Jump to content

Francis Drake

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by Lobsterthermidor (talk | contribs) at 04:52, 1 May 2016 (→Award of arms: Deleted text re debased heraldry, not so debased). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

This article is about the Elizabethan naval commander. For other uses, see Francis Drake (disambiguation).

Sir Francis Drake
Sir Francis Drake in Buckland Abbey
16th century, oil on canvas, by Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger
Bornca. 1540 (1540)
Tavistock, Devon, England
Died27 January 1596 (1596-01-28) (aged 55)
Portobelo, Colón, Panama
Piratical career
NicknameEl Draque (Spanish), Draco (Latin, "The Dragon")
TypePrivateer
AllegianceEngland
Years active1563 – 1596
RankVice admiral
Base of operationsCaribbean Sea
CommandsGolden Hind (previously known as Pelican)
Bonaventure
Revenge
Battles/warsAnglo–Spanish War
Battle of Gravelines
WealthEquiv. US$162.7 million in 2023;[1] #2 Forbes top-earning pirates[2]
Drake's signature

Sir Francis Drake, vice admiral (c. 1540 – 27 January 1596) was an English sea captain, privateer, navigator, slaver, and politician of the Elizabethan era. Drake carried out the second circumnavigation of the world in a single expedition, from 1577 to 1580, and was the first to complete the voyage as captain while leading the expedition throughout the entire circumnavigation. With his incursion into the Pacific he inaugurated an era of privateering and piracy in the western coast of the Americas—an area that had previously been free of piracy.[3]

Elizabeth I of England awarded Drake a knighthood in the year of 1581. He was second-in-command of the English fleet against the Spanish Armada in 1588. He died of dysentery in January of 1596[4] after unsuccessfully attacking San Juan, Puerto Rico.

His exploits made him a hero to the English but a pirate to the Spaniards to whom he was known as El Draque.[5] King Philip II was said to have offered a reward of 20,000 ducats,[6] about £4 million (US$6.5m) by modern standards, for his life.

Birth and early years

Portrait miniature by Nicholas Hilliard, 1581, reverse of "Drake Jewel", inscribed Aetatis suae 42, An(n)o D(omi)ni 1581 ("42 years of his age, 1581 AD")

Francis Drake was born in Tavistock, Devon, England. Although his birth is not formally recorded, it is known that he was born while the Six Articles were in force. "Drake was two and twenty when he obtained the command of the Judith"[7] (1566). This would date his birth to 1544. A date of c.1540 is suggested from two portraits: one a miniature painted by Nicholas Hilliard in 1581 when he was allegedly 42, the other painted in 1594 when he was said to be 53.[8]

He was the eldest of the twelve sons[9] of Edmund Drake (1518–1585), a Protestant farmer, and his wife Mary Mylwaye. The first son was alleged to have been named after his godfather Francis Russell, 2nd Earl of Bedford.[10][11]

Because of religious persecution during the Prayer Book Rebellion in 1549, the Drake family fled from Devonshire into Kent. There the father obtained an appointment to minister the men in the King's Navy. He was ordained deacon and was made vicar of Upnor Church on the Medway.[12] Drake's father apprenticed Francis to his neighbour, the master of a barque used for coastal trade transporting merchandise to France.[12] The ship master was so satisfied with the young Drake's conduct that, being unmarried and childless at his death, he bequeathed the barque to Drake.[12]

Marriage and family

Francis Drake married Mary Newman in 1569. She died 12 years later, in 1581. In 1585, Drake married Elizabeth Sydenham—born circa 1562, the only child of Sir George Sydenham, of Combe Sydenham,[13] who was the High Sheriff of Somerset.[14] After Drake's death, the widow Elizabeth eventually married Sir William Courtenay of Powderham.[15]

Sailing career

At age 23, Drake made his first voyage to the Americas, sailing with his second cousin, Sir John Hawkins, on one of a fleet of ships owned by his relatives, the Hawkins family of Plymouth. In 1568 Drake was again with the Hawkins fleet when it was trapped by the Spaniards in the Mexican port of San Juan de Ulúa. He escaped along with Hawkins.

Following the defeat at San Juan de Ulúa, Drake vowed revenge.[16] He made two voyages to the West Indies, in 1570 and 1571, of which little is known.

In 1572, he embarked on his first major independent enterprise. He planned an attack on the Isthmus of Panama, known to the Spanish as Tierra Firme and the English as the Spanish Main. This was the point at which the silver and gold treasure of Peru had to be landed and sent overland to the Caribbean Sea, where galleons from Spain would pick it up at the town of Nombre de Dios. Drake left Plymouth on 24 May 1572, with a crew of 73 men in two small vessels, the Pascha (70 tons) and the Swan (25 tons), to capture Nombre de Dios.

His first raid was late in July 1572. Drake and his men captured the town and its treasure. When his men noticed that Drake was bleeding profusely from a wound, they insisted on withdrawing to save his life and left the treasure. Drake stayed in the area for almost a year, raiding Spanish shipping and attempting to capture a treasure shipment.

In 1573, he joined Guillaume Le Testu, a French buccaneer, in an attack on a richly laden mule train. Drake and his party found that they had captured around 20 tons of silver and gold. They buried much of the treasure, as it was too much for their party to carry. (An account of this may have given rise to subsequent stories of pirates and buried treasure.) Wounded, Le Testu was captured and later beheaded. The small band of adventurers dragged as much gold and silver as they could carry back across some 18 miles of jungle-covered mountains to where they had left the raiding boats. When they got to the coast, the boats were gone. Drake and his men, downhearted, exhausted and hungry, had nowhere to go and the Spanish were not far behind.

At this point Drake rallied his men, buried the treasure on the beach, and built a raft to sail with two volunteers ten miles along the surf-lashed coast to where they had left the flagship. When Drake finally reached its deck, his men were alarmed at his bedraggled appearance. Fearing the worst, they asked him how the raid had gone. Drake could not resist a joke and teased them by looking downhearted. Then he laughed, pulled a necklace of Spanish gold from around his neck and said "Our voyage is made, lads!" By 9 August 1573, he had returned to Plymouth.

Circumnavigation of the earth (1577–1580)

A map of Drake's route around the world. The northern limit of Drake's exploration of the Pacific coast of North America is still in dispute. Drake's Bay is south of Cape Mendocino.

With the success of the Panama isthmus raid, in 1577 Elizabeth I of England sent Drake to start an expedition against the Spanish along the Pacific coast of the Americas. Drake used the Plans that Sir Richard Grenville had received the Patent for in 1574 from Elizabeth, which was rescinded a year later after protests from Philip of Spain. He set out from Plymouth on 15 November 1577, but bad weather threatened him and his fleet. They were forced to take refuge in Falmouth, Cornwall, from where they returned to Plymouth for repair.

After this major setback, he set sail again on 13 December, aboard Pelican, with four other ships and 164 men. He soon added a sixth ship, Mary (formerly Santa Maria), a Portuguese merchant ship that had been captured off the coast of Africa near the Cape Verde Islands. He also added its captain, Nuno da Silva, a man with considerable experience navigating in South American waters.

A replica of the Golden Hind

Drake's fleet suffered great attrition; he scuttled both Christopher and the flyboat Swan due to loss of men on the Atlantic crossing. He made landfall at the gloomy bay of San Julian, in what is now Argentina. Ferdinand Magellan had called here half a century earlier, where he put to death some mutineers.

Drake's men saw weathered and bleached skeletons on the grim Spanish gibbets. They discovered that Mary had rotting timbers, so they burned the ship. Following Magellan's example, Drake tried and executed his own 'mutineer' Thomas Doughty. Drake decided to remain the winter in San Julian before attempting the Strait of Magellan.

Entering the Pacific (1578)

The three remaining ships of his convoy departed for the Magellan Strait at the southern tip of South America. A few weeks later (September 1578) Drake made it to the Pacific, but violent storms destroyed one of the three ships, the Marigold (captained by John Thomas) in the strait and caused another, the Elizabeth captained by John Wynter, to return to England, leaving only the Pelican. After this passage, the Pelican was pushed south and discovered an island which Drake called Elizabeth Island. Drake, like navigators before him, probably reached a latitude of 55°S (according to astronomical data quoted in Hakluyt's The Principall Navigations, Voiages and Discoveries of the English Nation of 1589) along the Chilean coast.[17] In the Magellan Strait Francis and his men engaged in skirmish with local indigenous people becoming the first Europeans to kill indigenous peoples in southern Patagonia.[18] During Francis stay in the strait crew members discovered that an infusion made of the bark of Drimys winteri could be used as remedy against scurvy. Captain Winter ordered the collection of great amounts of bark – hence the scientific name.[18]

Despite popular lore, it seems unlikely that he reached Cape Horn or the eponymous Drake Passage,[17] because his descriptions do not fit the first and his shipmates denied having seen an open sea. The first report of his discovery of an open channel south of Tierra del Fuego was written after the 1618 publication of the voyage of Willem Schouten and Jacob le Maire around Cape Horn in 1616.[19]

He pushed onwards in his lone flagship, now renamed the Golden Hind in honour of Sir Christopher Hatton (after his coat of arms). The Golden Hind sailed north along the Pacific coast of South America, attacking Spanish ports and pillaging towns. Some Spanish ships were captured, and Drake used their more accurate charts. Before reaching the coast of Peru, Drake visited Mocha Island, where he was seriously injured by hostile Mapuche. Later he sacked the port of Valparaíso further north in Chile where he also captured a ship full of Chilean wine.[20]

Capture of Spanish treasure ships

Near Lima, Drake captured a Spanish ship laden with 25,000 pesos of Peruvian gold, amounting in value to 37,000 ducats of Spanish money (about £7m by modern standards). Drake also discovered news of another ship, Nuestra Señora de la Concepción, which was sailing west towards Manila. It would come to be called the Cacafuego. Drake gave chase and eventually captured the treasure ship, which proved his most profitable capture.

Aboard Nuestra Señora de la Concepción, Drake found 80 lb (36 kg) of gold, a golden crucifix, jewels, 13 chests full of royals of plate and 26 tons of silver. Drake was naturally pleased at his good luck in capturing the galleon and he showed it by dining with the captured ship's officers and gentleman passengers. He offloaded his captives a short time later, and gave each one gifts appropriate to their rank, as well as a letter of safe conduct.

Coast of California: Nova Albion (1579)

Main article: New Albion


Drake's landing in California, engraving published 1590 by Theodor de Bry

After looting the Cacafuego, Drake turned north, hoping to meet another Spanish treasure ship coming south on its return from Manila to Acapulco. Although he failed to find a treasure ship, Drake reputedly sailed as far north as the 38th parallel, landing on the coast of California on 17 June 1579. He found a good port, landed, repaired and restocked his vessels, then stayed for a time, keeping friendly relations with the Coast Miwok natives. He claimed the land in the name of the Holy Trinity for the English Crown, called Nova Albion—Latin for "New Britain". Assertions that he left some of his men behind as an embryo "colony" are founded on the reduced number who were with him in the Moluccas.[21]

The precise location of the port was carefully guarded to keep it secret from the Spaniards, and several of Drake's maps may have been altered to this end. All first-hand records from the voyage, including logs, paintings and charts, were lost when Whitehall Palace burned in 1698. A bronze plaque inscribed with Drake's claim to the new lands – Drake's Plate of Brass – fitting the description in his account, was discovered in Marin County, California but was later declared a hoax. Now a National Historic Landmark, the officially recognised location[22] of Drake's New Albion is Drakes Bay, California.

Across the Pacific and around Africa

Drake left the Pacific coast, heading southwest to catch the winds that would carry his ship across the Pacific, and a few months later reached the Moluccas, a group of islands in the western Pacific, in eastern modern-day Indonesia. While there, Golden Hind became caught on a reef and was almost lost. After the sailors waited three days for expedient tides and dumped cargo, they freed the barque. Befriending a sultan king of the Moluccas, Drake and his men became involved in some intrigues with the Portuguese there. He made multiple stops on his way toward the tip of Africa, eventually rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and reached Sierra Leone by 22 July 1580.

Return to Plymouth (1580)

On 26 September, Golden Hind sailed into Plymouth with Drake and 59 remaining crew aboard, along with a rich cargo of spices and captured Spanish treasures. The Queen's half-share of the cargo surpassed the rest of the crown's income for that entire year. Drake was hailed as the first Englishman to circumnavigate the Earth (and the second such voyage arriving with at least one ship intact, after Elcano's in 1520).[23]

The Queen declared that all written accounts of Drake's voyages were to become the Queen's secrets of the Realm, and Drake and the other participants of his voyages on the pain of death sworn to their secrecy; she intended to keep Drake's activities away from the eyes of rival Spain. Drake presented the Queen with a jewel token commemorating the circumnavigation. Taken as a prize off the Pacific coast of Mexico, it was made of enamelled gold and bore an African diamond and a ship with an ebony hull.[23]

For her part, the Queen gave Drake a jewel with her portrait, an unusual gift to bestow upon a commoner, and one that Drake sported proudly in his 1591 portrait by Marcus Gheeraerts now at the National Maritime Museum, Greenwich. On one side is a state portrait of Elizabeth by the miniaturist Nicholas Hilliard, on the other a sardonyx cameo of double portrait busts, a regal woman and an African male. The "Drake Jewel", as it is known today, is a rare documented survivor among sixteenth-century jewels; it is conserved at the Victoria and Albert Museum, London.[23]

Award of knighthood

Drake receives knighthood from Queen Elizabeth. Bronze plaque by Joseph Boehm, 1883, base of Drake statue, Tavistock.

Queen Elizabeth awarded Drake a knighthood aboard Golden Hind in Deptford on 4 April 1581; the dubbing being performed by a French diplomat, Monsieur de Marchaumont, who was negotiating for Elizabeth to marry the King of France's brother, Francis, Duke of Anjou.[24][25] By getting the French diplomat involved in the knighting, Elizabeth was gaining the implicit political support of the French for Drake's actions.[26][27] During the Victorian era, in a spirit of nationalism, the story was promoted that Elizabeth I had done the knighting.[25][28]

Award of arms

Arms of Sir Francis Drake: Sable, a fess wavy between two pole-stars Arctic and Antarctic argent
Sir Francis Drake with his new heraldic achievement, with motto: Sic Parvis Magna, translated literally: "Thus great things from small things (come)". The hand out of the clouds is labelled Auxilio Divino, or "With Divine Help"[29]
Arms of Drake of Ash: Argent, a wyvern wings displayed and tail nowed gules.[30] The Drake family of Crowndale and Buckland Abbey used the same arms but the tail of the wyvern is not nowed (knotted)[31]

After receiving his knighthood Drake unilaterally adopted the armorials of the ancient Devon family of Drake of Ash, near Musbury, to whom he claimed a distant but unspecified kinship. These arms were: Argent, a wyvern wings displayed and tail nowed gules,[30] and the crest, a dexter arm Proper grasping a battle axe Sable, headed Argent. The head of that family, also a distinguished sailor, Sir Bernard Drake (d.1586), angrily refuted Sir Francis's claimed kinship and his right to bear his family's arms. That dispute led to "a box in the ear" being given to Sir Francis by Sir Bernard at court, as recorded by John Prince in his "Worthies of Devon" (1697).[32] Queen Elizabeth, to assuage matters, awarded Sir Francis his own coat of arms, blazoned as follows:

Sable a fess wavy between two pole-stars [Arctic and Antarctic] argent; and for his crest, a ship on a globe under ruff, held by a cable with a hand out of the clouds; over it this motto, Auxilio Divino; underneath, Sic Parvis Magna; in the rigging whereof is hung up by the heels a wivern, gules, which was the arms of Sir Bernard Drake.[33]

Map of Drakes Great Expedition in 1585 by Giovanni Battista Boazio

The motto, Sic Parvis Magna, translated literally, is: "Thus great things from small things (come)". The hand out of the clouds, labelled Auxilio Divino, means "With Divine Help". The full achievement is depicted in the form of a large coloured plaster overmantel in the Lifetimes Gallery at Buckland Abbey[29]

Nevertheless, Drake continued to quarter his new arms with the wyvern gules.[34] The arms adopted by his nephew Sir Francis Drake, 1st Baronet (1588–1637) of Buckland were the arms of Drake of Ash, but the wyvern without a "nowed" (knotted) tail.[31]

Political career

In September 1581, Drake became the Mayor of Plymouth,[9] and was a member of parliament in 1581, for an unknown constituency (possibly Camelford), and again in 1584 for Bossiney[9] and Plymouth in 1593.[35]

Purchase of Buckland Abbey

In 1580 Drake purchased Buckland Abbey via intermediaries from Sir Richard Greynvile, hiding who was actually purchasing the Abbey, a large manor house near Yelverton in Devon, from Sir Richard. He lived there for fifteen years, until his final voyage, and it remained in his family for several generations. Buckland Abbey is now in the care of the National Trust and a number of mementos of his life are displayed there.

Great Expedition

War had already been declared by Phillip II after the Treaty of Nonsuch, so the Queen through Francis Walsingham ordered Sir Francis Drake to lead an expedition to attack the Spanish colonies in a kind of preemptive strike. An expedition left Plymouth in September 1585 with Drake in command of twenty one ships with 1,800 soldiers under Christopher Carleill. He first attacked Vigo in Spain and held the place for two weeks ransoming supplies. He then plundered Santiago in the Cape Verde islands after which the fleet then sailed across the Atlantic, sacked the port of Santo Domingo and captured the city of Cartagena de Indias in present-day Colombia. On 6 June 1586, during the return leg of the voyage, he raided the Spanish fort of San Augustín in Spanish Florida.

After the raids he then went on to find Sir Walter Raleigh's settlement much further North at Roanoke which he replenished and also took back with him all of the original colonists before Sir Richard Greynvile arrived with supplies and more colonists. He finally reached England on 22 July, when he sailed into Portsmouth, England to a hero's welcome.

Spanish Armada

Main article: Spanish Armada

Encouraged by these acts Philip II ordered a planned invasion of England.

Cadiz raid

Main article: Singeing the King of Spain's Beard

In another pre-emptive strike, Drake "singed the beard of the King of Spain" in 1587 by sailing a fleet into Cadiz and also Corunna, two of Spain's main ports, and occupied the harbours. He destroyed 37 naval and merchant ships. The attack delayed the Spanish invasion by a year.[36] Over the next month, Drake patrolled the Iberian coasts between Lisbon and Cape St. Vincent, intercepting and destroying ships on the Spanish supply lines. Drake estimated that he captured around 1600–1700 tons of barrel staves, enough to make 25,000 to 30,000 barrels (4,800 m3) for containing provisions.[37]

Defeat of the Spanish Armada

Sir Francis Drake whilst playing bowls on Plymouth Hoe is informed of the approach of the Spanish Armada. Bronze plaque by Joseph Boehm, 1883, base of Drake statue, Tavistock
The Spanish Armada.

Drake was vice admiral in command of the English fleet (under Lord Howard of Effingham) when it overcame the Spanish Armada that was attempting to invade England in 1588. As the English fleet pursued the Armada up the English Channel in closing darkness, Drake broke off and captured the Spanish galleon Rosario, along with Admiral Pedro de Valdés and all his crew. The Spanish ship was known to be carrying substantial funds to pay the Spanish Army in the Low Countries. Drake's ship had been leading the English pursuit of the Armada by means of a lantern. By extinguishing this for the capture, Drake put the fleet into disarray overnight.

On the night of 29 July, along with Howard, Drake organised fire-ships, causing the majority of the Spanish captains to break formation and sail out of Calais into the open sea. The next day, Drake was present at the Battle of Gravelines. He wrote as follows to Admiral Henry Seymour after coming upon part of the Spanish Armada, whilst aboard Revenge on 31 July 1588 (21 July 1588 O.S.):[38]

Coming up to them, there has passed some common shot between some of our fleet and some of them; and as far as we perceive, they are determined to sell their lives with blows.

The most famous (but probably apocryphal) anecdote about Drake relates that, prior to the battle, he was playing a game of bowls on Plymouth Hoe. On being warned of the approach of the Spanish fleet, Drake is said to have remarked that there was plenty of time to finish the game and still beat the Spaniards. There is no known eyewitness account of this incident and the earliest retelling of it was printed 37 years later.[19] Adverse winds and currents caused some delay in the launching of the English fleet as the Spanish drew nearer,[19] perhaps prompting a popular myth of Drake's cavalier attitude to the Spanish threat.

Drake-Norris Expedition

Main article: English Armada

In 1589, the year after defeating the Armada, Drake and Sir John Norreys were given three tasks. They were ordered to first seek out and destroy the remaining ships, second they were to support the rebels in Lisbon, Portugal against King Philip II (then king of Spain and Portugal), and third they were to take the Azores if possible. Drake and Norreys destroyed a few ships in the harbour of A Coruña in Spain but lost more than 12,000 lives and 20 ships.[citation needed] This delayed Drake, and he was forced to forgo hunting the rest of the surviving ships and head on to Lisbon.[37]

Defeat and death

1591 portrait, also by Gheeraerts the Younger, wearing the "Drake Jewel" suspended from a strap, and displaying new arms[39]

"The people of quality dislike him for having risen so high from such a lowely family; the rest say he is the main cause of wars."

— Gonzalo González del Castillo, letter to King Philip II, 1592[6]

Drake's seafaring career continued into his mid-fifties. In 1595, he failed to conquer the port of Las Palmas, and following a disastrous campaign against Spanish America, where he suffered a number of defeats, he unsuccessfully attacked San Juan de Puerto Rico, eventually losing the Battle of San Juan.

Drake's burial at sea off Portobello. Bronze plaque by Joseph Boehm, 1883, base of Drake statue, Tavistock.

The Spanish gunners from El Morro Castle shot a cannonball through the cabin of Drake's flagship, and he survived; but a few weeks later, in January 1596, he died of dysentery when he was about 55, while anchored off the coast of Portobelo, Panama, where some Spanish treasure ships had sought shelter. Following his death, the English fleet withdrew.

Before dying, he asked to be dressed in his full armour. He was buried at sea in a lead coffin, near Portobelo. Divers continue to search for the coffin.[40]

Cultural impact

This portrait, circa 1581, may have been copied from Hilliard's miniature—note the similar shirt—and the somewhat oddly-proportioned body, added by an artist who did not have access to Drake. National Portrait Gallery, London.

In the UK there are various places named after him, especially in Plymouth, Devon, where various places carry his name, including the naval base (HMS Drake), Drake's Island and a roundabout named Drake Circus, along with a shopping mall named after the roundabout. Plymouth Hoe is also home to a statue of Drake.

In the United States Drakes Bay and Sir Francis Drake Boulevard of Marin County, California are both named after him, as well as the high school in San Anselmo, California. The boulevard runs between Drakes Bay at Point Reyes to Point San Quentin on San Francisco Bay. A large hotel in Union Square, San Francisco also bears his name. Additionally, the Sir Francis Drake Channel in the British Virgin Islands bears his name.

In British Columbia, Canada, where some theorize he may also have landed to the north of the usual site considered to be Nova Albion, various mountains were named in the 1930s for him, or in connection with Elizabeth I or other figures of that era, including Mount Sir Francis Drake, Mount Queen Bess, and the Golden Hinde, the highest mountain on Vancouver Island.

Drake's will was the focus of a vast confidence scheme which Oscar Hartzell perpetrated in the 1920s and 1930s. He convinced thousands of people, mostly in the American Midwest, that Drake's fortune was being held by the British government, and had compounded to a huge amount. If their last name was Drake they might be eligible for a share if they paid Hartzell to be their agent. The swindle continued until a copy of Drake's will was brought to Hartzell's mail fraud trial and he was convicted and imprisoned.[41]

Drake was portrayed by the Canadian actor Matheson Lang in the 1935 film Drake of England. Modern workings of stories involving Drake include the 1961 British television series Sir Francis Drake,[42] and the 2009 US television movie The Immortal Voyage of Captain Drake.[43]

In 2003, he was the namesake of the Drake Tribe in Survivor: Pearl Islands.

Drake's execution of Thomas Doughty is the subject of Robert E. Howard's Solomon Kane poem, "The One Black Stain."

Nathan Drake, a fictional descendant of Sir Francis Drake, searches for lost treasure supposedly found by Sir Francis during his circumnavigation in the video game Uncharted: Drake's Fortune,[44] and again in Uncharted 3: Drake's Deception.

At the Memorial Service for the Challenger Disaster, U.S. President Ronald Reagan says that it was 390 years to the day from the death of Drake to the Disaster, but the Disaster occurred on 28th January, 1986, while Drake's demise took place, as noted above, on 27th January, 1596, and even accounting for the differences in the Julian Calendar and the Gregorian Calendar, the dates are close, but not exact.

Controversies

Slave trading

Drake accompanied his second cousin Sir John Hawkins in making the third English slave-trading expeditions, making fortunes through the abduction and transportation of West African people, and then exchanging them for high-value goods.[45] The first Englishman recorded to have taken slaves from Africa was John Lok, a London trader who, in 1555, brought to England five slaves from Guinea.[46]

A second London trader taking slaves at that time was William Towerson whose fleet sailed into Plymouth following his 1556 voyage to Africa and from Plymouth on his 1557 voyage. Despite the exploits of Lok and Towerson, John Hawkins of Plymouth is widely acknowledged to be an early pioneer of the English slave trade. While Hawkins made only three such trips, ultimately the English were to dominate the trade.[47]

Around 1563 Drake first sailed west to the Spanish Main, on a ship owned and commanded by John Hawkins, with a cargo of people forcibly removed from the coast of West Africa. The Englishmen sold their African captives into slavery in Spanish plantations. In general, the kidnapping and forced transportation of people was considered to be a criminal offence under English law at the time, although legal protection did not extend to slaves, non-Protestants or criminals. Hawkins' own account of his actions (in which Drake took part) cites two sources for their victims. One was military attacks on African towns and villages, the other was attacking Portuguese slave ships.[48]

Conflict in the Caribbean

During his early days as a slave-trader, Drake took an immediate dislike to the Spanish, at least in part due to their Catholicism and inherent distrust of non-Spanish. His hostility is said to have increased over an incident at San Juan de Ulúa in 1568, when Drake was sailing with the fleet of his second cousin John Hawkins. Whilst negotiating to resupply and repair at the Spanish port, the fleet were attacked by Spanish warships, with all but two of the English ships lost. Drake survived the attack by swimming.[citation needed]

The most celebrated of Drake's adventures along the Spanish Main was his capture of the Spanish Silver Train at Nombre de Dios in March 1573. With a crew including many French privateers and Maroons—African slaves who had escaped the Spanish—Drake raided the waters around Darien (in modern Panama) and tracked the Silver Train to the nearby port of Nombre de Dios. He made off with a fortune in gold, but had to leave behind another fortune in silver, because it was too heavy to carry back to England.

It was during this expedition that he climbed a high tree in the central mountains of the Isthmus of Panama and thus became the first Englishman to see the Pacific Ocean. He remarked as he saw it that he hoped one day an Englishman would be able to sail it—which he would do years later as part of his circumnavigation of the world.

When Drake returned to Plymouth after the raids, the government signed a temporary truce with King Philip II of Spain and so was unable to acknowledge Drake's accomplishment officially. Drake was considered a hero in England and a pirate in Spain for his raids.[49]

Ireland

In 1575, Drake was present at the Rathlin Island Massacre, which was a part of the English plantation effort in Ulster, where 600 men, women, and children were massacred after surrendering.[50]

Francis Drake was in charge of the ships which transported John Norreys' troops to Rathlin Island, commanding a small frigate called Falcon, with a total complement of 25. At the time of the massacre, he was charged with the task of keeping Scottish vessels from bringing reinforcements to Rathlin Island. The people who were massacred were, in fact, the families of Sorley Boy MacDonnell's followers.[51]

Execution of Thomas Doughty

Main article: Thomas Doughty (explorer)
Bronze statue in Tavistock, in the parish of which he was born, by Joseph Boehm, 1883.

On his voyage to interfere with Spanish treasure fleets, Drake had several quarrels with his co-commander Thomas Doughty and on 3 June 1578, accused him of witchcraft and charged him with mutiny and treason in a shipboard trial.[28] Drake claimed to have a (never presented) commission from the Queen to carry out such acts and denied Doughty a trial in England. The main pieces of evidence against Doughty were the testimony of the ship's carpenter, Edward Bright, who after the trial was promoted to master of the ship Marigold, and Doughty's admission of telling Lord Burghley, a vocal opponent of agitating the Spanish, of the intent of the voyage. Drake consented to his request of Communion and dined with him, of which Francis Fletcher had this strange account:

And after this holy repast, they dined also at the same table together, as cheerfully, in sobriety, as ever in their lives they had done aforetime, each cheering up the other, and taking their leave, by drinking each to other, as if some journey only had been in hand.

Drake had Thomas Doughty beheaded on 2 July 1578. When the ship's chaplain Francis Fletcher in a sermon suggested that the woes of the voyage in January 1580 were connected to the unjust demise of Doughty, Drake chained the clergyman to a hatch cover and pronounced him excommunicated.

See also

References

  1. ^ 1634–1699: McCusker, J. J. (1997). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1700–1799: McCusker, J. J. (1992). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1800–present: Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Retrieved 29 February 2024.
  2. ^ Woolsey, Matt (19 September 2008). "Top-Earning Pirates". Forbes.com. Forbes Magazine. Retrieved 5 February 2013.
  3. ^ Soto Rodríguez, José Antonio (2006). "La defensa hispana del Reino de Chile" (PDF). Tiempo y Espacio (in Spanish). 16. Retrieved 30 January 2016.
  4. ^ According to the English calendar then in use, Drake's date of death was 27 January 1595, as the new year began on 25 March.
  5. ^ His name in Latinised form was Franciscus Draco (Francis the Dragon). See Theodor de Bry.
  6. ^ a b Cummins, John (1996). Francis Drake: The Lives of a Hero. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-312-16365-7.
  7. ^ Campbell, John (1841). Lives of the British Admirals and Naval History of Great Britain from the Time of Caesar to the Chinese War of 1841 Chiefly Abridged from the work of Dr. John Campbell. Glasgow: Richard Griffin & Co. p. 104. ISBN 9780665347566. OCLC 12129656. Retrieved 30 August 2012. Direct quote is followed by "this carries back his birth to 1544, at which time the six articles were in force, and Francis Russell was seventeen years of age."
  8. ^ 1921/22 edition of the Dictionary of National Biography, which quotes Barrow's Life of Drake (1843) p. 5.
  9. ^ a b c Thomson,George Malcolm(1972), 'Sir Francis Drake', William Morrow & Company Inc. ISBN 978-0-436-52049-5
  10. ^ "Francis Drake bio". Tudor Place. Retrieved 25 February 2010.[unreliable source]
  11. ^ Froude, James Anthony, English Seamen in the Sixteenth Century, London, 1896. Quote: "He told Camden that he was of mean extraction. He meant merely that he was proud of his parents and made no idle pretensions to noble birth. His father was a tenant of the Earl of Bedford, and must have stood well with him, for Francis Russell, the heir of the earldom, was the boy's godfather."
  12. ^ a b c Southey, Robert. (1897). English Seamen — Howard Clifford Hawkins Drake Cavendish, Methuen and Co. 36 Essex Street WC London
  13. ^ Warren, Derrick (2005). Curious Somerset. Stroud: Sutton Publishing. pp. 90–91. ISBN 978-0-7509-4057-3.
  14. ^ "The Occupants of the ancient office of High Sheriff of Somerset". Tudor Court. Retrieved 30 March 2011.
  15. ^ "Captain Sir Francis DRAKE". tudorplace.com.ar. Retrieved 28 May 2008.[unreliable source]
  16. ^ "Drake escaped during the attack and returned to England in command of a small vessel, the Judith, with an even greater determination to have his revenge upon Spain and the Spanish king, Philip II."—"Sir Francis Drake" article in online Britannica Library. Accessed 14 January 2016
  17. ^ a b Wagner, Henry R., Sir Francis Drake's Voyage Around the World: Its Aims and Achievements, Kessinger Publishing, LLC, 2006, ISBN 1-4286-2255-1.
  18. ^ a b Martinic, Mateo (1977). Historia del Estrecho de Magallanes (in Spanish). Santiago: Andrés Bello. pp. 67–68.
  19. ^ a b c Kelsey, Harry, Sir Francis Drake; The Queen's Pirate, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1998, ISBN 0-300-07182-5.
  20. ^ Cortés Olivares, Hernán F. "El origen, producción y comercio del pisco chileno, 1546–1931". Revista Universum (in Spanish). Scielo.cl. doi:10.4067/S0718-23762005000200005. Retrieved 25 October 2012.
  21. ^ Dismissed by John Cummins, Francis Drake: The Lives of a Hero 1997:118: "In view of the prominence given in different versions to the crowning of Drake it would be odd if the establishment of a colony had gone unrecorded."
  22. ^ "Drake Navigator's Guild". Drakenavigatorsguild.org. 17 October 2012. Retrieved 25 October 2012.
  23. ^ a b c "The Drake Jewel". Oieahc.wm.edu. Retrieved 25 February 2010.
  24. ^ John Cummins, Francis Drake: Lives of a Hero, page 127. Palgrave Macmillan. 23 March 1997. ISBN 978-0-312-16365-5. Retrieved 14 November 2009.
  25. ^ a b Moseley, Brian (26 February 2011) [11 March 2004]. "Sir Francis Drake (c1541-1596)". The Encyclopaedia of Plymouth History. Plymouthdata.info. Archived from the original on 1 April 2012. Retrieved 12 February 2015. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
  26. ^ Mary E. Hazard, Elizabethan silent language, page 251. U of Nebraska Press, 2000, ISBN 0-8032-2397-8. August 2000. ISBN 978-0-8032-2397-4. Retrieved 14 November 2009.
  27. ^ Maria Perry, The Word of a Prince: A Life of Elizabeth I from Contemporary Documents, page 182. Boydell Press. 1990. ISBN 978-0-85115-633-0. Retrieved 14 November 2009.
  28. ^ a b Coote, Stephen, Drake: The Life and Legend of an Elizabethan Hero, Saint Martin's Press, New York, 2003. ISBN 0-312-34165-2.
  29. ^ a b "Image details". National Trust Images. Retrieved 25 October 2012.
  30. ^ a b Vivian, Lt.Col. J.L., (Ed.) The Visitation of the County of Devon: Comprising the Heralds' Visitations of 1531, 1564 & 1620, Exeter, 1895, p.292, pedigree of Drake of Ash
  31. ^ a b Vivian, p.299, pedigree of Drake of Crowndale and Buckland Abbey
  32. ^ Prince, John, (1643–1723) The Worthies of Devon, 1810 edition, p.329
  33. ^ Campbell, John (1828). The life of the celebrated Sir Francis Drake, the first english Circumnavigator: reprinted from The Biographia Britannica. London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown and Green. pp. 50–52. Retrieved 18 January 2013. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  34. ^ Drake, Charles E.F., The Arms of Sir Francis Drake, Quebec, 2008; Article by str8thinker, Project Avalon Forum, Dec 2010, based on article of Charles Drake, 2008, op. cit.
  35. ^ "History of Parliament". Retrieved 11 November 2011.
  36. ^ Thompson, E. and Freeman, E. A. History of England, p. 188.
  37. ^ a b "Kraus, Hans. ''Sir Francis Drake: A Pictorial Biography'', 1970". Loc.gov. 13 October 2005. Retrieved 25 February 2010.
  38. ^ Letter to Admiral Henry Seymour written aboard Revenge on 31 July 1588 (21 July 1588 O.S.) Turner, Sharon. The History of England from the Earliest Period to the Death of Elizabeth, 1835.
  39. ^ Prince's Worthies, op.cit.
  40. ^ "Sir Francis Drake's body 'close to being found off Panama'". BBC News. Retrieved 9 October 2013.
  41. ^ Rayner, Richard. The Admiral and the Con Man The New Yorker, 22 April 2002, p. 150
  42. ^ Sir Francis Drake at IMDb
  43. ^ The Immortal Voyage of Captain Drake at IMDb
  44. ^ "Uncharted The Game". Us.playstation.com. Retrieved 25 February 2010.
  45. ^ Some historical account of Guinea: With an inquiry into the rise and progress of the slave trade, p. 48, at Google Books
  46. ^ A general history and collection of voyages and travels, arranged in systematic order: forming a complete history of the origin and progress of navigation, discovery, and commerce, by sea and land, from the earliest ages to the present time, Volume 7, p. 229, at Google Books
  47. ^ "History of English Slave Trade". Ehr.oxfordjournals.org. doi:10.1093/ehr/cej026. Retrieved 25 February 2010.
  48. ^ Hazlewood, Nick. The Queen's Slave Trader: John Hawkyns, Elizabeth I, and the Trafficking in Human Souls. HarperCollins Books, New York, 2004. ISBN 0-06-621089-5.
  49. ^ See especially Drake's Spanish nickname and its mythic power to frighten naughty children. John Cummins, Francis Drake: The Lives of a Hero, page 273. ISBN 0-312-16365-7.
  50. ^ "Brief mention of the massacre". Standingstones.com. 10 July 1997. Retrieved 25 February 2010.
  51. ^ John Sugden, Sir Francis Drake, Simon Schuster New York, ISBN 0-671-75863-2

Bibliography

  • Bawlf, Samuel (2003) The Secret Voyage of Sir Francis Drake, 1577–1580 Walker & Company ISBN 0-8027-1405-6
  • Corbett, Julian Stafford 1890. Sir Francis Drake
  • Hughes-Hallett, Lucy (2004) Heroes: A History of Hero Worship Alfred A. Knopf, New York. ISBN 1-4000-4399-9
  • Kelsey, Harry (1998) Sir Francis Drake, the Queen's Pirate New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-07182-5
  • Kelsey, Harry (2004). "Drake, Sir Francis (1540–1596)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/8022. Retrieved 20 May 2011. (subscription or UK public library membership required)
  • Mattingly, Garett (1959) The Defeat of the Spanish Armada ISBN 0-395-08366-4 – a detailed account of the defeat of the Spanish Armada which received a special citation from the Pulitzer Prize committee in 1960
  • Merideth, Mrs Charles, Notes and Sketches of New South Wales, during a residence in that colony from 1839 to 1844; Bound With: "Life of Drake" by John Barrow (1st ed, 1844) [xi, 164; and xii, 187 pp. respectively]
  • Payne, Edward John, Voyages of the Elizabethan Seamen to America (vol. 1, 1893; vol. 2, 1900)
  • Rodger, N. A. M. The Safeguard of the Sea; A Naval History of Britain 660–1649 (London, 1997)
  • Wilson, Derek (1977) The World Encompassed: Drake's Great Voyage, 1577–80. Harper & Row. ISBN 0-06-014679-6
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Francis Drake.
Wikisource has the text of a 1920 Encyclopedia Americana article about Francis Drake.
Wikiquote has quotations related to Francis Drake.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Francis_Drake&oldid=718034888"