of fog rolled onto the highway. The unimproved section of road with an open grass median proved fatal to seven, as 87 vehicles quickly crashed into each other shortly after 8 am,[78]one following another, in the dense fog.[79]

Immediately following the accident, the MTO installed paved shoulders with rumble strips[80] and funded additional police to patrol the highway, a move criticized as being insufficient.[81] Beginning in 2004, 46 km (29 mi) of the highway was widened from four concrete lanes to six asphalt lanes, paved shoulders added, a concrete Ontario Tall Wall median installed,[82] interchanges improved and signage upgraded as part of a five phase project to improve the 401 from Highway 3 in Windsor to Essex County Road 42 (formerly Highway 2) on the western edge of Tilbury.[83]

In the first quarter of 2007, Bill 203, the Safer Roads for a Safer Ontario Act was introduced to parliament by project ERASE (Eliminate Racing Activities on Streets Everywhere), a campaign created by local and provincial police.[84][85] The law, passed September 30, 2007, allows police to immediately suspend the driver’s licence and impound the vehicle involved for seven days in the case of "excessive speeding" (driving 50 kilometres per hour (31 mph) over the limit, or over 150 km/h (93 mph) on 400-series highways).[86][87] Transport truck maximum speed is also limited by speed governors to 105 km/h, as in nearby Quebec.[88]

"A large blue billboard to the side of the highway. In the centre is the text, over 4 lines, reading: 'Highway of Heroes Autoroute des héros'. To the left of it is a Highway 401 reassurance marker. To the right of the text is another reassurance marker, this time with a red poppy in place of the number '401'."
A Highway of Heroes billboard.

Recent history

On August 24, 2007, the MTO announced that the stretch of Highway 401 between Glen Miller Road, in Trenton, and the intersection of the Don Valley Parkway and Highway 404, in Toronto, would bear the additional name Highway of Heroes, in honour of Canada's fallen soldiers,[89] though Highway 401 in its entirety remains designated as the Macdonald–Cartier Freeway.[90] This length of the freeway is often travelled by a convoy of vehicles carrying a fallen soldier's body, with his or her family, from CFB Trenton to the coroner's office at the Centre for Forensic Sciences in Toronto. Since 2002, when the first of Canada's fallen soldiers were returned from Afghanistan, crowds have lined the overpasses to pay their respects as convoys pass.[91]

"A signpost with two King's Highway reassurance markers mounted to the left and right of the post. The left one has the number 401, while the right has a red poppy, with the text 'Highway of Heroes' above it. Below is a rectangular sign mounted in the centre of the post, with 'WEST' written within it."
The English variation of the Highway of Heroes reassurance marker.

The origin of the name can be traced to a June 25, 2007 article in the Toronto Sun by columnist Joe Warmington, in which he interviews Northumberland columnist and photographer Pete Fisher. Warmington describes the gathering of crowds on overpasses to welcome fallen soldiers as a "highway of heroes phenomena."[92] This led Crahame Township volunteer firefighter Ken Awender to contact Fisher on July 10 about starting a petition, leading Fisher to publish an article in the Cobourg Daily Star and Port Hope Evening Guide three days later. This article was in turn posted to the Northumberland Today website.[93] The online article was picked up by several media outlets, and eventually caught the attention of London resident Jay Forbes. Forbes began a petition, which went on to receive over 20,000 signatures[89] before being brought to the attention of Ontario transportation minister Joanne Cansfield on August 22.[94] Following the announcement on August 24, the provincial government and MTO set out to design new signs. The signs were erected and unveiled on September 7,[90] and include a smaller reassurance marker (shield) with a poppy and the text "Highway of Heroes" in place of a number, as well as a larger billboard version with English and French text. A French translation of the poppy shield is also posted within Toronto.

"A black and white photograph of a highway, likely from the height of a nearby building, taken in the afternoon on a clear sunny day. The wide highway cuts through a forested city. Only one vehicle is visible on the otherwise barren highway, dwarfed by its size."
Highway 401 was closed during the 2008 Toronto Propane Explosion, allowing for this rare photo of the 14-lane freeway occupied by a single vehicle.

On Sunday August 10, 2008, following a series of explosions at a propane facility in Toronto, Highway 401 was closed between Highway 400 and Highway 404 as a precautionary measure[95] The highway remained closed until 8pm, though several exits near the blast remained closed thereafter.[96][97]

Future

The MTO intends to widen all of the remaining four-lane sections to a minimum of six, and place an Ontario Tall Wall along the entire length of the freeway.[82][98]

Windsor–Essex Parkway

New section near Windsor

In 2004, it was announced that a new border crossing would be constructed between Detroit and Windsor. The Detroit River International Crossing (DRIC) was formed as a bi-national committee to manage the project.[99] The MTO took advantage of this opportunity to extend Highway 401 to the international border, and began an environmental assessment on the entire project in late 2005.[99] Alongside this, the City of Windsor hired New York traffic consultant Sam Schwartz to design a parkway to the border. Schwartz's proposal would eventually inspire the DRIC's own design, but his route was not chosen, with the DRIC opting instead to take a northern route.[100] On February 8, 2008, the MTO announced that it had began purchasing property south of the E.C. Row Expressway,[101] upsetting many area residents who purchased properties in the years prior.[102][103]

On March 3, 2008, the Michigan Department of Transportation and the MTO (in partnership with Transport Canada and the Federal Highway Administration of the United States, and the Detroit River International Crossing group) completed a joint assessment on the soils along the Detroit River and determined the soils along the river could indeed support the weight of a new bridge; a grave concern of all parties involved in the project was the stability of the underlying soil and clay, as well as the impact of the nearby Windsor Salt mine.[104]

On May 1, 2008, it was announced that the extension of the 401 will be named the Windsor–Essex Parkway, and a preferred route was selected.[11] The new parkway will be below-grade and have 6 through-lanes. It will follow (but not replace) Talbot Road and Huron-Church Road from a new interchange at the current end of Highway 401, to the E.C. Row Expressway, which it will run concurrently with westward for 2 km (1.2 mi). From there, it will turn northwest and follow a new alignment to the border.[105] Initial construction of a new bridge south of the Highway 3/401 junction, as well as a noise barrier from North Talbot Road to Howard Avenue began in the third quarter of 2009. The project has an expected completion date of 2013.[106]

Southwestern Ontario

In Southwestern Ontario, most improvements along the 401 have been completed to provide six lanes from Windsor to Toronto,[98] in response to the Carnage Alley pile up in 1999.[82][107] West of Manning Road, the highway is currently being widened in anticipation of the Windsor–Essex Parkway.[11][108] Between Tilbury and Highway 402, the 401 remains four lanes wide with a grass median. The widening and upgrading of this section is in the planning stages, with construction possibly beginning in 2012 and lasting for several years. Several interchanges are planned for improvement as part of this construction.[109] Further east, construction is underway to widen several kilometres of the highway east of the junction with Highway 402,[83][110] as well as closing the remaining four lane gap between Woodstock and Kitchener.[17]

Central Ontario

In their 2007 plan for southern Ontario, the MTO announced long-term plans to create HOV-lanes from Mississauga Road west to Milton.[111] Construction is also underway to widen Highway 401 to a 12 lane collector-express system from Highway 403 and Highway 410 west to Mississauga Road.[112]

Within Toronto, a select number of projects are being completed during overnight construction projects. This includes the widening and rehabilitation of the Hogg's Hollow bridge,[113] as well as the replacement of the original gantries throughout the collector-express system.[114]

In Oshawa, Exit 416 (Park Road) was replaced by a new interchange at Exit 415 (Stevenson Road). The contract, which began September 7, 2005, included the interchange as well as the resurfacing of 23.4 km (14.5 mi) of the highway between Oshawa and Highway 35 / Highway 115, at a total cost of $65,097,000.00.[115] The westbound ramps were opened in mid September, 2007[116] and the eastbound ramps in mid-2009. Resurfacing is expected to be completed by July 31, 2010.[115]

Current expansion plans in Durham include the construction of two new freeways north from the 401. The first will be directly east of Durham Regional Road 23 (Lakeridge Road),[117] while the second will lie to the east of Durham Regional Road 34 (Courtice Road).[118] Following the 407 east extension's approval, Highway 401 will be widened to an extension of the express-collector system, from its current end at Durham Regional Road 1 (Brock Road) in Pickering to Durham Regional Highway 12 (Brock Street) in Whitby.[119] Long term plans also call for HOV lanes to run from Brock Road to Durham Regional Road 33 (Harmony Road), though no planning has begun at this time.[111]

Eastern Ontario

East of Durham, the MTO is planning to widen the entire length of the highway to 6 lanes.[98] Preliminary work includes the widening of the bridge over the Trent River in Trenton,[120] as well as the realignment of some roads alongside the highway.[121] By mid 2012, the 401 will be widened for 6 kilometres through Kingston.[122]

Services

Highway 401 features 19 service centres that are controlled by the MTO. These service centres were announced in 1961 following public outcry to the lack of rest stops, and provide a place to park, rest, eat and refuel 24 hours a day.[4] Most service centres are undergoing construction as the leases on them with the major gasoline distributors expire. The new service centres will feature a Canadian Tire gas station and convenience store, Tim Hortons, A&W and Burger King, and will open in phases beginning in July 2010.[123]

Service centres are located at the following points along Highway 401:

Location Direction(s) Nearby Exits Services
Tilbury North
Tilbury South 		Westbound
Eastbound 		56, 63[124] Closed for reconstruction[125]
West Lorne
Dutton 		Westbound
Eastbound 		137, 149[126] Closed for reconstruction[125]
Ingersoll Westbound 222, 230[127] Closed for reconstruction as of March 31[128]
Woodstock Eastbound 222, 230[127] Closed for reconstruction as of March 31[129]
Cambridge North
Cambridge South 		Westbound
Eastbound 		286, 295[130] Petro-Canada, McDonald's
Mississauga Eastbound 333, 336[131] Permanently closed as of September 30, 2006
Newcastle Westbound 440, 448[132] Esso, Tim Hortons, Wendy's, Mr. Sub, Nicholby's Express
Port Hope Eastbound 458,456[133] Closed for reconstruction as of March 31[134]
Trenton North
Trenton South 		Westbound
Eastbound 		509, 522[135] Closed for reconstruction[125]
Camden East Westbound 582, 593[136] Closed for reconstruction as of March 31[137]
Odessa Eastbound 599, 611[136] Closed for reconstruction as of March 31[137]
Mallorytown North
Mallorytown South 		Westbound
Eastbound 		675, 685[138] Closed for reconstruction[125]
Morrisburg
Ingleside 		Westbound
Eastbound 		750, 758
758, 770[139] 		Closed for reconstruction[125]
Bainsville Westbound 825[140] Closed for reconstruction[125]

Exit list

Division Location km[5] Exit[12] Destinations Notes
Essex Windsor 0.0 1  Highway 3 west – Ambassador Bridge to USA Westbound exit and eastbound entrance
2.6 13 Dougall Avenue – Detroit-Windsor Tunnel to USA Westbound exit and eastbound entrance; formerly Highway 3B / Highway 401A
3.4 14  County Road 46 (Walker Road) – Windsor Formerly  Highway 98
Tecumseh 10.4 21  County Road 19 (Manning Road) – Tecumseh
Lakeshore
17.5 28  County Road 25 (Puce Road) – Puce
23.7 34  County Road 27 (Belle River Road) – Woodslee, Belle River
30.0 40  County Road 31 (French Line Road) – St. Joachim
37.3 48  Highway 77 south – Leamington
 County Road 35 north (Comber Road) – Stoney Point
45.7 56  County Road 42 – Tilbury Formerly  Highway 2
Chatham-Kent Tilbury 52.8 63  Municipal Road 2 (Queen's Line) Formerly Highway 2
Chatham 70.9 81  Municipal Road 27 (Bloomfield Road)
79.3 90  Highway 40 north
 Municipal Road 11 south (Communication Road) – Blenheim
91.0 101  Municipal Road 15 (Kent Bridge Road) – Dresden, Ridgetown
98.3 109   Municipal Road 17 / Municipal Road 21 (Victory Road) – Thamesville, Ridgetown Formerly  Highway 21
106.2 117  Municipal Road 20 (Orford Road) – Highgate
Elgin West Elgin 119.2 129  County Road 103 (Furnival Road) – Wardsville, Rodney
127.3 137  County Road 76 (Graham Road) – West Lorne Formerly  Highway 76
Dutton/Dunwich 138.5 149  County Road 8 (Currie Road) – Dutton
147.4 157  County Road 14 (Iona Road) – Melbourne, Iona
Southwold
154.1 164  County Road 20 (Union Road) – Port Stanley, Shedden
Middlesex London 166.7 177  Highway 4 (Colonel Talbot Road) – St. Thomas Signed as exits 177A (south) and 177B (north)
173.2 183  Highway 402 west – Sarnia Westbound exit and eastbound entrance
175.9 186 Wellington Road
176.8 187 Exeter Road Formerly  Highway 135 west
179.1 189 Highbury Avenue – St. Thomas Formerly  Highway 126
183.6 194 Veterans Memorial Parkway Formerly  Highway 100
Thames Centre 185.5 195  County Road 74 (Westchester Bourne) – Nilestown, Belmont Formerly  Highway 74
189.3 199  County Road 32 (Dorchester Road) – Dorchester
193.0 203  County Road 73 (Elgin Road) – Aylmer Formerly  Highway 73
198.5 208  County Road 30 (Putnam Road) – Putnam, Avon
Oxford South-West Oxford, Ingersoll 206.0 216  County Road 10 (Culloden Road)
208.5 218  Highway 19 south
 County Road 119 north (Plank Line) – Tillsonburg
South-West Oxford 212.2 222  County Road 6 – Stratford
219.8 230  County Road 12 (Sweaburg Road / Mill Street) – Sweaburg
Woodstock
221.9 232  County Road 59 – Delhi Formerly  Highway 59
225.3 235  Highway 403 east – Brantford, Hamilton Eastbound exit and westbound entrance
Norwich
226.3 236  County Road 15 (Towerline Road) – Woodstock
227.9 238  County Road 2 – Paris, Woodstock Formerly Highway 2
Woodstock
Blandford-Blenheim 240.1 250  County Road 29 (Drumbo Road) – Innerkip, Drumbo
Waterloo North Dumfries 257.9 268  Regional Road 97 (Cedar Creek Road) – Cambridge, Ayr Signed as exits 268A (east) and 268B (west) eastbound; formerly  Highway 97
Kitchener, Cambridge 265.0 275  Regional Road 28 (Homer Watson Boulevard / Fountain Street) Replaced Doon-Blair Road exit in the 1970s
267.9 278  Highway 8 north – Kitchener, Waterloo
 Regional Road 8 south – Cambridge 		Signed as exits 278A (east) and 278B (west) eastbound
Cambridge 272.5 282  Regional Road 24 (Hespeler Road) to  Highway 24
284  Regional Road 36 south (Franklin Boulevard) Eastbound exit and westbound entrance
276.5 286  Regional Road 33 (Townline Road)
 County Road 33 (Townline Road)
Wellington Puslinch
285.7 295  Highway 6 north – Guelph West end of Highway 6 overlap
290.1 299  Highway 6 south – Hamilton
 County Road 46 (Brock Road) – Guelph, Hamilton 		East end of Highway 6 overlap
Halton Milton 301.9 312  Regional Road 1 (Guelph Line) – Burlington
310.1 320  Regional Road 25 – Acton, Milton Formerly  Highway 25; GO Transit bus stop on eastbound ramp.
313.8 324  Regional Road 4 (James Snow Parkway)
318.0 328  Regional Road 3 (Trafalgar Road) – Oakville, Georgetown
320.4 330A  Highway 407 west Signed as exit 330 westbound
320.4 330B  Highway 407 east Eastbound exit and westbound entrance
Peel Streetsville 322.7 333 Winston Churchill Boulevard
Mississauga 326.1 336  Regional Road 1 (Mississauga Road / Erin Mills Parkway)
329.6 340 Mavis Road
331.7 342 Hurontario Street Formerly  Highway 10
334.5 344  Highway 410 north – Brampton Eastbound exit and westbound entrance
334.5 344   Highway 403 / Highway 410 – Hamilton, Brampton Westbound exit and eastbound entrance
336.0 346  Regional Road 4 (Dixie Road)
340.3–341.1 348  Highway 427 / Renforth Drive – Toronto Pearson International Airport, Downtown Toronto Eastbound exit and westbound entrance
Toronto 341.1 350 Eglinton Avenue Eastbound exit and westbound entrance
351 Carlingview Drive Westbound exit and eastbound entrance
352  Highway 427 south Westbound exit and eastbound entrance
343.5 354 Dixon Road / Martin Grove Road
355  Highway 409 – Toronto Airport
Belfield Road 		Westbound exit and eastbound entrance
346.0 356 Islington Avenue
347.4 357 Weston Road
348.9 359  Highway 400 north (south to Black Creek Drive) – Barrie Express exits 359 eastbound to Highway 400 only.
350.5 360 Jane Street Ramps removed, access to Jane Street via Black Creek Drive.
352.0 362 Keele Street
354.0 364 Dufferin Street, Yorkdale Road Eastbound exit and westbound entrance
354.8 365 Allen Road, Yorkdale Road
356.2 366 Bathurst Street Westbound exit and eastbound entrance
357.3 367 Avenue Road Formerly  Highway 11A
359.0 369 Yonge Street Formerly  Highway 11
361.0 371 Bayview Avenue
362.9 373 Leslie Street
364.9 375  Highway 404 north – Richmond Hill, Newmarket
Don Valley Parkway – Downtown Toronto
366.3 376 Victoria Park Avenue
367.6 378 Warden Avenue
369.2 379 Kennedy Road
370.8 380 Brimley Road south, Progress Avenue Eastbound exit and westbound entrance from northbound Brimley Road
371.6 381 McCowan Road
373.2 383 Markham Road Formerly  Highway 48
375.0 385 Neilson Road
376.5 387 Morningside Avenue
379.0 389 Meadowvale Road
380.3 390   Highway 2 / Highway 2A (Kingston Road, Sheppard Avenue (westbound), Port Union Road (eastbound)) Signed as exit 392 westbound
Durham Pickering 394  Regional Road 38 (Whites Road)
397  Regional Road 29 (Liverpool Road) Westbound exit and entrance
399  Regional Road 1 (Brock Road)
Ajax 400 Church Street Removed, exit replaced with nearby Westney Road interchange (Exit 401) in 1988
401  Regional Road 31 (Westney Road) Replaced Exit 400 (Church Street) in 1988
403  Regional Road 44 (Harwood Avenue) Removed, exit replaced with nearby Salem Road interchange (Exit 404) in 2003
404  Regional Road 41 (Salem Road) Replaced Exit 403 (Harwood Avenue) in 2003
Whitby 410  Regional Highway 12 (Brock Street) Formerly  Highway 12
412  Regional Road 26 (Thickson Road)
Oshawa 415  Regional Road 53 (Stevenson Road) Replaced Exit 416 (Park Road) in 2009
416  Regional Road 54 (Park Road) Removed, exit replaced with nearby Stevenson Road interchange (Exit 415) in 2009
417  Regional Road 2 (Simcoe Street) Westbound exit is via exit 418
418  Regional Road 16 (Ritson Road)
419   Regional Road 22 / Regional Road 33 (Bloor Street / Harmony Road)
Clarington 425  Regional Road 34 (Courtice Road) – Courtice
428 Holt Road (Darlington Nuclear Generating Station) Eastbound exit and westbound entrance
431  Regional Road 57 (Waverley Road) – Bowmanville
432  Regional Road 14 (Liberty Street) – Bowmanville, Port Darlington
435 Bennett Road
436   Highway 35 / Highway 115 – Peterborough, Lindsay
440  Regional Road 17 (Mill Street) – Newcastle, Bond Head
448  Regional Road 18 (Newtonville Road) – Newtonville
Northumberland Port Hope 456 Wesleyville Road
461  County Road 2 – Welcome Formerly Highway 2
464  County Road 28 – Peterborough Formerly  Highway 28
Cobourg, Hamilton 472  County Road 18 (Burnham Street) – Gores Landing
474  County Road 45 – Norwood, Baltimore Formerly  Highway 45
Alnwick/Haldimand 487  County Road 23 (Lyle Street) – Centreton, Grafton
Cramahe 497  County Road 25 (Percy Street / Big Apple Drive) – Colborne, Castleton
Brighton 509  County Road 30 – Brighton Formerly  Highway 30
Hastings Quinte West 522  County Road 40 (Wooler Road) – Trenton
525  County Road 33 – Trenton, Batawa Formerly  Highway 33
526  County Road 4 (Glen Miller Road) – Trenton
538  County Road 1 (Wallbridge-Loyalist Road) – Stirling
Belleville
543  Highway 62 – Marmora, Madoc to  County Road 14 Signed as exits 543A (south) and 543B (north); formerly  Highway 14
544  Highway 37 – Tweed
Tyendinaga 556  County Road 7 (Shannonville Road) – Shannonville, Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory
566  Highway 49
 County Road 15 (Marysville Road) – Picton, Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory
570  County Road 10 (Deseronto Road) – Deseronto
Lennox and Addington Greater Napanee
579  County Road 41 – Napanee Formerly  Highway 41
582  County Road 5 (Palace Road) – Napanee
Loyalist 593  County Road 4 (Camden East Road) – Millhaven, Camden East Formerly  Highway 133
599  County Road 6 (Wilton Road) – Yarker, Odessa
Frontenac Kingston 611  County Road 38 – Harrowsmith, Sharbot Lake Formerly  Highway 38
613  County Road 9 (Sydenham Road), Sydenham
615 Sir John A. Macdonald Boulevard
617  County Road 10 (Division Street) – Westport
619  County Road 11 (Montreal Street) – Battersea
623  Highway 15 – Smiths Falls, Ottawa
632  County Road 16 (Joyceville Road) – Joyceville
Leeds and Grenville Gananoque, Leeds and the Thousand Islands 645  County Road 32 – Crosby Formerly  Highway 32
647 Thousand Islands Parkway – Ivy Lea, Rockport Eastbound exit and westbound entrance
Leeds and the Thousand Islands 648  Highway 2 – Gananoque
 County Road 2 		Eastbound via exit 647
659  County Road 3 (Reynolds Road) – Ivy Lea, Rockport
661  Highway 137 ( I-81 to U.S.A.)
Front of Yonge 675  County Road 5 (Mallorytown Road) – Mallorytown, Rockport
Elizabethtown-Kitley 685 Thousand Islands Parkway Westbound exit and eastbound entrance
687  County Road 2 – Brockville Formerly Highway 2
Brockville 696  County Road 29 – Brockville Formerly   Highway 29 / Highway 42
698 North Augusta Road – Brockville, North Augusta
Augusta 705  County Road 15 (Maitland Road) – Merrickville, Maitland
Prescott 716  County Road 18 (Edward Street) – Prescott, Domville
Edwardsburgh/Cardinal 721A  Highway 416 north – Ottawa Eastbound exit and westbound entrance
721B  Highway 16 (to NY 37) – Kemptville, Johnstown, USA Signed as exit 721 westbound
730  County Road 22 (Shanly Road) – Cardinal
Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry South Dundas 738  County Road 1 (Carman Road) – Iroquois
750  County Road 31 – Ottawa, Winchester Formerly  Highway 31
758 Upper Canada Road
South Stormont 770  County Road 14 (Dickinson Drive) – Ingleside
778  County Road 35 (Moulinette Road) – Long Sault
786 County Road Power Dam Drive Eastbound exit and westbound entrance
Cornwall 789  Highway 138 (Brookdale Avenue) – Ottawa, Three Nations Crossing to USA
792 McConnell Avenue
796  County Road 44 (Boundary Road)
South Glengarry
804  County Road 27 (Summerstown Road) – Summerstown
814   County Road 2 / County Road 34 – Lancaster, Alexandria Formerly Highway 2 south /  Highway 34 north
825  County Road 23 (4th Line Road, Curry Hill Road)
     Closed

See also

References

Note

  1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Distance was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

Sources

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  49. ^ a b Shragge, John; Bagnato, Sharon (1984). From Footpaths to Freeways. Ontario Ministry of Transportation and Communications, Historical Committee. p. 89. ISBN 0-7743-9388-2.
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External links

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