Red hair

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This article is about people with red hair, also sometimes called redheads. For other uses, see Redhead
Woman with red hair
Man with red hair

Red hair (also referred to as titian or ginger hair) varies from a deep orange-red through burnt orange to bright copper. It is characterized by high levels of the reddish pigment pheomelanin and relatively low levels of the dark pigment eumelanin. People with red hair are often referred to as redheads.[1] Approximately 1% to 2% of the human population has red hair.[2][3] It occurs more frequently (between 2% and 6% of the population) in northern and western Europeans, and their descendants, and at lower frequencies throughout other parts of the world. Red hair appears in people with two copies of a recessive gene on chromosome 16 which causes a change in the MC1R protein. It is associated with fair skin colour, lighter eye colors (gray, blue, green, and hazel), freckles, and sensitivity to ultraviolet light.[4] Cultural reactions have varied from ridicule to admiration; many common stereotypes exist regarding redheads and they are often portrayed as the “fiery-tempered redhead”.

Geographic distribution

Historical

Several accounts by Greek writers mention redheaded people. A fragment by the Greek poet Xenophanes describes the Thracians as blue-eyed and red haired. The Greek historian Herodotus described the "Budini" (probably Udmurts and Permyak located on the Volga in what is modern-day Russia) as being predominantly redheaded. The Greek historian Dio Cassius described Boudica, the famous Celtic Queen of the Iceni, to be "tall and terrifying in appearance... a great mass of red hair... over her shoulders." Also, several mythological characters from Homer's Iliad, (themselves purportedly Greek) are described as being "red-haired" including Menelaus and Achilles.

The Roman author Tacitus commented on the "red hair and large limbs of the inhabitants of Caledonia (Scotland)",[5] which he connected with some red haired Gaulish tribes of Germanic and Belgic relation.The half Greek half Turkish pirate Red Beard or Hayreddin Barbarossa is said to have had a fiery red beard.[citation needed]

Red hair has also been found in Asia, notably among the Tocharians who occupied the northwesternmost province of what is modern-day China. Many of 2nd millennium BC Caucasian Tarim mummies in China have been found with red and blonde hair.[6]

Modern

Today, red hair is most commonly found at the northern and western fringes of Europe; it is associated particularly with the people located in the United Kingdom and in Ireland (although Victorian era ethnographers claimed that the Udmurt people of the Volga were "the most red-headed men in the world").[7] Redheads are common among Germanic and Celtic peoples.

Redheads constitute approximately four percent of the European population.[8] Scotland has the highest proportion of redheads; 13% of the population has red hair and approximately 40% carries the recessive redhead gene.[9] Ireland has the second highest percentage; as many as 10% of the Irish population has red, auburn, or strawberry blond hair.[10] It is thought that up to 46 percent of the Irish population carries the recessive redhead gene. Red hair reaches frequencies of up to 10 percent in Wales.[11]

Red-hair is found commonly amongst Ashkenazi Jewish populations.[12]

In the United States, it is estimated that anywhere from two to six percent of the population has red hair. This would give the U.S. the largest population of redheads in the world, at 6 to 18 million, compared to approximately 650,000 in Scotland and 420,000 in Ireland.

Red or reddish-tinged hair is also found in other European populations particularly in the Nordic and Baltic countries as well as parts of the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Portugal, Spain, Italy, Germany, Russia and South Slavic countries.

Also because of migration from Europe from the 16th to the 20th centuries, red-haired humans are also found all around the world, such as in North America, South America, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Siberia, etc.

The Berber populations of Morocco[13] and northern Algeria have occasional redheads. Red hair frequency is especially significant among the Kabyles from Algeria, where it reaches 4 percent.[14][15] Emigration and invasion from North Africa to Southern Europe (especially Spain and Portugal) added the number of natural red-haired humans in that region. The Queen of Morocco, Lalla Salma wife of king Mohammed VI, has red hair. Abd ar-Rahman I also had red hair, his mother being a Christian Berber slave.

In Asia, darker or mixed tinges of red hair can be found sporadically from Northern India, the northern Middle East (such as Iran, Lebanon and the countries of the Levant), and in rare instances on the Island of Hirado, Japan[16] and the South Pacific. Red hair can be found amongst those of Iranian descent, such as the Persians, Lurs, Nuristanis and Pashtuns. Emigration from the these people as well as parts of the Middle East, Central Asia, North India, and North Africa added to the population of red-haired humans in the Americas, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and other parts of Africa and Europe.

In Argentina and Brazil, people with red hair also make up a small portion of the population.[17]

In Australia, small isolated populations of Indigenous Australians (mainly in Western Australia and Australia's Northern Territory) have been found with red hair.[citation needed]

Biochemistry and genetics

A close-up view of red hair.

The pigment pheomelanin gives red hair its distinctive colour. Red hair has far more of the pigment pheomelanin than it has of the dark pigment eumelanin.

The genetics of red hair, discovered in 1997, appear to be associated with the melanocortin-1 receptor (MC1R), which is found on chromosome 16. Red hair is associated with fair skin colour due to low concentrations of eumelanin throughout the body of those with red hair. This lower melanin-concentration confers the advantage that a sufficient concentration of important Vitamin D can be produced under low light conditions. However, when UV-radiation is strong (like in regions close to the equator) the lower concentration of melanin leads to several medical disadvantages, such as a higher risk of skin cancer.

The MC1R recessive variant gene that gives people red hair and fair skin is also associated with freckles, though it is not uncommon to see a redhead without freckles. Eighty percent of redheads have an MC1R gene variant,[4] and the prevalence of these alleles is highest in Scotland and Ireland. The alleles that code for red hair occur close to the alleles that affect skin colour, so it seems that the phenotypic expression for lighter skin and red hair are interrelated.

Red hair can originate from several different changes on the MC1R-gene. If one of these changes is present on both chromosomes then the respective individual is likely to have red hair. This type of inheritance is described as an autosomal recessive mode of inheritance. Even if both parents do not have red hair themselves, both can be carriers for the gene and have a redheaded child. (red hair genetics).

Genetics

The alleles Arg151Cys, Arg160Trp, Asp294His, and Arg142His on MC1R are shown to be recessives for the red hair phenotype.[18] The gene HCL2 (also called RHC or RHA) on chromosome 4 may also be related to red hair.[19][20]

Evolution

Origins

Red hair is the rarest natural hair colour in humans. The pale skin associated with red hair may have been advantageous in far-northern climates where sunlight is scarce. Studies by Bodmer and Cavalli-Sforza (1976) hypothesized that lighter skin pigmentation prevents rickets in colder latitudes by encouraging higher levels of Vitamin D production and also allows the individual to retain heat better than someone with darker skin.[21] Rees (2004) suggested that the vividness and rarity of red hair may lead to its becoming desirable in a partner and therefore it could become more common through sexual selection.[22]

Harding et al. (2000) proposed that red hair was not the result of positive selection but rather occurs due to a lack of negative selection. In Africa, for example, red hair is selected against because high levels of sun would be harmful to fair skin. However, in Northern Europe this does not happen, so redheads come about through genetic drift.[18]

Estimates on the original occurrence of the currently active gene for red hair vary from 20,000 to 100,000 years ago.[23][24]

A DNA study has concluded that some Neanderthals also had red hair, although the mutation responsible for this differs from that which causes red hair in modern humans.[25]

Extinction

See also: Disappearing blonde gene

A 2007 report in The Courier-Mail, which cited the National Geographic magazine and unnamed "genetic scientists", said that red hair is likely to die out in the near future.[26] Other blogs and news sources ran similar stories that attributed the research to the magazine or the "Oxford Hair Foundation". However, a HowStuffWorks article says that the foundation was funded by hair-dye maker Procter & Gamble, and that other experts had dismissed the research as either lacking in evidence or simply bogus. The National Geographic article in fact states "while redheads may decline, the potential for red isn't going away".[27]

Red hair is caused by a relatively rare recessive gene, the expression of which can skip generations. It is not likely to disappear at any time in the foreseeable future.[27]

Medical implications of the red hair gene

Melanoma

Melanin in the skin aids UV tolerance through suntanning, but fair-skinned persons lack the levels of melanin needed to prevent UV-induced DNA-damage. Studies have shown that red hair alleles in MC1R increase freckling and decrease tanning ability.[28] It has been found that Europeans who are heterozygous for red hair exhibit increased sensitivity to UV radiation.[22]

Red hair and its relationship to UV sensitivity are of interest to many melanoma researchers. Sunshine can both be good and bad for a person's health and the different alleles on MC1R represent these adaptations. It also has been shown that individuals with pale skin are highly susceptible to a variety of skin cancers such as melanoma, basal cell carcinoma, and squamous cell carcinoma.[29][30] Due to this sensitivity many people have advised redheads to wear sunscreen.[31]

Pain tolerance and injury

Two studies have demonstrated that people with red hair have differential sensitivity to pain compared to people with other hair colours. One study found that people with red hair are more sensitive to thermal pain (associated with naturally occurring low vitamin K levels),[32] while another study concluded that redheads are less sensitive to pain from multiple modalities, including noxious stimuli such as electrically induced pain.[33][34][35]

Researchers have found that people with red hair require greater amounts of anesthetic,[36] however this is controversial and other research publications have concluded that women with naturally red hair require less of the painkiller pentazocine than do either women of other hair colours or men of any hair colour. A study showed women with red hair had a greater analgesic response to that particular pain medication than men.[37] A follow-up study by the same group showed that men and women with red hair had a greater analgesic response to morphine-6-glucuronide.[38]

The unexpected relationship of hair color to pain tolerance appears to be due to the fact that redheads have a mutation in a hormone receptor that can apparently respond to at least two different hormones: the skin pigmentation hormone melanocyte-stimulating hormone, and the pain relieving hormone known as endorphins. (These hormones are both derived from the same precursor molecule, POMC, and are structurally similar.) Specifically, redheads have a mutated MC1R gene, which produces a mutated MC1R receptor, also known as the melanocortin-1 receptor.[39] Melanocytes, which are cells that produce pigment in skin and hair, use the MC1R receptor to recognize and respond to melanocyte-stimulating hormone from the anterior pituitary gland. Melanocyte-stimulating hormone normally stimulates melanocytes to make black eumelanin, but if the melanocytes have a mutated MC1R receptor, they will make reddish pheomelanin instead. The MC1R receptor also occurs in the brain, where it is one of a large set of POMC-related receptors that are apparently involved not only in responding to MSH, but also in responses to endorphins and possibly other POMC-derived hormones.[39] Though the details are not clearly understood, it appears that there is some "cross talk" between the POMC hormones that may explain the link between red hair and pain tolerance.

There is little or no evidence to support the belief that people with red hair have a higher chance than people with other hair colours to hemorrhage or suffer other bleeding complications.[40][41] One study, however, reports a link between red hair and a higher rate of bruising.[41]

Red hair of pathological origin

Most red hair is caused by the MC1R gene and is non-pathological. However, in rare cases red hair can be associated with disease or genetic disorder:

  • In cases of severe malnutrition, normally dark human hair may turn red or blonde. The condition, part of a syndrome known as kwashiorkor, is a sign of critical starvation caused chiefly by protein deficiency, and is common during periods of famine.
  • One variety of albinism (Type 3, aka rufous albinism), sometimes seen in Africans and inhabitants of New Guinea, results in red hair and red-coloured skin.[42]
  • Red hair is found on people lacking pro-opiomelanocortin.[42][43]

Culture

A red-haired woman, Far Away Thoughts John William Godward 1892. Red hair was a popular subject amongst Pre-Raphaelite artists.

In various times and cultures, red hair has been prized, feared, and ridiculed.

Beliefs about temperament

A common belief about redheads is that they have fiery tempers and sharp tongues. In Anne of Green Gables, a character says of Anne Shirley, the redheaded heroine, that "her temper matches her hair", while in The Catcher in the Rye, Holden Caulfield remarks that "People with red hair are supposed to get mad very easily, but Allie [his dead brother] never did, and he had very red hair."

During the early stages of modern medicine, red hair was thought to be a sign of a sanguine temperament.[44] In the Indian medicinal practice of Ayurveda, redheads are seen as most likely to have a Pitta temperament.

Another belief is that redheads are highly sexed; for example, Jonathan Swift satirizes redhead stereotypes in part four of Gulliver's Travels, "A Voyage to the Country of the Houyhnhnms," when he writes that: "It is observed that the red-haired of both sexes are more libidinous and mischievous than the rest, whom yet they much exceed in strength and activity." Swift goes on to write that: "...neither was the hair of this brute [a Yahoo] of a red colour (which might have been some excuse for an appetite a little irregular) but black as a sloe..."[45] In the novel and film Red-Headed Woman, the titular protagonist is a sexually aggressive home-wrecker who frequently throws violent temper tantrums.

Fashion and art

"Accolade" by Edmund Blair Leighton. A red-headed princess knighting a noble fighter.

Queen Elizabeth I of England was a redhead, and during the Elizabethan era in England, red hair was fashionable for women. In modern times, red hair is subject to fashion trends; celebrities such as Lindsay Lohan, Alyson Hannigan, Marcia Cross and Geri Halliwell can boost sales of red hair dye.[46]

Sometimes, red hair darkens as people get older, becoming a more brownish colour or losing some of its vividness. This leads some to associate red hair with youthfulness, a quality that is generally considered desirable. In several countries such as India, Iran, Bangladesh and Pakistan, henna and saffron are used on hair to give it a bright red appearance.[47]

Many painters have exhibited a fascination with red hair. The colour "titian" takes its name from Titian, who often painted women with red hair. Early Renaissance artist Sandro Botticelli's famous painting The Birth of Venus depicts the mythological goddess Venus as a redhead. Other painters notable for their redheads include the Pre-Raphaelites,[48] Edmund Leighton, Modigliani,[49] Gustav Klimt.[50]

Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's story The Red-Headed League involves a man who is asked to become a member of a mysterious group of red–headed people. The 1943 film DuBarry Was a Lady featured red–heads Lucille Ball and Red Skelton in Technicolor.

Prejudice/discrimination towards redheads

Red hair was thought to be a mark of a beastly sexual desire and moral degeneration. A savage red-haired man is portrayed in the fable by Grimm brothers (Der Eisenhans) as the spirit of the forest of iron. Theophilus Presbyter describes how the blood of a red-haired young man is necessary to create gold from copper, in a mixture with the ashes of a basilisk.[51]

Montague Summers, in his translation of the Malleus Maleficarum,[52] notes that red hair and green eyes were thought to be the sign of a witch, a werewolf or a vampire during the Middle Ages;

Those whose hair is red, of a certain peculiar shade, are unmistakably vampires. It is significant that in ancient Egypt, as Manetho tells us, human sacrifices were offered at the grave of Osiris, and the victims were red-haired men who were burned, their ashes being scattered far and wide by winnowing-fans. It is held by some authorities that this was done to fertilize the fields and produce a bounteous harvest, red-hair symbolizing the golden wealth of the corn. But these men were called Typhonians, and were representatives not of Osiris but of his evil rival Typhon, whose hair was red.

In modern-day UK, the words "ginger" or "ginga" are sometimes derogatorily used to describe red-headed people ("ginger" is not often considered insulting; the abbreviation "ginge" is much more commonly used derogatorily), with terms such as "gingerphobia" (fear of redheads)[53] or "gingerism" (prejudice against redheads)[54] used by the media. Some have speculated that the dislike of red-hair may derive from the historical English sentiment that people of Irish or Celtic background, with a greater prevalence of red hair, were ethnically inferior.[54] Redheads are also sometimes referred to disparagingly as "carrot tops" and "carrot heads". "Gingerism" has been compared to racism, although this is widely disputed, and bodies such as the UK Commission for Racial Equality do not monitor cases of discrimination and hate crimes against redheads.[54] A UK woman recently won an award from a tribunal after being sexually harassed and receiving abuse because of her red hair;[55] a family in Newcastle upon Tyne, England, was forced to move twice after being targeted for abuse and hate crime on account of their red hair;[56] and in 2003, a 20 year old was stabbed in the back for "being ginger".[57] In May 2009, a British schoolboy committed suicide after being bullied for having red hair.[58] The British singer Mick Hucknall, who believes that he has repeatedly faced prejudice or been described as ugly on account of his hair colour, argues that Gingerism should be described as a form of racism.[59][60] This prejudice has been satirised on a number of TV shows. The British comedian Catherine Tate (herself a redhead) appeared as a red haired character in a running sketch of her series The Catherine Tate Show. The sketch saw fictional character Sandra Kemp, who was forced to seek solace in a refuge for ginger people because they had been ostracised from society.[61] The British comedy Bo' Selecta! (starring redhead Leigh Francis) featured a spoof documentary which involved a caricature of Mick Hucknall presenting a show in which celebrities (played by themselves) dyed their hair red for a day and went about daily life being insulted by people. The pejorative use of the word "ginger" and related discrimination was used to illustrate a point about racism and prejudice in the "Ginger Kids", "Le Petit Tourette" and "Fatbeard" episodes of South Park.

Films and television programmes often portray school bullies as having red hair;[62] for example, Scut Farkus from A Christmas Story or the O'Doyle family in the movie Billy Madison. The bully character Caruso in Everybody Hates Chris is a redhead. However, children with red hair are often themselves targeted by bullies; "Somebody with ginger hair will stand out from the crowd," says anti-bullying expert Louise Burfitt-Dons.[63]

In November 2008 social networking website Facebook received criticism after a 'Kick a Ginger' group, which aimed to establish a "National Kick a Ginger Day" on November 20, acquired almost 5,000 members. A 14-year-old boy from Vancouver who ran the Facebook group was subjected to an investigation by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police for possible hate crimes.[64]

In December 2009 British supermarket chain Tesco was forced to withdraw a Christmas card which had the image of a child with ginger hair sitting on the lap of Santa Claus, and the words: "Santa loves all kids. Even ginger ones" after customers complained the card was too offensive.[65]

Mary Magdalene is commonly portrayed with long red hair, as in this picture by Anthony Frederick Augustus Sandys.

Religious and mythological traditions

Red is the preferred dyeing colour in Islam. It is reported that the Prophet Muhammad used to dye his hair red using Henna.[66] Henna or Hina is a flowering plant which traditionally has been used to dye hair red. There are no side effects to this. Al-Bukhari related in his Sahih, from ‘Uthman b. ‘Abd-Allah b. Mawhab: We went to Umm Salma, and she brought out for us some of the hair of the Messenger of Allah, and lo, it was dyed with henna and indigo.” (Bukhari, Libas, 66) And in the four sunan, from the Prophet, it is related that he said, ‘The best you can use for changing the colour of white hair are henna and katam.’ (Tirmidhi, Libas, 20). In the two books of the Sahih, from Anas, it is quoted that Abu Bakr used hair dye of both henna and katam. (Muslim, Fada’il, 100)” (Ibn Qayyim; 259) (Katam is a plant from Yemen which produces a reddish-black dye).

Esau's entire body is supposed to have been covered with red hair. King David is also known for having red hair, based on the description of his physical appearance as "admoni", the Biblical Hebrew word normally interpreted to mean 'ruddy' and/or 'red-haired' (1 Samuel 16-17).

Early artistic representations of Mary Magdalene usually depict her as having long flowing red hair, although a description of her hair colour was never mentioned in the Bible, and it is possible the colour is an effect caused by pigment degradation in the ancient paint. This tradition is used as a plot device in the book and movie The Da Vinci Code. Thor, of Norse mythology, was generally portrayed as having red hair. Ancient Egyptians associated both red-haired humans and red-coloured animals with the god Set, considering them to be favored by the powerful and temperamental deity.

There is a tradition amongst astrologers that the planet Mars ("the red planet") is more likely to be rising above the eastern horizon (on or near the astrological Ascendant, which supposedly influences a person's appearance) at the time of the birth of a red haired person than for the population in general.[67]

Achilles, the central character of Homer's Iliad, is described as having red hair, possibly contributing to the original myths of temperament.

Hundreds of redheads together at the Redheadday 2008.

Red Hair festival

Redheadday is the name of a Dutch festival that takes place each first weekend of September in the city of Breda, the Netherlands. The two-day festival is a gathering of people with natural red hair, but is also focused on art related to the colour red. Activities during the festival are lectures, workshops and demonstrations. The festival attracts attendance from thousands of genuine redheads from 20 countries and is free due to sponsorship of the local government.

Use of term in Asia to refer to white people

The term ang mo (Chinese: 红毛; pinyin: hóng máo; Pe̍h-ōe-jī: âng-mo͘) in the Chinese dialect of Hokkien (Min Nan) means "red-haired",[68] and is used in Malaysia and Singapore to refer to white people. The epithet is sometimes rendered as ang mo kui (红毛鬼) meaning "red-haired devil", similar to the Cantonese term gweilo ("foreign devil"). Thus it is viewed as racist and derogatory by some Caucasians.[69] Others, however, maintain it is acceptable.[70] Despite this ambiguity, it is a widely used term. It appears, for instance, in Singaporean newspapers such as The Straits Times,[71] and in television programmes and films.

The characters for "ang mo" (紅毛) are the same as those in the historical Japanese term Kōmō, which was used during the Edo Period as an epithet for (northwestern European) white people. It primarily referred to Dutch traders who were the only Europeans allowed to trade with Japan during Sakoku, its 200-year period of isolation.[72]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ "It's a pain being ginger". BBC NEWS. 2002-10-15. Retrieved 2006-04-27.
  2. ^ Red Alert! Washington Post: Original Date 2002-03-19. Accessed 2007-02-06.
  3. ^ National Geographic, September, 2007
  4. ^ a b Valverde P, Healy E, Jackson I, Rees JL, Thody AJ (1995). "Variants of the melanocyte-stimulating hormone receptor gene are associated with red hair and fair skin in humans". Nature Genetics. 11 (3): 328–30. doi:10.1038/ng1195-328. PMID 7581459.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  5. ^ The Life of Agricola, Ch. 11
  6. ^ "Mysterious Mummies of China". NOVA (on PBS). 1998-01-20. {{cite episode}}: Check |episodelink= value (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |serieslink= (help); External link in |episodelink= (help); Unknown parameter |episodelink= ignored (|episode-link= suggested) (help)
  7. ^ Fernández-Armesto, Felipe (1994). The Times guide to the peoples of Europe. London: Times Books. ISBN 0-7230-0624-5.
  8. ^ Red Hair - LoveToKnow Hair
  9. ^ "Scots ginger 'nuts' appeal". News: Scotland. BBC. 2000-07-04. Retrieved 2010-05-22.
  10. ^ Hooton, Earnest A. (1940). "Stature, head form, and pigmentation of adult male Irish". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 26: 229. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330260131.
  11. ^ Sunderland E (1956). "Hair-colour variation in the United Kingdom". Annals of Human Genetics. 20 (4): 312–33. doi:10.1111/j.1469-1809.1955.tb01286.x. PMID 13314401. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  12. ^ Abel, Ernest L. (2001). Jewish genetic disorders: a layman's guide. Jefferson, N.C: McFarland. p. 229. ISBN 0-7864-0941-X.
  13. ^ Stirling, John (1870–1871). "The Races of Morocco". Journal of the Anthropological Society of London. 8. Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland: clxix–clxxiii. doi:10.2307/3025183.
  14. ^ "Their pigmentation is characteristically brunet, but definite blonds occur. Black and dark brown hair run to 85 per cent of the whole, while reds number 4 per cent", Carleton S. Coon, The Races of Europe (1939), Greenwood Press, 1972, p. 478
  15. ^ "There are, however, a noticeable number of Kabyles with red hair, blue eyes and fair skin", Area Handbook for Algeria, American University, 1965, p. 91
  16. ^ Yamamoto M., and Neel J.V. "A note on red hair on the Island of Hirado, Japan". Jinrui Idengaku Zasshi. March 1967. 11 (4), pp. 257–62.
  17. ^ El Rojo Como Blanco Clarin, 07/17/2007
  18. ^ a b Harding, Rosalind M.; et al. (2000). "Evidence for Variable Selective Pressures at MC1R". American Journal of Human Genetics. 66 (4): 1351–1361. doi:10.1086/302863. PMC 1288200. PMID 10733465. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  19. ^ HGNC Symbol Report:HCL2
  20. ^ H. Eiberg & J. Mohr (1987). "Major locus for red hair colour linked to MNS blood groups on chromosome 4". Clinical Genetics. 32 (2): 125–128. PMID 3477350. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  21. ^ Bodmer WF, Cavalli-Sforza LL.Genetics, evolution and man. San Francisco:WH Freeman; 1976.
  22. ^ a b Rees JL (2004). "The genetics of sun sensitivity in humans". Am. J. Hum. Genet. 75 (5): 739–51. doi:10.1086/425285. PMC 1182105. PMID 15372380. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  23. ^ Nicole's hair secrets Daily Telegraph 2002-10-02, Accessed 2005-11-02
  24. ^ "Red hair genes 100,000 years old" ([dead link]). Oxford Blueprint. 1 (11). 2001-05-31.
  25. ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/7062415.stm News.bbc.co.uk
  26. ^ Gingers extinct in 100 years. News.com.au. Retrieved on 2009-06-28.
  27. ^ a b Redhead extinction. HowStuffWorks. Retrieved on 2009-06-28.
  28. ^ Flanagan N, Healy E, Ray A; et al. (2000). "Pleiotropic effects of the melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) gene on human pigmentation". Hum. Mol. Genet. 9 (17): 2531–7. doi:10.1093/hmg/9.17.2531. PMID 11030758. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  29. ^ Rees JL (2002a) Molecular phototypes. In: Ortonne J-P, Ballotti R (eds) Mechanisms of suntanning. Martin Dunitz,London, pp 333–339
  30. ^ Rees JL (2002b) Skin cancer (including nevoid basal cell carcinoma syndrome). In: Vogelstein B, Kinzler K (eds) The genetic basis of human cancer, 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York, pp. 529–548
  31. ^ Redheads | Ginger | Hair | Red | Orange
  32. ^ Liem EB, Joiner TV, Tsueda K, Sessler DI (2005). "Increased sensitivity to thermal pain and reduced subcutaneous lidocaine efficacy in redheads". Anesthesiology. 102 (3): 509–14. doi:10.1097/00000542-200503000-00006. PMC 1692342. PMID 15731586.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  33. ^ Sullivan, Amy (2005-12-11). "Stoic Redheads". New York Times. Retrieved 2010-05-22.
  34. ^ "Do redheads really feel more pain? The jury's still out". Wellness Blog. TIME.com. 2009-08-12. Retrieved 2010-05-22.
  35. ^ Mogil JS, Ritchie J, Smith SB; et al. (2005). "Melanocortin-1 receptor gene variants affect pain and mu-opioid analgesia in mice and humans". Journal of Medical Genetics. 42 (7): 583–7. doi:10.1136/jmg.2004.027698. PMC 1736101. PMID 15994880. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  36. ^ Liem EB, Lin CM, Suleman MI; et al. (2004). "Anesthetic requirement is increased in redheads". Anesthesiology. 101 (2): 279–83. doi:10.1097/00000542-200408000-00006. PMC 1362956. PMID 15277908. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  37. ^ Mogil JS, Wilson SG, Chesler EJ; et al. (2003). "The melanocortin-1 receptor gene mediates female-specific mechanisms of analgesia in mice and humans". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 100 (8): 4867–72. doi:10.1073/pnas.0730053100. PMC 153647. PMID 12663858. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  38. ^ Mogil JS, Ritchie J, Smith SB; et al. (2005). "Melanocortin-1 receptor gene variants affect pain and mu-opioid analgesia in mice and humans". Journal of Medical Genetics. 42 (7): 583–7. doi:10.1136/jmg.2004.027698. PMC 1736101. PMID 15994880. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  39. ^ a b Liem EB, Lin CM, Suleman MI; et al. (2004). "Anesthetic requirement is increased in redheads". Anesthesiology. 101 (2): 279–83. doi:10.1097/00000542-200408000-00006. PMC 1362956. PMID 15277908. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  40. ^ Kumar VV, Kumar NV, Isaacson G (2004). "Superstition and post-tonsillectomy hemorrhage". The Laryngoscope. 114 (11): 2031–3. doi:10.1097/01.mlg.0000147942.82626.1c. PMID 15510037. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  41. ^ a b Liem, Edwin B. et al. Women with Red Hair Report a Slightly Increased Rate of Bruising but Have Normal Coagulation Tests Anesthesia & Analgesia 2006;102:313-318
  42. ^ a b Pathology Guy: Accumulations and Deposits Ed Friedlander, M.D., Pathologist. Last updated 2006-09-24
  43. ^ Challis BG, Pritchard LE, Creemers JW; et al. (2002). "A missense mutation disrupting a dibasic prohormone processing site in pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) increases susceptibility to early-onset obesity through a novel molecular mechanism". Hum. Mol. Genet. 11 (17): 1997–2004. doi:10.1093/hmg/11.17.1997. PMID 12165561. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
    Krude H, Biebermann H, Gruters A (2003). "Mutations in the human proopiomelanocortin gene". Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 994: 233–9. PMID 12851321. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  44. ^ The Practical Magnetic Healer G. M. Brown 1899
  45. ^ Gulliver's Travels on Project Gutenberg Original by Jonathan Swift 1726
  46. ^ Celebrity Redhead Hairstyles Kendra Van Wagner, Hairfinder.com
  47. ^ Henna – history Plant Cultures: Exploring plants and people. 2004-11-18
  48. ^ The Art of Being a Redhead - Gallery of 19th Century portraits of women with red hair
  49. ^ Modigliani painting
  50. ^ Klimt painting
  51. ^ Palo Galloni, Il sacro artefice, Laterza, Bari 1998 (Italian book, chapter 2 about the recipe of Theophilus De auro hyspanico).
  52. ^ Summers, Montague (1484, 1971 (trans)). Malleus Maleficarum. pp. Ch. 3. ISBN 0486228029. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help) - see Malleus Maleficarum
  53. ^ Gingerphobia: Carrot-tops see red BBC News, 2000-02-22
  54. ^ a b c BBC News (2007-06-06). "Is Gingerism as Bad as Racism?". Retrieved 2007-07-05.
  55. ^ £18,000 for the waitress taunted over her red hair Daily Mail, 26 June 2007
  56. ^ Red-haired family forced to move BBC News, 2 June 2007
  57. ^ BBC News (2003-11-24). "Man stabbed over "ginger hair"". Retrieved 2007-07-05.
  58. ^ Schoolboy bullied over ginger hair hanged himself Daily Telegraph, 12 May 2009
  59. ^ Taking the Mick By Richard Jinman, Sydney Morning Herald
  60. ^ Mick Hucknall says that 'ginger' jibes are as bad as racism
  61. ^ Catherine Tate: Ginger Refuge video Gingerism.com, 18th December 2008
  62. ^ Daily Bruin. "The stigma of TV's redheads". Retrieved 2006-04-03.
  63. ^ Carrot-Tops: Being Red Not So Easy - ABC News
  64. ^ Moore, Matthew (22 November 2008). "Facebook 'Kick a Ginger' campaign prompts attacks on redheads". Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved 28 December 2009.
  65. ^ "Tesco apologises over 'ginger jibe' card", BBC News, accessed 2009-28-12.
  66. ^ In The Name Of Allah Muhammad's Appearance
  67. ^ The Astrological Journal, vol. 5, p. 2224 (September-October 1988)
  68. ^ Walter Henry Medhurst (1832), A Dictionary of the Hok-Këèn Dialect of the Chinese Language, according to the Reading and Colloquial Idioms; containing about 12,000 Characters ... Accompanied by a Short Historical and Statistical Account of Hok-Këèn; a Treatise on the Orthography of the ... Dialect, etc., Macao: Printed at the Honorable East India Company's Press by G.J. Steyn and Brother, p. 481, col. 1, 紅毛 âng mô, red haired, generally applied to the English people.
  69. ^ See, for instance, Ong Soh Chin (30 October 2004), The Straits Times (Life!), p. 4, [M]any of my Singaporean friends felt the term 'ang moh' was definitely racist. Said one, with surprising finality: 'The original term was "ang moh gui" which means "red hair devil" in Hokkien. That's definitely racist.' However, the 'gui' bit has long been dropped from the term, defanging it considerably. ... Both 'ang moh gui' and 'gwailo' – Cantonese for 'devil person' – originated from the initial Chinese suspicion of foreigners way back in those days when the country saw itself as the Middle Kingdom. {{citation}}: Missing or empty |title= (help); Sean Ashley (5 November 2004), "Stop calling me ang moh [letter]", The Straits Times (Life!), p. 5, As an 'ang moh' who has lived here for over six years, I hope more people will realise just how offensive the term is.
  70. ^ For instance, Garry Hubble (5 November 2004), The Straits Times (Life!), p. 5, To have my Chinese Singaporean friends call me 'ang moh' is more humorous than anything else. As no insult is intended, none is taken. {{citation}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  71. ^ Michael D. Sargent (21 October 2007), "Lessons for this gweilo and ang moh", The Straits Times; Jamie Ee Wen Wei (11 November 2007), "Meet Bukit Panjang's 'ang moh leader': Englishman is one of 900 permanent residents who volunteer at grassroots groups, and the number could rise with more foreigners becoming PRs", The Straits Times.
  72. ^ See, for example, Ranzaburo Otori (1964), "The Acceptance of Western Medicine in Japan", Monumenta Nipponica, 19 (3/4): 254–274; P[eng] Y[oke] Ho; F. P[eter] Lisowski (1993), "A Brief History of Medicine in Japan", Concepts of Chinese Science and Traditional Healing Arts: A Historical Review, Singapore: World Scientific, pp. 65–78 at 73, ISBN 9789810214951 (hbk.), ISBN 9789810214968 (pbk.), The culture which entered Japan through the Dutch language was called Kōmō culture – Kōmō means red hair.; Margarita Winkel (1999), "Academic Traditions, Urban Dynamics and Colonial Threat: The Rise of Ethnography in Early Modern Japan", in Jan van Bremen; Akitoshi Shimizu, eds. (eds.), Anthropology and Colonialism in Asia and Oceania, Richmond, Surrey: Curzon, pp. 40–64 at 53, ISBN 9780700706044, His [Morishima Chūryō's] book on the Dutch, 'Red-hair miscellany' (Kōmō zatsuwa), also appeared in 1787. ... 'Red-hair miscellany' is the first book which contains a relatively extensive description of the daily life of the Dutch residents in the confinements of Deshima, the man made island allotted to them in the Bay of Nagasaki. {{citation}}: |editor2= has generic name (help); Jan E. Veldman (2002), "A Historical Vignette: Red-Hair Medicine", ORL, 64: 157–165, doi:10.1159/000057797; Thomas M. van Gulik; Yuji Nimura (2005), "Dutch Surgery in Japan", World Journal of Surgery, 29 (1): 10–17 at 10, doi:10.1007/s00268-004-7549-3, Several Dutch surgical schools were founded through which Dutch surgery, known in Japan as 'surgery of the red-haired' was propagated. {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help); Michael Dunn (20 November 2008), "Japanning for southern barbarians: Some of the first items traded with the West were decorated with maki-e lacquer", Japan Times, archived from the original on 24 June 2010, Dutch taste dictated a new style of export lacquer known as 'komo shikki' ('red hair' – a common term for Northern Europeans), in which elaborate gold-lacquer decoration replaced the complex inlays of Nanban ware.

Further reading

  • Box NF, Wyeth JR, O'Gorman LE, Martin NG, Sturm RA (1997). "Characterization of melanocyte stimulating hormone receptor variant alleles in twins with red hair". Hum. Mol. Genet. 6 (11): 1891–7. doi:10.1093/hmg/6.11.1891. PMID 9302268.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  • Cass, Cort. The Redhead Handbook (2003).
  • Collins, Tim. The Ginger Survival Guide (2006).
  • Ditz, Uwe. Redheads (2000).
  • Douglas, Stephen. The Redhead Encyclopedia (1996).
  • Krobatsch, Jason. I Have Red Hair (2009).
  • Roach, Marion. Roots of Desire: The Myth, Meaning and Sexual Power of Red Hair (2005).
  • Sacharov, Allen. The Red Head Book (1985).

External links

Look up redhead in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Red hair.


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